Rhinoceros In Chinese

[Hermila Farquhar]

Theexistence of rhinoceroses in ancient China is attested both by archaeological evidence and by references in ancient Chinese literature. Depictions of rhinoceroses in ancient Chinese art are typically very accurate and lifelike, suggesting that they were modelled first-hand by the artist on living rhinoceroses rather than being based on legend or traveller's tales.[1] The main species of rhinoceros that lived in China in ancient times has been identified as the Sumatran Rhinoceros (Dicerorhinus sumatrensis), more especially the Northern Sumatran rhinoceros (Dicerorhinus sumatrensis lasiotis), although the Indian Rhinoceros (Rhinoceros unicornis) and Javan Rhinoceros (Rhinoceros sondaicus) were also present.

All three Asian rhinoceros once lived in China. Most depictions of rhinoceroses in Shang, Zhou and Han art show two distinct horns, and in some cases wrinkles around the eyes are also evident, which are features only found in the Sumatran Rhinoceros (Indian and Javan rhinoceroses only having a single horn).[14] However, a few examples of sculptures showing one-horned rhinoceroses are also known, for example on a bronze cylinder supported by three rhinoceroses from the tomb of King Cuo of Zhongshan (late 4th century BC).[14] Some historians have taken this as evidence that, in addition to the Sumatran Rhinoceros and Northern Sumatran rhinoceros which were more widely distributed within China, the one-horned Javan Rhinoceros was also present in ancient China.[16] On the other hand, the posterior horn of the Sumatran Rhinoceros is often undeveloped and inconspicuous, so it is still possible that such examples of one-horned rhinoceroses may in fact also represent the Sumatran Rhinoceros.[14]

Several Shang dynasty oracle bone inscriptions record the hunting of the s,[20] including one famous inscription that tells how an accident befell King Wu Ding's hunting party whilst in pursuit of a s:

On the day Jiawu the king went to hunt a rhinoceros. The carriage of courtier Chu broke its axis. A gelding tripped over stones and bolted away from the king's carriage. Prince Yang also fell down.[21]

However, as discussed above, some scholars now believe that the s was a wild buffalo rather than a rhinoceros. The character for the xī, which is universally agreed to refer to the rhinoceros, does not occur in oracle bone inscriptions, so there is no certain literary evidence that rhinoceroses were hunted during the Shang dynasty. Nevertheless, there is some archaeological evidence, in the form of a tarsal bone and a carpal bone from a rhinoceros, that rhinoceroses were present in the region of the Shang capital Yin,[13] and most historians accept that rhinoceroses probably were hunted during the Shang dynasty.[14]

In the Manshu (Tang dynasty) it states that rhinoceroses were hunted by the Nanzhao (in modern Yunnan) using pit traps, and that it was believed that killing one would always bring a thunderstorm.[24]

One of the earliest pieces of evidence for a captive rhinoceros in China comes from the tomb of Empress Dowager Bo (died 155 BC), a concubine of the first emperor of the Han dynasty, where a complete rhinoceros's skeleton was unearthed. It is thought that this was a specimen from the royal zoo.[25] The Analects has this interesting saying which indicates rhinos were held captive even during the period of Confucius (500 B.C.E): "And further, you speak wrongly. When a tiger or rhinoceros escapes from his cage; when a tortoise or piece of jade is injured in its repository:-whose is the fault?" ("Analects 16:7).

The earliest, and one of the most impressive, examples of a rhinoceros in Chinese art is a bronze zun wine vessel unearthed in Shandong in 1843, and formerly in the collection of Avery Brundage, which is thought to date to the reign of the last king of Shang, during the first half of the 11th century BC. The vessel is in the form of a two-horned rhinoceros with a rotund body and splayed legs, possibly a Sumatran rhino.[1]

The rhinoceros-hide armour was of seven folds or links, one over another; the wild-buffalo's-hide armour was of six folds or links; and the armour, made of two hides together was of five folds or links. The rhinoceros-hide armour would endure 100 years; the wild-buffalo-hide armour 200 years; and the armour of double hide 300 years.[27]

During the Warring States period, the southern State of Chu was renowned for its rhinoceros hide armour, and the philosopher Xun Zi from the northern State of Qi, who was an official in Chu for a short time, notes that "[t]he soldiers of Chu were equipped with armour made of sharkskin and rhinoceros hide as hard as metal or stone, and with pikes of Nanyang steel that could sting a man like a wasp or a scorpion".[28]

