䥑 Lise Meitner was a brilliant Austrian physicist of Jewish decent, and a pacifist.Her work on nuclear fission helped lay the groundwork for the building of the atomic bomb.
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Howard
Apr 8, 2017, 10:36:07 PM4/8/17
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Wanghttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lise_Meitner
Nobel Prize for nuclear fission
The many honors that Meitner received in her lifetime have long been overshadowed by the fact that she did not share the Nobel Prize for nuclear fission awarded to Otto Hahn. On 15 November 1945, the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences announced that Hahn had been awarded the 1944 Nobel Prize in Chemistry for "his discovery of the fission of heavy atomic nuclei."[38]
At the time Meitner herself wrote in a letter, "Surely Hahn fully deserved the Nobel Prize for chemistry. There is really no doubt about it. But I believe that Otto Robert Frisch and I contributed something not insignificant to the clarification of the process of uranium fission—how it originates and that it produces so much energy and that was something very remote to Hahn."[39] In a similar vein, Carl Friedrich von Weizsäcker, Lise Meitner's former assistant, later added that Hahn "certainly did deserve this Nobel Prize. He would have deserved it even if he had not made this discovery. But everyone recognized that the splitting of the atomic nucleus merited a Nobel Prize."[40] Frisch wrote similarly in a 1955 letter.[41]
Hahn's receipt of a Nobel Prize was long expected. Both he and Meitner had been nominated for both the chemistry and the physics prizes several times even before the discovery of nuclear fission.[42][43] In 1945 the Committee in Sweden that selected the Nobel Prize in Chemistry decided to award that prize solely to Hahn. In the 1990s, the long-sealed records of the Nobel Committee's proceedings became public, and the comprehensive biography of Meitner published in 1996 by Ruth Lewin Sime took advantage of this unsealing to reconsider Meitner's exclusion.[44] In a 1997 article in the American Physical Society journal Physics Today, Sime and her colleagues Elisabeth Crawford and Mark Walker wrote: "It appears that Lise Meitner did not share the 1944 prize because the structure of the Nobel committees was ill-suited to assess interdisciplinary work; because the members of the chemistry committee were unable or unwilling to judge her contribution fairly; and because during the war the Swedish scientists relied on their own limited expertise. Meitner's exclusion from the chemistry award may well be summarized as a mixture of disciplinary bias, political obtuseness, ignorance, and haste."[7]
Max Perutz, the 1962 Nobel prizewinner in chemistry, reached a similar conclusion: "Having been locked up in the Nobel Committee's files these fifty years, the documents leading to this unjust award now reveal that the protracted deliberations by the Nobel jury were hampered by lack of appreciation both of the joint work that had preceded the discovery and of Meitner's written and verbal contributions after her flight from Berlin."[8]
Later years
After the war, Meitner, while acknowledging her own moral failing in staying in Germany from 1933 to 1938, was bitterly critical of Hahn, Max von Laue and other German scientists who, she thought, would have collaborated with the Nazis and done nothing to protest against the crimes of Hitler's regime. Referring to the leading German nuclear physicist Werner Heisenberg, she said: "Heisenberg and many millions with him should be forced to see these camps and the martyred people." In a June 1945 draft letter addressed to Hahn, but never received by him, she wrote:
Meitner's grave in Bramley
You all worked for Nazi Germany. And you tried to offer only a passive resistance. Certainly, to buy off your conscience you helped here and there a persecuted person, but millions of innocent human beings were allowed to be murdered without any kind of protest being uttered ... [it is said that] first you betrayed your friends, then your children in that you let them stake their lives on a criminal war – and finally that you betrayed Germany itself, because when the war was already quite hopeless, you did not once arm yourselves against the senseless destruction of Germany.[45]
After the war in the 1950s and 1960s, Meitner again enjoyed visiting Germany and staying with Hahn and his family for several days on different occasions, particularly on March 8, 1959, to celebrate Hahn's 80th birthday in Göttingen, where she addressed recollections in his honour. Also Hahn wrote in his memoirs, which were published shortly after his death in 1968, that he and Meitner had remained lifelong close friends.[46] Even though their friendship was full of trials, arguably more so experienced by Meitner, she "never voiced anything but deep affection for Hahn."[47]
In 1947, Meitner retired from the Siegbahn Institute and started research in a new laboratory that was created specifically for her by the Swedish Atomic Energy Commission at the Royal Institute of Technology. She became a Swedish citizen in 1949. She retired in 1960 and moved to the UK where most of her relatives were, although she continued working part-time and giving lectures.
