[Colombiana Mkv 1080p To 720p [NEW]
Melvin Amey
Colombia is one of the world's seventeen megadiverse countries; it has the highest level of biodiversity per square mile in the world and the second-highest level overall.[31] Its territory encompasses Amazon rainforest, highlands, grasslands and deserts. It is the only country in South America with coastlines (and islands) along both the Atlantic and Pacific oceans. Colombia is a key member of major global and regional organizations including the UN, the WTO, the OECD, the OAS, the Pacific Alliance and the Andean Community; it is also a NATO Global Partner[32] and a major non-NATO ally of the United States.[33]
The name "Colombia" is derived from the last name of the Italian navigator Christopher Columbus (Latin: Christophorus Columbus, Italian: Cristoforo Colombo, Spanish: Cristbal Coln). It was conceived as a reference to all of the New World.[34] The name was later adopted by the Republic of Colombia of 1819, formed from the territories of the old Viceroyalty of New Granada (modern-day Colombia, Panama, Venezuela, Ecuador, and northwest Brazil).[35]
Indigenous people inhabited the territory that is now Colombia by 12,500 BCE. Nomadic hunter-gatherer tribes at the El Abra, Tibit and Tequendama sites near present-day Bogot traded with one another and with other cultures from the Magdalena River Valley.[39] A site including eight miles (13 km) of pictographs that is under study at Serrana de la Lindosa was revealed in November 2020.[40] Their age is suggested as being 12,500 years old (c. 10,480 B.C.) by the anthropologists working on the site, because of extinct fauna depicted. It was during the earliest known human occupation of the area.
Between 5000 and 1000 BCE, hunter-gatherer tribes transitioned to agrarian societies; fixed settlements were established, and pottery appeared. Beginning in the 1st millennium BCE, groups of Amerindians including the Muisca, Zen, Quimbaya, and Tairona developed the political system of cacicazgos with a pyramidal structure of power headed by caciques. The Muisca inhabited mainly the area of what is now the Departments of Boyac and Cundinamarca high plateau (Altiplano Cundiboyacense) where they formed the Muisca Confederation. They farmed maize, potato, quinoa, and cotton, and traded gold, emeralds, blankets, ceramic handicrafts, coca and especially rock salt with neighboring nations. The Tairona inhabited northern Colombia in the isolated mountain range of Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta.[41] The Quimbaya inhabited regions of the Cauca River Valley between the Western and Central Ranges of the Colombian Andes.[42] Most of the Amerindians practiced agriculture and the social structure of each indigenous community was different. Some groups of indigenous people such as the Caribs lived in a state of permanent war, but others had less bellicose attitudes.[43]
Alonso de Ojeda (who had sailed with Columbus) reached the Guajira Peninsula in 1499.[44][45] Spanish explorers, led by Rodrigo de Bastidas, made the first exploration of the Caribbean coast in 1500.[46] Christopher Columbus navigated near the Caribbean in 1502.[47] In 1508, Vasco Nez de Balboa accompanied an expedition to the territory through the region of Gulf of Urab and they founded the town of Santa Mara la Antigua del Darin in 1510, the first stable settlement on the continent. [d][48] Santa Marta was founded in 1525,[49] and Cartagena in 1533.[50] Spanish conquistador Gonzalo Jimnez de Quesada led an expedition to the interior in April 1536, and christened the districts through which he passed "New Kingdom of Granada". In August 1538, he provisionally founded its capital near the Muisca cacicazgo of Muyquyt, and named it "Santa Fe". The name soon acquired a suffix and was called Santa Fe de Bogot.[51][52] Two other notable journeys by early conquistadors to the interior took place in the same period. Sebastin de Belalczar, conqueror of Quito, traveled north and founded Cali, in 1536, and Popayn, in 1537;[53] from 1536 to 1539, German conquistador Nikolaus Federmann crossed the Llanos Orientales and went over the Cordillera Oriental in a search for El Dorado, the "city of gold".[54][55] The legend and the gold would play a pivotal role in luring the Spanish and other Europeans to New Granada during the 16th and 17th centuries.[56]
The conquistadors made frequent alliances with the enemies of different indigenous communities. Indigenous allies were crucial to conquest, as well as to creating and maintaining empire.[57] Indigenous peoples in Colombia experienced a decline in population due to conquest as well as Eurasian diseases, such as smallpox, to which they had no immunity.[58][59] Regarding the land as deserted, the Spanish Crown sold properties to all persons interested in colonized territories, creating large farms and possession of mines.[60][61][62] In the 16th century, the nautical science in Spain reached a great development thanks to numerous scientific figures of the Casa de Contratacin and nautical science was an essential pillar of the Iberian expansion.[63] In 1542, the region of New Granada, along with all other Spanish possessions in South America, became part of the Viceroyalty of Peru, with its capital in Lima.[64] In 1547, New Granada became a separate captaincy-general within the viceroyalty, with its capital at Santa Fe de Bogota.[65] In 1549, the Royal Audiencia was created by a royal decree, and New Granada was ruled by the Royal Audience of Santa Fe de Bogot, which at that time comprised the provinces of Santa Marta, Rio de San Juan, Popayn, Guayana and Cartagena.[66] But important decisions were taken from the colony to Spain by the Council of the Indies.[67][68]
