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Stefania Bahrke
An equal-loudness contour is a measure of sound pressure level, over the frequency spectrum, for which a listener perceives a constant loudness when presented with pure steady tones.[1] The unit of measurement for loudness levels is the phon and is arrived at by reference to equal-loudness contours. By definition, two sine waves of differing frequencies are said to have equal-loudness level measured in phons if they are perceived as equally loud by the average young person without significant hearing impairment.
Amplifiers often feature a "loudness" button, known technically as loudness compensation, that boosts low and high-frequency components of the sound. These are intended to offset the apparent loudness fall-off at those frequencies, especially at lower volume levels. Boosting these frequencies produces a flatter equal-loudness contour that appears to be louder even at low volume, preventing the perceived sound from being dominated by the mid-frequencies where the ear is most sensitive.
Real-life sounds from a reasonably distant source arrive as planar wavefronts. If the source of sound is directly in front of the listener, then both ears receive equal intensity, but at frequencies above about 1 kHz the sound that enters the ear canal is partially reduced by the head shadow, and also highly dependent on reflection off the pinna (outer ear). Off-centre sounds result in increased head masking at one ear, and subtle changes in the effect of the pinna, especially at the other ear. This combined effect of head-masking and pinna reflection is quantified in a set of curves in three-dimensional space referred to as head-related transfer functions (HRTFs). Frontal presentation is now regarded as preferable when deriving equal-loudness contours, and the latest ISO standard is specifically based on frontal and central presentation.
Good headphones, well sealed to the ear, provide a flat low-frequency pressure response to the ear canal, with low distortion even at high intensities. At low frequencies, the ear is purely pressure-sensitive, and the cavity formed between headphones and ear is too small to introduce modifying resonances. Headphone testing is, therefore, a good way to derive equal-loudness contours below about 500 Hz, though reservations have been expressed about the validity of headphone measurements when determining the actual threshold of hearing, based on the observation that closing off the ear canal produces increased sensitivity to the sound of blood flow within the ear, which the brain appears to mask in normal listening conditions.[citation needed] At high frequencies, headphone measurement becomes unreliable, and the various resonances of pinnae (outer ears) and ear canals are severely affected by proximity to the headphone cavity.
Various weighting curves were derived in the 1960s, in particular as part of the DIN 4550 standard for audio quality measurement, which differed from the A-weighting curve, showing more of a peak around 6 kHz. These gave a more meaningful subjective measure of noise on audio equipment, especially on the newly invented compact cassette tape recorders with Dolby noise reduction, which were characterized by a noise spectrum dominated by the higher frequencies.
The ITU-R 468 noise weighting curve, originally proposed in CCIR recommendation 468, but later adopted by numerous standards bodies (IEC, BSI, JIS, ITU) was based on the research, and incorporates a special Quasi-peak detector to account for our reduced sensitivity to short bursts and clicks.[8] It is widely used by Broadcasters and audio professionals when they measure noise on broadcast paths and audio equipment, so they can subjectively compare equipment types with different noise spectra and characteristics.
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This page contains example stimuli from a paper that appeared recently in Psychological Science.
Our peception of pitch-varying stimuli isdominated by relative pitch - the relationships between the pitch ofsuccessive sounds. Relative pitch enables us to recognize melodies whenthey are transposed up or down in pitch, or to hear the same utteranceby different speakers as having the same intonation pattern. Althoughthere are thousands of studies of absolute pitch (i.e. the pitch ofisolated notes), very little is known about the mechanisms of relativepitch. As a first step, we wondered whether properties of relativepitch would generalize to other auditory dimensions.
We focused specifically on sound contours. The pitch contour of aseries of sounds is defined as the sequence of directions of pitchchanges from note to note (see part a of the figure, below). It is themain determinant of melody recognition for novel random pitchsequences. We tested whether contours could be perceived in dimensionsother than pitch.
Normally contours are thought to be the result of pitch changes, i.e. a change in fundamental frequency:
But in principle contours and intervals could be created from otherdimensions as well. We studied two other salient auditory dimensions,brightness and loudness. Brightness is the perceptual correlate of thecentroid of the spectrum of a sound, and is one of the most importantaspects of timbre. Loudness is usually correlated with amplitude.
Here are example stimuli. Each file contains what you would hear in asingle trial of the experiment.
This is the vanilla case where both sequences vary in pitch. The secondone is transposed to a different pitch range, so that recognitiondepends on relative pitch perception. In one case the second stimuluscontains the same contour, in the other it is different.
It turns out that people are quite good atrecognizing contours inother dimensions as well. Here are stimuli where the first and secondstimuli vary in loudness. The second one is "transposed" to a higherrange of loudness, so that again absolute levels of the "notes" areuninformative. Again, in one case the second stimuluscontains the same contour, in the other it is different.
Contour 20i, 30i and 25Ci have updated crossovers. And, because of the driver tweaks providing an inherently flat frequency response, it means Dynaudio has been able to remove the impedance correction circuitry for an even simpler board.
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Note: Voice Guidance is a function that reads program descriptions and navigation instructions aloud. For more information, refer to Using Contour TV Voice Guidance.
Use the below table to identify the different audio options available on Contour TV and their function.
Note: The function is active when the blue check mark displays on the icon.
For decades, the voltage controlled slew limiter has been a staple of modular synthesisers. With its extreme versatility, it can be used to slew control voltages (CVs), create envelopes, as a low-frequency or audio oscillator and much more.
When set to loop mode, Contour 1 will continually re-trigger itself. In this mode, it fulfils the role of a variable-shape low-frequency oscillator (LFO) or temperature-stable voltage controlled oscillator (VCO) in the audio range.
Flexible silicone ear tips and patented FreebitTM enhancers that both come in 3 different sizes allow for ultimate customization by mix and matching sizes to find the perfect fit and audio performance.
The Contour 2 Set-Top-Box will auto-detect your audio system. If your audio system not fully detected, a CodeFinder tool powered by QuickSet will assist in the setup process. Turn on your audio device and follow the steps below to set up your remote. Be sure to point the remote at your audio device during setup.
This remote comes with volume control defaulted to control volume using your TV.
To change to another device, turn on your audio device and follow the steps below to set up your remote. Be sure to point the remote at your audio device during setup.
Gear doesn't modify the sound intensity (db), it would graph as a flat line (without the 2-9k hill) if it was measured by a sensor that captures sound intensity (db). Producers make their music taking into consideration the equal loudness contour (humans don't hear all frequencies at the same loudness) and the pinna gain. This would be hard for the producers.
But what actually happened is that the frequency responses of headphones don't seem to follow this equal loudness contour, if they did, the FR of neutral gear wouldn't be a line from 0 to 9 KHz. So music producers equalize their music based on what the mainstream gear tuning of the epoch is; for instance, before harman target was a thing, they prolly based themselves on the etymotic diffuse field target, and this justifies a bit of the discrepancy between how new and old music sound. Maybe it even explains why flat gear may sound bass anemic with recent records, but not so much with older ones.
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