A strenuous trip to the United States in 1964 led to Meitner having a heart attack, from which she spent several months recovering. Her physical and mental condition weakened by atherosclerosis, she was unable to travel to the US to receive the Enrico Fermi prize and relatives had to present it to her. After breaking her hip in a fall and suffering several small strokes in 1967, Meitner made a partial recovery, but eventually was weakened to the point where she moved into a Cambridge nursing home.
She died in her sleep on 27 October 1968 at the age of 89. Meitner was not informed of the deaths of Otto Hahn (d. July 1968) or his wife Edith, as her family believed it would be too much for someone so frail.[6] As was her wish, she was buried in the village of Bramley in Hampshire, at St. James parish church, close to her younger brother Walter, who had died in 1964. Her nephew Frisch composed the inscription on her headstone. It reads:
Lise Meitner: a physicist who never lost her humanity.
https://zh.wikipedia.org/zh-tw/%E8%8E%89%E6%B3%BD%C2%B7%E8%BF%88%E7%89%B9%E7%BA%B3
莉澤·邁特納開始在維也納大學學習物理、數學和哲學。她的導師中最重要的有路德維希·波茲曼。
從她學業的開始她就開始研究放射性。1906年她成為維也納的第二位女博士。她的博士論文的題目是《不均勻物質中的熱導》。此後她試圖在巴黎瑪麗亞·居禮的實驗室獲得一個位置但沒有成功。此後一年中她在維也納大學理論物理研究所工作。
導師中包括馬克斯·普朗克。在那裡她也第一次遇到了後來與她一起工作了30年的年輕的化學家奧托·哈恩。她以「無薪客席」的身份在哈恩在柏林大學化學研究所的實驗室里工作。這個實驗室本來是一個木匠工場。當時在普魯士婦女還不准接受高等教育，因此邁特納只能從後門進入研究所，而且不准進入教堂和學生實驗室。至到1909年普魯士才正式允許婦女進入大學。1908年她加入新教教會。
1909年她與哈恩一起發現了放射性衰變時原子核受到的反彈，此後幾年裡他們還一起發現了一系列放射性同位素，這使她在學術界獲得了一定的名聲。她結識了阿爾伯特·愛因斯坦和瑪麗亞·居禮。從1912年到1915年她作為普朗克的非正式助手工作。1912年她與哈恩的工作條件也獲得了巨大的改善。在新成立的皇帝威廉研究所的化學研究所中哈恩得以建立一個自己的放射性研究組，邁特納繼續在那裡工作，不過依然無償。直到1913年她才正式成為化學研究所的成員。第一次世界大戰中她加入奧地利東方戰場的戰地醫院做了一名X射線護士。與此同時哈恩則參加了研究毒氣的項目。
1917年邁特納重新與哈恩合作，他們一起發現了鏷的同位素鏷231。鏷是1913年被卡西米·法揚斯和O.H.格林發現的，鏷231是它最長壽的同位素。1918年邁特納終於獲得了她自己的研究組和相應的薪水。1922年她獲得了教授的職位，1926年她成為柏林大學實驗核物理學特別教授。
流亡
1933年邁特納由於她的猶太出身喪失了她的教學許可，但她被允許在皇帝威廉研究所與奧托·哈恩繼續他們關於中子的實驗。1938年奧地利被德國吞併後邁特納成為德國公民，因此不能再以研究組長的身份工作。她的生命受到威脅。她經荷蘭、丹麥逃往瑞典。在瑞典她到1946年在諾貝爾研究所繼續她的研究工作，與哈恩她繼續有書信往來。1938年哈恩寫信給邁特納說他發現了一個「破裂」的現象。他寫道：
是否有可能鈾239破裂成了鋇和鎝？我很想知道你的意見。也許你可以算一算後發表什麼。
1939年邁特納和她的侄子奧托·弗里施一起發表了一份題為《中子導致的鈾的裂體：一種新的核反應》的文章。在這篇論文中他們提出了哈恩的「破裂」的理論解釋，第一次為核分裂提出了理論基礎。邁特納也是裂變這個名稱的定名人。
邁特納和弗里施是在他們在樹林裡散步的時候想到裂變的主意的。裂變後的原子核的總質量比裂變前的鈾核的質量小，這個小小的質量差轉換成了能量。邁特納使用愛因斯坦的相對論中E=mc2的方程式計算出每個裂變原子核釋放2億電子伏特的能量。由此邁特納奠定了原子彈和原子能的基礎。據說邁特納將他們的結果告訴尼爾斯·波耳後波耳說：「啊，我們真蠢啊。」
1945年後
作為一個堅定的和平主義者邁特納拒絕了美國向她發出的參加曼哈頓計劃的多次邀請，戰時她一直留在瑞典。
1944年奧托·哈恩獲得諾貝爾化學獎，莉澤·邁特納落空。此後她還三次被提名，但都沒有獲獎。
我愛物理，我很難想像我的生活中沒有物理會怎樣。這是一種非常親密的愛，就好像愛一個對我幫助很多的人一樣。我自己往往自責，但作為一個物理學家,我沒有愧對良心的地方。
第109號元素䥑以她命名。在德國和奧地利有多所研究所和中學以她命名。她命名。在德國和奧地利有多所研究所和中學以她命名。在德國和奧地利有多所研究所和中學以她命名。她命名。在德國和奧地利有多所研究所和中學以她命名。
Lise Meitner was a brilliant Austrian physicist of Jewish decent, and a pacifist. But her work on nuclear fission helped lay the groundwork for the building of the atomic bomb, the deadliest weapon of all time. From her exile in Sweden, the committed pacifist watched her discovery be put to use in the atomic weapons that killed hundreds of thousands of civilians at Hiroshima and Nagasaki. In 1944, Lise Meitner was left out of the Nobel Prize for Chemistry. Even though Meitner’s contribution was crucial to the discovery of nuclear fission, Otto Hahn was the sole recipient – and Hahn did not mention Meitner’s work in his acceptance speech. Lise Meitner did not return to Germany after the war. She never forgot how her former homeland and her male colleagues had treated her. She remained active in her opposition to the bomb until her death in Cambridge, England in 1968.
Wanghttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lise_Meitner
Nobel Prize for nuclear fission
The many honors that Meitner received in her lifetime have long been overshadowed by the fact that she did not share the Nobel Prize for nuclear fission awarded to Otto Hahn. On 15 November 1945, the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences announced that Hahn had been awarded the 1944 Nobel Prize in Chemistry for "his discovery of the fission of heavy atomic nuclei."[38]
At the time Meitner herself wrote in a letter, "Surely Hahn fully deserved the Nobel Prize for chemistry. There is really no doubt about it. But I believe that Otto Robert Frisch and I contributed something not insignificant to the clarification of the process of uranium fission—how it originates and that it produces so much energy and that was something very remote to Hahn."[39] In a similar vein, Carl Friedrich von Weizsäcker, Lise Meitner's former assistant, later added that Hahn "certainly did deserve this Nobel Prize. He would have deserved it even if he had not made this discovery. But everyone recognized that the splitting of the atomic nucleus merited a Nobel Prize."[40] Frisch wrote similarly in a 1955 letter.[41]
Hahn's receipt of a Nobel Prize was long expected. Both he and Meitner had been nominated for both the chemistry and the physics prizes several times even before the discovery of nuclear fission.[42][43] In 1945 the Committee in Sweden that selected the Nobel Prize in Chemistry decided to award that prize solely to Hahn. In the 1990s, the long-sealed records of the Nobel Committee's proceedings became public, and the comprehensive biography of Meitner published in 1996 by Ruth Lewin Sime took advantage of this unsealing to reconsider Meitner's exclusion.[44] In a 1997 article in the American Physical Society journal Physics Today, Sime and her colleagues Elisabeth Crawford and Mark Walker wrote: "It appears that Lise Meitner did not share the 1944 prize because the structure of the Nobel committees was ill-suited to assess interdisciplinary work; because the members of the chemistry committee were unable or unwilling to judge her contribution fairly; and because during the war the Swedish scientists relied on their own limited expertise. Meitner's exclusion from the chemistry award may well be summarized as a mixture of disciplinary bias, political obtuseness, ignorance, and haste."[7]
Max Perutz, the 1962 Nobel prizewinner in chemistry, reached a similar conclusion: "Having been locked up in the Nobel Committee's files these fifty years, the documents leading to this unjust award now reveal that the protracted deliberations by the Nobel jury were hampered by lack of appreciation both of the joint work that had preceded the discovery and of Meitner's written and verbal contributions after her flight from Berlin."[8]