In the 16th century, European slave traders had begun to bring enslaved Africans to the Americas. Spain was the only European power that did not establish factories in Africa to purchase slaves; the Spanish Empire instead relied on the asiento system, awarding merchants from other European nations the license to trade enslaved peoples to their overseas territories.[70][71] This system brought Africans to Colombia, although many spoke out against the institution.[e][f] The indigenous peoples could not be enslaved because they were legally subjects of the Spanish Crown.[76] To protect the indigenous peoples, several forms of land ownership and regulation were established by the Spanish colonial authorities: resguardos, encomiendas and haciendas.[60][61][62]
However, secret anti-Spanish discontentment was already brewing for Colombians since Spain prohibited direct trade between the Viceroyalty of Peru, which included Colombia, and the Viceroyalty of New Spain, which included the Philippines, the source of Asian products like silk and porcelain which was in demand in the Americas. Illegal trade between Peruvians, Filipinos, and Mexicans continued in secret, as smuggled Asian goods ended up in Crdoba, Colombia, the distribution center for illegal Asian imports, due to the collusion between these peoples against the authorities in Spain. They settled and traded with each other while disobeying the forced Spanish monopoly.[77]
The Viceroyalty of New Granada was established in 1717, then temporarily removed, and then re-established in 1739. Its capital was Santa F de Bogot. This Viceroyalty included some other provinces of northwestern South America that had previously been under the jurisdiction of the Viceroyalties of New Spain or Peru and correspond mainly to today's Venezuela, Ecuador, and Panama. Bogot became one of the principal administrative centers of the Spanish possessions in the New World, along with Lima and Mexico City, though it remained less developed compared to those two cities in several economic and logistical ways.[78][79]
Great Britain declared war on Spain in 1739, and the city of Cartagena quickly became a top target for the British. A massive British expeditionary force was dispatched to capture the city, but, after achieving initial inroads, devastating outbreaks of disease crippled their numbers, and the British were forced to withdraw. The battle became one of Spain's most decisive victories in the conflict, and secured Spanish dominance in the Caribbean until the Seven Years' War.[69][80] The 18th-century priest, botanist, and mathematician Jos Celestino Mutis was delegated by Viceroy Antonio Caballero y Gngora to conduct an inventory of the nature of New Granada. Started in 1783, this became known as the Royal Botanical Expedition to New Granada. It classified plants and wildlife, and founded the first astronomical observatory in the city of Santa Fe de Bogot.[81] In July 1801 the Prussian scientist Alexander von Humboldt reached Santa Fe de Bogot where he met with Mutis. In addition, historical figures in the process of independence in New Granada emerged from the expedition as the astronomer Francisco Jos de Caldas, the scientist Francisco Antonio Zea, the zoologist Jorge Tadeo Lozano and the painter Salvador Rizo.[82][83]
Since the beginning of the periods of conquest and colonization, there were several rebel movements against Spanish rule, but most were either crushed or remained too weak to change the overall situation. The last one that sought outright independence from Spain sprang up around 1810 and culminated in the Colombian Declaration of Independence, issued on 20 July 1810, the day that is now celebrated as the nation's Independence Day.[84] This movement followed the independence of St. Domingue (present-day Haiti) in 1804, which provided some support to an eventual leader of this rebellion: Simn Bolvar. Francisco de Paula Santander also would play a decisive role.[85][86][87]
A movement was initiated by Antonio Nario, who opposed Spanish centralism and led the opposition against the Viceroyalty.[88] Cartagena became independent in November 1811.[89] In 1811, the United Provinces of New Granada were proclaimed, headed by Camilo Torres Tenorio.[90][91] The emergence of two distinct ideological currents among the patriots (federalism and centralism) gave rise to a period of instability.[92] Shortly after the Napoleonic Wars ended, Ferdinand VII, recently restored to the throne in Spain, unexpectedly decided to send military forces to retake most of northern South America. The viceroyalty was restored under the command of Juan Smano, whose regime punished those who participated in the patriotic movements, ignoring the political nuances of the juntas.[93] The retribution stoked renewed rebellion, which, combined with a weakened Spain, made possible a successful rebellion led by the Venezuelan-born Simn Bolvar, who finally proclaimed independence in 1819.[94][95] The pro-Spanish resistance was defeated in 1822 in the present territory of Colombia and in 1823 in Venezuela.[96][97][98] After the Independence War, around 250,000-400,000 people or 12%-20% of the pre-war population was dead.[99][100][101]
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