Principle Of Zoology

[Consuela Ellett]

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Cleveland P. Hickman, Jr., Professor Emeritus of Biology at Washington and Lee University in Lexington, Virginia, has taught zoology and animal physiology for more than 30 years. He received his Ph.D. in comparative physiology from the University of British Columbia, Vancouver, B.C., in 1958 and taught animal physiology at the University of Alberta before moving to Washington and Lee University in 1967. He has published numerous articles and research papers in fish physiology, in addition to co-authoring these highly successful texts: Integrated Principles of Zoology, Biology of Animals, Animal Diversity, Laboratory Studies in Animal Diversity, and Laboratory Studies in Integrated Principles of Zoology.

Allan Larson is an Associate Professor at Washington University, St. Louis, MO. He received his Ph.D. in Genetics at the University of California, Berkeley. His fields of specialization include Evolutionary Biology, Molecular Population Genetics and Systematics, and Amphibian Systematics. He's taught courses in general biology, evolution, and population biology.

This edition includes over 180 entries arranged in A to Z order to help make finding a topic of interest easy. Entries related to basic principles and concepts include fields of study related to the topic; an Abstract that provides a brief, concrete summary of the topic; Key Concepts important to a proper understanding of the topic; Text that gives an explanation of the background and significance; Illustrations that clarify difficult concepts via models, diagrams, and charts; and Further Reading lists that relate to each entry.

The volume provides high school and college students with a history of zoology from ancient to modern times, including the transformation work of Thomas Henry Huxley, who brought the teaching of zoology out of the lecture hall and into the laboratory.

Designed for students and researchers, this volume provides new ways to think about and study issues, policies, and practices in zoology. This will be a helpful addition to science and environmental programs at the high school, community college, and university levels.

On successful completion of this module students should be able to:

1. understand the scope of the zoology discipline

2. understand the evolution and diversity of animal groups

3. discuss how evolution has driven the structure and function of the principal physiological systems in animals

4. describe how physiological function varies in animal groups, particularly in response to environmental extremes

5. identify the principal organs governing homeostasis in a variety of animal groups

Priority is a fundamental principle of modern botanical nomenclature and zoological nomenclature. Essentially, it is the principle of recognising the first valid application of a name to a plant or animal. There are two aspects to this:

Note that nomenclature for botany and zoology is independent, and the rules of priority regarding homonyms operate within each discipline but not between them. Thus, an animal and a plant can bear the same name, which is then called a hemihomonym.

There are formal provisions for making exceptions to the principle of priority under each of the Codes. If an archaic or obscure prior name is discovered for an established taxon, the current name can be declared a nomen conservandum (botany) or conserved name (zoology), and so conserved against the prior name. Conservation may be avoided entirely in zoology as these names may fall in the formal category of nomen oblitum. Similarly, if the current name for a taxon is found to have an archaic or obscure prior homonym, the current name can be declared a nomen protectum (zoology) or the older name suppressed (nomen rejiciendum, botany).

The principle of priority has not always been in place. When Carl Linnaeus laid the foundations of modern nomenclature, he offered no recognition of prior names. The botanists who followed him were just as willing to overturn Linnaeus's names. The first sign of recognition of priority came in 1813, when A. P. de Candolle laid out some principles of good nomenclatural practice. He favoured retaining prior names, but left wide scope for overturning poor prior names.[3]

During the 19th century, the principle gradually came to be accepted by almost all botanists, but debate continued to rage over the conditions under which the principle might be ignored. Botanists on one side of the debate argued that priority should be universal and without exception. This would have meant a one-off major disruption as countless names in current usage were overturned in favour of archaic prior names. In 1891, Otto Kuntze, one of the most vocal proponents of this position, did just that, publishing over 30000 new combinations in his Revisio Generum Plantarum.[3] He then followed with further such publications in 1893, 1898 and 1903.[3] His efforts, however, were so disruptive that they appear to have benefited his opponents. By the 1900s, the need for a mechanism for the conservation of names was widely accepted, and details of such a mechanism were under discussion. The current system of "modified priority" was essentially put in place at the Cambridge Congress of 1930.[3]

The Principle of Priority is one of the guiding principles of the International Code of Zoological Nomenclature, defined by Article 23. There are exceptions: another name may be given precedence by any provision of the Code or by any ruling of the Commission. It is a fundamental guiding precept that preserves the stability of biological nomenclature. It was first formulated in 1842 by a committee appointed by the British Association to consider the rules of zoological nomenclature; the committee's report was written by Hugh Edwin Strickland.[4]

In botany and horticulture, the principle of priority applies to names at the rank of family and below.[5][6] When moves are made to another genus or from one species to another, the "final epithet" of the name is combined with the new genus name, with any adjustments necessary for Latin grammar, for example:

In zoology, the principle of priority applies to names between the rank of superfamily and subspecies (not to varieties, which are below the rank of subspecies).[13] Also unlike in botany, the authorship of new combinations is not tracked, and only the original authority is ever cited. Example:

The principles of the 3Rs (Replacement, Reduction and Refinement) were developed over 50 years ago providing a framework for performing more humane animal research. Since then they have been embedded in national and international legislation and regulations on the use of animals in scientific procedures, as well as in the policies of organisations that fund or conduct animal research. Opinion polls of public attitudes consistently show that support for animal research is conditional on the 3Rs being put into practice.

The 3Rs were first defined by Russell and Burch in their book The Principles of Humane Experimental Technique. The NC3Rs has updated the definitions in line with common scientific parlance to highlight the importance of the 3Rs to modern research practices.

For many years research animals have been used to answer important scientific questions including those related to human health. Animal models are often costly and time-consuming and depending on the research question present scientific limitations, such as poor relevance to human biology. Alternative models can address some of these concerns. In the last decade or so, advances in science and technology have meant that there are now realistic opportunities to replace the use of animals.

Partial replacement includes the use of some animals that, based on current scientific thinking, are not considered capable of experiencing suffering. This includes invertebrates such as Drosophila, nematode worms and social amoebae, and immature forms of vertebrates [1]. Partial replacement also includes the use of primary cells (and tissues) taken from animals killed solely for this purpose (i.e. not having been used in a scientific procedure that causes suffering).

1. In the UK, the Animals (Scientific Procedures) Act 1986 sets out the developmental stages at which early vertebrate life forms are protected. The invertebrate Octopus vulgaris is protected by the Act.

Reduction refers to methods that minimise the number of animals used per experiment or study consistent with the scientific aims. It is essential for reduction that studies with animals are appropriately designed and analysed to ensure robust and reproducible findings.

Reduction also includes methods which allow the information gathered per animal in an experiment to be maximised in order to reduce the use of additional animals. Examples of this include the use of some imaging modalities which allow longitudinal measurements in the same animal to be taken (rather than for example culling cohorts of animals at specific time points), or microsampling of blood, where small volumes enable repeat sampling in the same animal. In these scenarios, it is important to ensure that reducing the number of animals used is balanced against any additional suffering that might be caused by their repeated use.

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