Later years
After the war, Meitner, while acknowledging her own moral failing in staying in Germany from 1933 to 1938, was bitterly critical of Hahn, Max von Laue and other German scientists who, she thought, would have collaborated with the Nazis and done nothing to protest against the crimes of Hitler's regime. Referring to the leading German nuclear physicist Werner Heisenberg, she said: "Heisenberg and many millions with him should be forced to see these camps and the martyred people." In a June 1945 draft letter addressed to Hahn, but never received by him, she wrote:
Meitner's grave in Bramley
You all worked for Nazi Germany. And you tried to offer only a passive resistance. Certainly, to buy off your conscience you helped here and there a persecuted person, but millions of innocent human beings were allowed to be murdered without any kind of protest being uttered ... [it is said that] first you betrayed your friends, then your children in that you let them stake their lives on a criminal war – and finally that you betrayed Germany itself, because when the war was already quite hopeless, you did not once arm yourselves against the senseless destruction of Germany.[45]
After the war in the 1950s and 1960s, Meitner again enjoyed visiting Germany and staying with Hahn and his family for several days on different occasions, particularly on March 8, 1959, to celebrate Hahn's 80th birthday in Göttingen, where she addressed recollections in his honour. Also Hahn wrote in his memoirs, which were published shortly after his death in 1968, that he and Meitner had remained lifelong close friends.[46] Even though their friendship was full of trials, arguably more so experienced by Meitner, she "never voiced anything but deep affection for Hahn."[47]
In 1947, Meitner retired from the Siegbahn Institute and started research in a new laboratory that was created specifically for her by the Swedish Atomic Energy Commission at the Royal Institute of Technology. She became a Swedish citizen in 1949. She retired in 1960 and moved to the UK where most of her relatives were, although she continued working part-time and giving lectures.
A strenuous trip to the United States in 1964 led to Meitner having a heart attack, from which she spent several months recovering. Her physical and mental condition weakened by atherosclerosis, she was unable to travel to the US to receive the Enrico Fermi prize and relatives had to present it to her. After breaking her hip in a fall and suffering several small strokes in 1967, Meitner made a partial recovery, but eventually was weakened to the point where she moved into a Cambridge nursing home.
She died in her sleep on 27 October 1968 at the age of 89. Meitner was not informed of the deaths of Otto Hahn (d. July 1968) or his wife Edith, as her family believed it would be too much for someone so frail.[6] As was her wish, she was buried in the village of Bramley in Hampshire, at St. James parish church, close to her younger brother Walter, who had died in 1964. Her nephew Frisch composed the inscription on her headstone. It reads:
Lise Meitner: a physicist who never lost her humanity.
