Warlike Movie Download

[Eloisa Stawasz]

Thispolicy does not insure against loss or damage caused by or resulting from Exclusions A., B., or C., regardless of any other cause or event contributing concurrently or in any other sequence to the loss.

The evidence suggests that the language used in these policies has been virtually the same for many years. It is also self-evident, of course, that both parties to this contract are aware that cyber attacks [sic] of various forms, sometimes from private sources and sometimes from nation-states have become more common. Despite this, Insurers did nothing to change the language of the exemption to reasonably put this insured on notice that it intended to exclude cyber attacks [sic].

Finally, we can go into a discussion of about how cyberattacks and cyber warfare do involve hostilities, warlike acts, and forms of war. The Economist recognized cyberattacks as a form of warfare on July 3, 2010.[14]

Given the rise of suspected nation-state sponsored cyber-attacks as well as recent unfavorable silent cyber court decisions finding coverage for cyber and privacy claims under a variety of traditional policy forms, insurers should carefully consider including comprehensive cyber exclusions in all non-cyber policies. Insurers also should endeavor to understand the full extent of potential cyber coverage under cyber policies and non-cyber policies that offer limited cyber coverage. Potential exposure to catastrophic aggregated events in particular, including those arising in the context of cyber war, should be closely analyzed and accounted for in the underwriting process.

The primary but not exclusive factor in determining attribution of a cyber operation shall be whether the government of the state (including its intelligence and security services) in which the computer system affected by the cyber operation is physically located attributes the cyber operation to another state or those acting on its behalf.

Pending attribution by the government of the state (including its intelligence and security services) in which the computer system affected by the cyber operation is physically located, the insurer may rely upon an inference which is objectively reasonable as to attribution of the cyber operation to another state or those acting on its behalf. It is agreed that during this period no loss shall be paid.

attribute the cyber operation to another state or those acting on its behalf, it shall be for the insurer to prove attribution by reference to such other evidence as is available.

11.2. military or usurped power or confiscation or nationalisation or requisition or destruction of or damage to property by or under the order of any government or public or local authority, whether war be declared or not.

14.2. military or usurped power or confiscation or nationalisation or requisition or destruction of or damage to property by or under the order of any government or public or local authority, whether war be declared or not.

Only later, archeologists thought, did increasing drought and climate change lead to total warfare -- cities and dynasties were wiped off the map in so-called termination events -- and the collapse of the lowland Maya civilization around 1,000 A.D. (or C.E., current era).

New evidence unearthed by a researcher from the University of California, Berkeley, and the U.S. Geological Survey calls all this into question, suggesting that the Maya engaged in scorched-earth military campaigns -- a strategy that aims to destroy anything of use, including cropland -- even at the height of their civilization, a time of prosperity and artistic sophistication.

"These data really challenge one of the dominant theories of the collapse of the Maya," said David Wahl, a UC Berkeley adjunct assistant professor of geography and a researcher at the USGS in Menlo Park, California. "The findings overturn this idea that warfare really got intense only very late in the game."

"The revolutionary part of this is that we see how similar Mayan warfare was from early on," said archaeologist Francisco Estrada-Belli of Tulane University, Wahl's colleague. "It wasn't primarily the nobility challenging one another, taking and sacrificing captives to enhance the charisma of the captors. For the first time, we are seeing that this warfare had an impact on the general population."

The evidence, reported today in the journal Nature Human Behaviour, is an inch-thick layer of charcoal at the bottom of a lake, Laguna Ek'Naab, in Northern Guatemala: a sign of extensive burning of a nearby city, Witzna, and its surroundings that was unlike any other natural fire recorded in the lake's sediment.

The charcoal layer dates from between 690 and 700 A.D., right in the middle of the classic period of Mayan civilization, 250-950 A.D. The date for the layer coincides exactly with the date -- May 21, 697 A.D. -- of a "burning" campaign recorded on a stone stela, or pillar, in a rival city, Naranjo.

