Bộ Bài Drinking Game
Germain Aguilera
High quality, safe and sufficient drinking water is essential for public health and well-being. Besides consumption, we also use it for many other purposes, such as washing, cleaning, hygiene, or watering our plants.
Most people living in the EU already enjoy very good access to high quality drinking water, thanks in part to over 30 years of EU policy on drinking water quality. This policy ensures that water intended for human consumption can be consumed safely, leading to a high level of health protection.
The EU adopted the recast Drinking Water Directive in December 2020 and the Directive entered into force in January 2021. Member States have to transpose the Directive into national law and comply with its provisions by 12 January 2023. The recast Drinking Water Directive will further protect human health thanks to updated water quality standards, tackling pollutants of concern, such as endocrine disruptors and microplastics, and leading to even cleaner water from the tap for all.
On 19 January 2022, the first watch list was adopted. This means that drinking water across the EU will have to be monitored more closely for the potential presence of two endocrine disrupting compounds (beta-estradiol and nonylphenol) throughout the whole water supply chain. Endocrine disrupting compounds are a mixed group of chemicals of varying structure that can interfere with physiological and biochemical processes in the human body.
The Commission acts on minimum hygiene standards for materials and products that come into contact with drinking water were published in the Official Journal on 23 April 2024 by means of three Implementing Decisions and three Delegated Regulations (1.IA, 2.IA, 3.DA, 4.IA, 5.DA and 6.DA). The acts are available in all language versions.
They will apply from 31/12/2026 to materials and products intended to be used in new installations for the abstraction, treatment, storage or distribution of water, or for repair works, including supply pipes, valves, pumps, water meters, fittings and taps. These standards will prevent or reduce microbial growth and the risk of harmful substances leaching into drinking water. This will make water safer to drink and will reduce the administrative burden for companies that produce the relevant materials and products, as well as for national authorities and conformity assessment bodies.
Products that comply with these EU standards will receive an EU declaration of conformity and an EU specific marking. The product can therefore be sold across the EU without any restrictions linked to possible public health or environmental concerns.
On 16 May 2024 the Commission notified a Delegated Decision on a methodology to measure microplastics in water intended for human consumption (available in all languages) to the Member States. This methodology will allow Member States to measure microplastics in drinking water in a harmonised way. Until now many different methods for measuring microplastics in drinking water have been used making it very difficult to compare and interpret monitoring results. The establishment of an EU harmonised methodology by the Commission will support Member States in gaining knowledge about the presence of microplastics in their water supply chain. This methodology was developed with a view to including microplastics in the recast DWD watch list.
Member States have to ensure that the Commission, the EEA and the European Centre for Disease Prevention and Control have access to these data sets. The EEA shall publish and update a Union-wide overview on the basis of the data collected by the Member States on a regular basis or upon request from the Commission.
In justified circumstances, Member States may provide for derogations. this means they will set a less stringent value than the parametric value set out in Part B of Annex I of the recast Drinking Water Directive, up to a maximum value to be determined by them. Such derogations should not constitute a potential danger to human health and the supply of water intended for human consumption in the area concerned cannot be maintained by any other reasonable means.
Drinking is the act of ingesting water or other liquids into the body through the mouth, proboscis, or elsewhere. Humans drink by swallowing, completed by peristalsis in the esophagus. The physiological processes of drinking vary widely among other animals.
Most animals drink water to maintain bodily hydration, although many can survive on the water gained from their food. Water is required for many physiological processes. Both inadequate and (less commonly) excessive water intake are associated with health problems.