https://zh.wikipedia.org/zh-tw/%E8%8E%89%E6%B3%BD%C2%B7%E8%BF%88%E7%89%B9%E7%BA%B3
莉澤·邁特納開始在維也納大學學習物理、數學和哲學。她的導師中最重要的有路德維希·波茲曼。
從她學業的開始她就開始研究放射性。1906年她成為維也納的第二位女博士。她的博士論文的題目是《不均勻物質中的熱導》。此後她試圖在巴黎瑪麗亞·居禮的實驗室獲得一個位置但沒有成功。此後一年中她在維也納大學理論物理研究所工作。
導師中包括馬克斯·普朗克。在那裡她也第一次遇到了後來與她一起工作了30年的年輕的化學家奧托·哈恩。她以「無薪客席」的身份在哈恩在柏林大學化學研究所的實驗室里工作。這個實驗室本來是一個木匠工場。當時在普魯士婦女還不准接受高等教育，因此邁特納只能從後門進入研究所，而且不准進入教堂和學生實驗室。至到1909年普魯士才正式允許婦女進入大學。1908年她加入新教教會。
1909年她與哈恩一起發現了放射性衰變時原子核受到的反彈，此後幾年裡他們還一起發現了一系列放射性同位素，這使她在學術界獲得了一定的名聲。她結識了阿爾伯特·愛因斯坦和瑪麗亞·居禮。從1912年到1915年她作為普朗克的非正式助手工作。1912年她與哈恩的工作條件也獲得了巨大的改善。在新成立的皇帝威廉研究所的化學研究所中哈恩得以建立一個自己的放射性研究組，邁特納繼續在那裡工作，不過依然無償。直到1913年她才正式成為化學研究所的成員。第一次世界大戰中她加入奧地利東方戰場的戰地醫院做了一名X射線護士。與此同時哈恩則參加了研究毒氣的項目。
1917年邁特納重新與哈恩合作，他們一起發現了鏷的同位素鏷231。鏷是1913年被卡西米·法揚斯和O.H.格林發現的，鏷231是它最長壽的同位素。1918年邁特納終於獲得了她自己的研究組和相應的薪水。1922年她獲得了教授的職位，1926年她成為柏林大學實驗核物理學特別教授。
流亡
1933年邁特納由於她的猶太出身喪失了她的教學許可，但她被允許在皇帝威廉研究所與奧托·哈恩繼續他們關於中子的實驗。1938年奧地利被德國吞併後邁特納成為德國公民，因此不能再以研究組長的身份工作。她的生命受到威脅。她經荷蘭、丹麥逃往瑞典。在瑞典她到1946年在諾貝爾研究所繼續她的研究工作，與哈恩她繼續有書信往來。1938年哈恩寫信給邁特納說他發現了一個「破裂」的現象。他寫道：
是否有可能鈾239破裂成了鋇和鎝？我很想知道你的意見。也許你可以算一算後發表什麼。
1939年邁特納和她的侄子奧托·弗里施一起發表了一份題為《中子導致的鈾的裂體：一種新的核反應》的文章。在這篇論文中他們提出了哈恩的「破裂」的理論解釋，第一次為核分裂提出了理論基礎。邁特納也是裂變這個名稱的定名人。
邁特納和弗里施是在他們在樹林裡散步的時候想到裂變的主意的。裂變後的原子核的總質量比裂變前的鈾核的質量小，這個小小的質量差轉換成了能量。邁特納使用愛因斯坦的相對論中E=mc2的方程式計算出每個裂變原子核釋放2億電子伏特的能量。由此邁特納奠定了原子彈和原子能的基礎。據說邁特納將他們的結果告訴尼爾斯·波耳後波耳說：「啊，我們真蠢啊。」
1945年後
作為一個堅定的和平主義者邁特納拒絕了美國向她發出的參加曼哈頓計劃的多次邀請，戰時她一直留在瑞典。
1944年奧托·哈恩獲得諾貝爾化學獎，莉澤·邁特納落空。此後她還三次被提名，但都沒有獲獎。
我愛物理，我很難想像我的生活中沒有物理會怎樣。這是一種非常親密的愛，就好像愛一個對我幫助很多的人一樣。我自己往往自責，但作為一個物理學家,我沒有愧對良心的地方。
第109號元素䥑以她命名。在德國和奧地利有多所研究所和中學以她命名。她命名。在德國和奧地利有多所研究所和中學以她命名。在德國和奧地利有多所研究所和中學以她命名。她命名。在德國和奧地利有多所研究所和中學以她命名。
Lise Meitner was a brilliant Austrian physicist of Jewish decent, and a pacifist. But her work on nuclear fission helped lay the groundwork for the building of the atomic bomb, the deadliest weapon of all time. From her exile in Sweden, the committed pacifist watched her discovery be put to use in the atomic weapons that killed hundreds of thousands of civilians at Hiroshima and Nagasaki. In 1944, Lise Meitner was left out of the Nobel Prize for Chemistry. Even though Meitner’s contribution was crucial to the discovery of nuclear fission, Otto Hahn was the sole recipient – and Hahn did not mention Meitner’s work in his acceptance speech. Lise Meitner did not return to Germany after the war. She never forgot how her former homeland and her male colleagues had treated her. She remained active in her opposition to the bomb until her death in Cambridge, England in 1968.
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