The earliest surviving examples of rhinoceros cups are examples held at the Shōsōin treasure house in Nara, Japan, that date to the Tang dynasty. During the Tang dynasty cups like these were used as presents for successful candidates in the imperial examinations.[32]

In addition to cups, rhinoceros horn was also sometimes used to make other objects, such as medicine / snuff bottles, hair pins, belt hooks, and dress toggles. Due to high demand for rhinoceros horn medicine, rhinoceros horn carvings were ground down for medicine. Whilst the popularity of libation cups has aided their survival, it appears far fewer of these other examples have survived.[36]

For endangered rhinos around the world, the best hope for survival is through continued protection under armed guard, captive breeding efforts, and the consolidation of small, fragmented populations into larger ones.

Why Was the Horn Sought After?

Rhinoceros horn was prized in China as a material for luxury objects and was thought by some to be able to detect poison and increase male virility. The horn was ground for medicine and carved into elaborate poison-detecting drinking vessels for wealthy patrons.

There has been academic interest in this vessel since scholars first published its inscription in 1845. Cast at the same time as the vessel, it is longer than others of its time, making it rare among Shang-dynasty inscriptions.

The areas where these spacers were in contact with the core and the outer sections of the mold are often visible in the finished piece or through X-ray imaging. Their existence indicates that this vessel was cast using the piece-mold technique.

Compare and Contrast Ritual Bronze Vessels

This rhino-shaped vessel was used by the ruling elite in rituals. It is curious why the patron of the vessel would have it made in the form of a rhinoceros.

Except in special circumstances prescribed by law, the country bans all actions involving sales, purchase, use and import or export of rhinoceros, tigers and their related products, including the whole body, parts of it or any derived products. Sales of products with ingredients containing rhinos, tigers and their related products also will be classified as illegal.

Rhinos, tigers and their related products used in scientific research, including collecting genetic resource materials, will be reported to and approved by authorities. Specimens of skin and other tissues and organs of rhinos and tigers can only be used for public exhibitions.

Rhino horns and tiger bones used in medical research or in healing can only be obtained from farmed rhinos and tigers, not including those raised in zoos. Powdered forms of rhino horn and bones from dead tigers can only be used in qualified hospitals by qualified doctors recognized by the State Administration of Traditional Chinese Medicine.

Sales, import and export of products that are classified as cultural relics, and transporting them for temporary cultural exchanges will be authorized by the Ministry of Culture and Tourism and the State Administration of Cultural Heritage.

The government mandates clearly recording the current inventory of products and those in individual collections. Illegally obtained products will be confiscated, and products in individual collections are not to be traded again.

All illegal trade in rhinos, tigers and their related products will be subject to severe crackdowns, and the approved activities will receive close monitoring. The central government urged governments at all levels to improve publicity activities for protecting rhinos and tigers to help the public actively boycott any illegal purchases.

But by the Ming dynasty (1368-1644) during the height of rhinoceros horn carvings, the Chinese had established trade with Africa, giving them access to the horn of the African rhinoceros.4 The African rhinoceros has two horns that are substantially larger than that of the Asian. The piece on display here is most likely carved from an African rhinoceros horn.

Dragons, like the one depicted on the handle of the cup or at the top of the mountain, are celestial beings that live with the immortals in the tops of the mountains.8 At the very top of the horn, a beautiful dragon with piercing eyes forms the handle to represent the top of the mountain of immortality.

The collection of Chinese rhinoceros horns carvings in Europe likely started in the sixteenth and early seventeenth centuries. One of the earliest rhinoceros horn carvings featured in a collection was the cups in the Hapsburg Collection curiosity cabinets of Acrhduke Ferdinand of Tyrol and Emperor Rudolf II.10 Below is a detail of a lion carving from one of these horns.

The trade of rhinoceros horns has been illegal in China since 1993 and is illegal in the United States under the U.S. Endangered Species Act.11 The art of rhinoceros horn carving fueled the poaching of rhinoceroses, leading to their destruction in China and endangerment throughout Africa. The trade and transportation of antique rhinoceros horn carvings is regulated through laws in both countries. Antique rhinoceros horn carvings are permitted to be sold and auctioned if for purely artistic intentions.12

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