When a liquid enters a human mouth, the swallowing process is completed by peristalsis which delivers the liquid through the esophagus to the stomach; much of the activity is abetted by gravity. The liquid may be poured from the hands or drinkware may be used as vessels. Drinking can also be performed by acts of inhalation, typically when imbibing hot liquids or drinking from a spoon. Infants employ a method of suction wherein the lips are pressed tight around a source, as in breastfeeding: a combination of breath and tongue movement creates a vacuum which draws in liquid.[1]
By necessity, terrestrial animals in captivity become accustomed to drinking water, but most free-roaming animals stay hydrated through the fluids and moisture in fresh food,[2] and learn to actively seek foods with high fluid content.[3] When conditions impel them to drink from bodies of water, the methods and motions differ greatly among species.[4]
Cats, canines, and ruminants all lower the neck and lap in water with their powerful tongues.[4] Cats and canines lap up water with the tongue in a spoon-like shape.[5] Canines lap water by scooping it into their mouth with a tongue which has taken the shape of a ladle. However, with cats, only the tip of their tongue (which is smooth) touches the water, and then the cat quickly pulls its tongue back into its mouth which soon closes; this results in a column of liquid being pulled into the cat's mouth, which is then secured by its mouth closing.[6] Ruminants and most other herbivores partially submerge the tip of the mouth in order to draw in water by means of a plunging action with the tongue held straight.[7] Cats drink at a significantly slower pace than ruminants, who face greater natural predation hazards.[4]
Many desert animals do not drink even if water becomes available, but rely on eating succulent plants.[4] In cold and frozen environments, some animals like hares, tree squirrels, and bighorn sheep resort to consuming snow and icicles.[8] In savannas, the drinking method of giraffes has been a source of speculation for its apparent defiance of gravity; the most recent theory contemplates the animal's long neck functions like a plunger pump.[9] Uniquely, elephants draw water into their trunks and squirt it into their mouths.[4]
Most birds are unable to swallow by the "sucking" or "pumping" action of peristalsis in their esophagus (as humans do), and drink by repeatedly raising their heads after filling their mouths to allow the liquid to flow by gravity, a method usually described as "sipping" or "tipping up".[10]The notable exception is the family of pigeons and doves, the Columbidae; in fact, according to Konrad Lorenz in 1939:
one recognizes the order by the single behavioral characteristic, namely that in drinking the water is pumped up by peristalsis of the esophagus which occurs without exception within the order. The only other group, however, which shows the same behavior, the Pteroclidae, is placed near the doves just by this doubtlessly very old characteristic.[11]
In addition, specialized nectar feeders like sunbirds (Nectariniidae) and hummingbirds (Trochilidae) drinkby using protrusible grooved or trough-like tongues, and parrots (Psittacidae) lap up water.[10]
Most birds scoop or draw water into the buccal areas of their bills, raising and tilting their heads back to drink. An exception is the common pigeon, which can suck in water directly by inhalation.[4]
Most insects obtain adequate water from their food: When dehydrated from a lack of moist food, however, many species will drink from standing water.[15] Additionally, all terrestrial insects constantly absorb a certain amount of the air's humidity through their cuticles.[15] Some desert insects, such as Onymacris unguicularis, have evolved to drink substantially from nighttime fog.[15]
Amphibians and aquatic animals which live in freshwater do not need to drink: they absorb water steadily through the skin by osmosis.[4][16] Saltwater fish, however, drink through the mouth as they swim, and purge the excess salt through the gills.[16] Saltwater fishes do drink plenty of water and excrete a small volume of concentrated urine.
Like nearly all other life forms, humans require water for tissue hydration. Lack of hydration causes thirst, a desire to drink which is regulated by the hypothalamus in response to subtle changes in the body's electrolyte levels and blood volume. A decline in total body water is called dehydration and will eventually lead to death by hypernatremia. Methods used in the management of dehydration include assisted drinking or oral rehydration therapy.
An overconsumption of water can lead to water intoxication, which can dangerously dilute the concentration of salts in the body. Overhydration sometimes occurs among athletes and outdoor laborers, but it can also be a sign of disease or damage to the hypothalamus. A persistent desire to drink inordinate quantities of water is a psychological condition termed polydipsia. It is often accompanied by polyuria and may itself be a symptom of diabetes mellitus or diabetes insipidus.[17]
A daily intake of water is required for the normal physiological functioning of the human body. The USDA recommends a daily intake of total water: not necessarily by drinking but by consumption of water contained in other beverages and foods. The recommended intake is 3.7 liters (appx. 1 gallon) per day for an adult male, and 2.7 liters (appx. 0.75 gallon) for an adult female.[18]
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