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[Bran Cardello]

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These fixtures are used to build medium size heat exchangers which are tube and fin construction. The core is built in layers, tube, fin, tube, etc. until the stack height is reached. Once assembled, the core is compressed with two large cylinders from the bottom upward against a set of stop pins. This ensures the core is compressed square and to the proper height required. The fixture features side channels that independently retract out of the way for easy core removal and dedicated pressure gages to control the compression pressures. Simple flexible design allows building of most any medium sized heat exchanger that uses a stacked design.

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The industrial demand for low-cost, high-volume production of flexible transparent conductive films (TCFs) has grown, as various optoelectronic appliances like photodetectors1,2,3, memristors4, photovoltaic devices5, and organic light-emitting diodes6 require flexibility, high transparency, and electrical conductivity; hence, TCF alternatives to indium-tin-oxide (ITO)-based TCFs, which generally require costly photolithographic processes in vacuo, have been sought. One group of alternative TCFs is based on the application of a conductive material on a flexible substrate, such as conducting polymers7, highly metallic single-walled carbon nanotubes8, graphene flakes9, or silver nanowires (AgNWs)10. However, the low electrical conductivity due to either the limited carrier mobility of a conducting polymer or the high inter-tube/layer junction resistance of carbon nanotubes or graphene platelets prevents achievement of the industrial requirements for highly conductive TCFs. The poor thermal stability of AgNWs is also a hurdle preventing their industrial applications11.

The other group of alternative TCFs with only metallic grids or metallic grids and a subsequent coating of a conducting material has been attempted to further improve the electrical conductivity. For the direct construction of metallic grids fine enough to be invisible to the naked eyes, a variety of printing techniques have been explored, as shown in Supplementary Fig. S1. Their intrinsically additive nature, i.e., depositing valuable conductive materials only where necessary, is expected to lower the production cost of TCFs. Gravure printing with an engraved plate (Supplementary Fig. S1a)12, flexographic printing with a relief plate (Supplementary Fig. S1b)13, and inkjet printing (Supplementary Fig. S1c) have been considered for high-volume production of TCFs. However, these techniques are generally not suitable for high-volume production of TCFs with metallic grid line widths below 10 μm, albeit there might be some exceptions such as inkjet printing, which can fabricate invisible silver tracks in an interesting manner using either a capillary force in hot-embossed trenches14 or the coffee-ring effect15,16.

Despite the many modes of EHD jet printing, its practical applications are limited to the simple, continuous jet printing mode. However, the construction of metallic grids for TCFs in continuous EHD jet printing mode at a short stand-off distance before the onset point of the bending instability of the jet, which is hereafter referred to as near-field electrospinning, generally requires double-pass printing using either a square or an orthogonal sinusoidal pattern, as shown in Supplementary Fig. S4. The complexity of the printing system for double-pass printing prevents near-field electrospinning from achieving high-speed roll-to-roll production of flexible TCFs. Moreover, the appearance of moir fringes due to the superposition of periodic patterns is a challenging issue in the art of fabricating TCFs.

The continuous EHD jet printing mode at a long stand-off distance far away from the onset point of the bending instability of the jet25, which is hereafter referred to as far-field electrospinning, is regarded as a much simpler process to produce a metallic network in a random manner with single-pass printing26,27. However, the random whipping motion of far-field electrospinning is uncontrollable, and the as-spun metallic network in a roll-to-roll system is prone to have non-uniform fibre spatial density28,29. Multiple depositions of electrospun metallic networks to assure spatial uniformity occasionally exacerbates the problem, which is a concern given the need for TCFs with high optoelectrical uniformity.

As of now, the existing production methods for TCFs do not fulfil the aforementioned requirements all at once, i.e., high electrical conductivity, good thermal stability, invisibility, high productivity, and controllability in spatial density. Herein, we present a novel alternative process for fabricating moir-fringeless TCFs with single-pass printing for high-volume roll-to-roll production by exploiting the random serpentine motion of medium-field electrospinning at a stand-off distance near the onset point of the bending instability of the jet. It is intended to overcome the existing drawbacks of conventional production methods for TCFs. The influence of the random serpentine network of electrospun silver microfibres (AgMFs) on the optoelectrical performance and thermal stability of the TCFs is investigated and experimental results are presented on the combined thermal and chemical annealing30,31 of AgMFs to enable high productivity. In the end, the benefits of medium-field electrospun AgMFs for ultra-large digital signage are discussed.

We attempted to extend the application of TCFs to a transparent and rollable LED display for ultra-large digital signage, and a proof-of-concept example was developed, as shown in Fig. 8a. Conventional TCFs are isotropically conductive in general since they are usually fabricated using a coating method like sputtering or wet coating with no ability to locally form an electrically conductive layer of ITO or AgNWs. The significant amount of a precious material would be wasted as the size of a TCF for digital signage becomes larger since even areas, which do not require electrical conductivity, are coated with ITO or AgNWs. Therefore, ultra-large digital signage would require to locally pattern highly conductive and transparent electrodes. As illustrated in Fig. 8b, the capability of medium-field electrospun AgMFs to selectively form transparent electrodes and locally control electrical properties by adjusting the stand-off distance might be advantageous for improving the electrical conductivity for applications in in ultra-large digital signage.

(a) A proof-of-concept transparent and rollable LED display for ultra-large digital signage and (b) conceptual illustration of ultra-large digital signage with localized transparent electrodes using medium-field electrospun AgMFs.

D.-Y.S. conceived the idea of fabricating TCFs with a random serpentine network of electrospun AgMFs. The fabrication of the TCFs and the subsequent optoelectrical characterizations were conducted by E.-H.P. The experimental findings were co-interpreted by D.-Y.S. with G.-H.K. D.-Y.S. wrote the manuscript, which was reviewed by all authors.

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