"This is really the first time the written record has been linked to an event in the paleo data sets in the New World," Wahl said. "In the New World, there is so little writing, and what's preserved is mostly on stone monuments. This is unique in that we were able to identify this event in the sedimentary record and point to the written record, particularly these Mayan hieroglyphs, and make the inference that this is the same event."

Wahl, a geologist who studies past climate and is first author of the study, worked with USGS colleague Lysanna Anderson and Estrada-Belli to extract 7 meters of sediment cores from the lake. Laguna Ek'Naab, which is about 100 meters across, is located at the base of the plateau where Witzna once flourished and has collected thousands of years of sediment from the city and its surrounding agricultural fields. After seeing the charcoal layer, the archaeologists examined many of Witzna's ruined monuments still standing in the jungle and found evidence of burning in all of them.

"What we see here is, it looks like they torched the entire city and, indeed, the entire watershed," Wahl said. "Then, we see this really big decrease in human activity afterwards, which suggests at least that there was a big hit to the population. We can't know if everyone was killed or they moved or if they simply migrated away, but what we can say is that human activity decreased very dramatically immediately after that event."

This one instance does not prove that the Maya engaged in total warfare throughout the 650-year classic period, Estrada-Belli said, but it does fit with increasing evidence of warlike behavior throughout that period: mass burials, fortified cities and large standing armies.

"I think, based on this evidence, the theory that a presumed shift to total warfare was a major factor in the collapse of Classic Maya society is no longer viable," said Estrada-Belli. "We have to rethink the cause of the collapse, because we're not on the right path with warfare and climate change."

Though Mayan civilization originated more than 4,000 years ago, the Classic period is characterized by widespread monumental architecture and urbanization exemplified by Tikal in Guatemala and Dzibanch in Mexico's Yucatan. City-states -- independent states made up of cities and their surrounding territories -- were ruled by dynasties that, archaeologists thought, established alliances and waged wars much like the city-states of Renaissance Italy, which affected the nobility without major impacts on the population.

In fact, most archaeologists believe that the incessant warfare that arose in the terminal Classic period (800-950 A.D.), presumably because of climate change, was the major cause of the decline of Mayan cities throughout present day El Salvador, Honduras, Guatemala, Belize and Southern Mexico.

So when Wahl, Anderson and Estrada-Belli discovered the charcoal layer in 2013 in Laguna Ek'Naab -- a layer unlike anything Wahl had seen before -- they were puzzled. The scientists had obtained the lake core in order to document the changing climate in Central America, hoping to correlate these with changes in human occupation and food cultivation.

The puzzle lingered until 2016, when Estrada-Belli and co-author Alexandre Tokovinine, a Mayan epigrapher at the University of Alabama, discovered a key piece of evidence in the ruins of Witzna: an emblem glyph, or city seal, identifying Witzna as the ancient Mayan city Bahlam Jol. Searching through a database of names mentioned in Mayan hieroglyphs, Tokovinine found that very name in a "war statement" on a stela in the neighboring city-state of Naranjo, about 32 kilometers south of Bahlam Jol/Witzna.

The statement said that on the day ." .. 3 Ben, 16 Kasew ('Sek'), Bahlam Jol 'burned' for the second time." According to Tokovinine, the connotation of the word "burned," or puluuy in Mayan, has always been unclear, but the date 3 Ben, 16 Kasew on the Mayan calendar, or May 21, 697, clearly associates this word with total warfare and the scorched earth destruction of Bahlam Jol/Witzna.

"The implications of this discovery extend beyond mere reinterpretation of references to burning in ancient Maya inscriptions," Tokovinine said. "We need to go back to the drawing board on the very paradigm of ancient Maya warfare as centered on taking captives and extracting tribute."

Three other references to puluuy or "burning" are mentioned in the same war statement, referencing the cities of Komkom, known today as Buenavista del Cayo; K'an Witznal, now Ucanal; and K'inchil, location unknown. These cities may also have been decimated, if the word puluuy describes the same extreme warfare in all references. The earlier burning of Bahlam Jol/Witzna mentioned on the stela may also have left evidence in the lake cores -- there are three other prominent charcoal layers in addition to the one from 697 A.D. -- but the date of the earlier burning is unknown.

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