Decline of Jainism

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Retreat Before HinduismJainas had to fight their battle on two fronts
since the days of Mahaveera: against the followers of the Vedic
Brahmanic religion and against Buddhists. They fought on the first
front for their faith against the Vedic manifestation, its bloody
sacrifices and its social order which assured precedence to Brahamanas
over all other sections of the society; and on the second, against the
Buddhist denial of the self and its doctrine of salvation which
acknowledged asceticism only in a negligible measure and considered
the other saints than the Tirthankaras as those who could guide one's
path to salvation. Buddhism had opposed Jainism for some time quite
strongly to such an extent that it had to beat the retreat before
Buddhism in many areas: why its home in Magadha had become an
exclusive domain of Buddhism, and this region got the name Bihar after
its many monasteries (Viharas). But the might of Buddhism declined
completely as the time progressed; it could not resist Jaina-faith in
the west and in the south, and the restoration of the orthodox
Brahamanism begun by Kumarila (around 700 A.D.) and Sankara (788-820
A.D.) put an end to it in the whole Ganga-peninsula so that it became
extinct in the land of its origin.

Kumarila, the restorer of the Vedic sacrificial service, and Sankara,
the pioneer of the illusionistic doctrine of non-duality, also
proceeded, with all the weapons of their spirit, against the Jaina-
doctrine as a heterodoxy which was inimical to the Vedas. The constant
progress of the movement coming from the orthodoxy against all
heterodox trends increased the pressure, gradually but surely, and it
weighed heavily upon the Jaina-church, and although this knew to war-
off the attacks, its position had become much weaker and it was
shaken.

The consequence of the awakening of the Brahmanic religiosity was the
revival of the Vaisnavite and Saivite sects. Saivism and Vaisnavism
proved to be particularly dangerous opponents, and they did a severe
damage to Jainism, particularly in the Deccan and the south.

The great Tamilian Saivite singers, Nanasambandhar and Appar (7th
century) as also Sundaramurti(8th or 9th century), Manikka- vacakar
(around 900) alienated many from Jainism and introduced them to the
Siva-cult. Appar is said to have converted the Pallava-king
Mahendravarman to Saivism in this way; he destroyed Jaina-buildings in
Kuddalor and built Siva-temples. Saivites were particularly supported
by the rulers of the Cola-dynasty in their endeavours. Their influence
supposed to be the reason, why the Pandya-kings of Madurai who had
been so far Jainas embraced Saivism. The Pandya-ruler Sundara (11th
century?) who was married to a Cola-princess, the sister of King
Rajendra, was supposed to have been won over to Saivism by his wife.
Sundara became a fanatic Saivite and he persecuted the compatriots of
his earlier faith, who did not follow his example, with ruthless
cruelty. It is said that he sentenced to death by impalement not less
than 8000 of his subjects who did not want to be converted: the
torturing of these unfortunate people is supposed to have been
graphically depicted on many sculptures on the walls of the temple of
Tivatur in North Arcot.

The Saivite sect of the Lingayats was another mighty enemy of Jainas.
This was founded or reorganized by Brahaman Basava, who was a minister
of the Kaslacuri-king Bijjala. Bijjala was a ruler in Kaslyan in the
period 1156-1167, and it is said that he was a follower of Jainism,
Basava succeeded with great vigour and, as Jainas maintain, with great
unscrupulousness, in attracting numerous followers to his monotheistic
doctrine and in propagating his strongly anti-clerical system which
was directed against the Brahmanic caste-order. Lingayats proceeded
against Jainas extremely fanatically, damaged their properties and
life, destroyed their temples or appropriated them for their purpose.
It is said that Saint Ekantada-Ramayya had particularly excelled in
the propagation of the new doctrine. It is narrated about him that he
had taken a bet with Jainas. According to this, they were obliged to
pull down a Jaina-statue and erect Siva's image, if he cut his own
head and become alive again by Siva's mercy. When Ekantada-Ramayya
succeeded in carrying out the miracle, and Jainas did not want to keep
the word, he is said to have cut the head of a statue of their
Tirthankara and placed it before the idol of his god as an oblation.
When Jainas complained to the king against this act, the saint offered
to repeat the miracle and even burn his head to ashes, if Jainas were
willing to wage their 700 temples against it. But Jainas did not agree
for which Bijjala scolded them and granted a piece of land near Ablur
(in present Dharwad district) to the temple of Siva Vira-Somanatha
which was erected by Ekantadap-Ramayya.

Lingayatas or the "Vira-Saivas", as they call themselves, got, as the
time passed, more and more grouped in the Kannada and Telgu language-
regions. Their faith was the state's religion of the Wodeyars of
Mysore and Ummatur from 1399-1610 and of the Nayaks of Keladi (Ikkeri
or Bednur) from 1550-1763; even now, a very considerable part of the
population of the states of the southern west-coast belongs to them.
Their attitude with respect to Jainas is characterized by their great
hostility. An inscription reports that a fanatic Lingayathad stamped a
Linga-symbol on the pillars of the main Basti of the Jainas in Halebid
in the year 1638. Jainas protested against this, and an agreement had
arrived at. But Jainas, however, promised in this that they would
always offer first ashes and betel to their temple according to a
Saivite rite and then take up their own ceremonies.

There was also a far-reaching reformation in Visunism approximately
around the same time in which Saivism got a new significance in South
India. Ramanuja (1050-1137) proclaimed quite successfully, mainly from
Srirangam (near Trichinopally), his "qualified monism" having a
Visnuite stamp. The Cola-king desired of him that he should teach that
Siva was greater than Vishnu. Ramanuja had to flee, because he did not
want to yield to this order. The Hoysala-king Bitideva gave him
protection and became his follower. But it is said that he ordered
that Jainas, compatriots in his earlier religion, be thrown in an oil-
mill and crushed, if they did not want to get converted.

It is seen from the inscription from the year 1368 that Jainas were
oppressed later by the Srivaisnavas. Jainas then complained to king
Bukkarya-I of Vijayanagar against the persecutions to which they were
subjected on the side of the Vaisnavites. The king then ordered that
the members of both the religions should enjoy the same cultural
freedom in his land. Further he ordered that 20 guards be appointed
near the Gommata-statue in Sravana Belgola to protect the shrine from
denigration and saw to it that the destroyed temples were repaired.

Another founder of Vaisnative sect, Madhva or Anandatirtha (1119-1278)
was showing his influence in the Kannada region 100 years after
Ramanuja. His doctrine of dualism preached by him got many converts on
the west coast and brought a great damage to Jainism. But on the other
hand, Brahmana Nimbarka (13th century?) of Nimba (in Bellary
district), the originator of the Vaisnavite Bhedabheda-vada ("Doctrine
of dualism and non-dualism"), who taught mainly in the north, in the
region surrounding Mathura, does not appear to have been able to take
up the gauntlet against the Jainas; at least, according to a report,
his sect is said to have been rooted out by Jainas which was revived
by Srinivasa only later. But then Brahmana Vallabha (1479-1531), the
originator of the Krsnaite Suddhadvaita-mata, who was born in the
Telugu-region, proved to be a significant opponent. This system taught
by him in Mathura was propagated in the surrounding region of the holy
Krsna-city, in Rajaputana as also in Gujrat; particularly many rich
businessmen who were earlier Jainas, joined him. Also a saint from
Bengal, Caitanya (1485-1533) whose missionary sermons unleashed storms
of enthusiasm in the whole India appears to have alienated many from
Jainism and attracted them to Krsna's Bhakti-doctrine.

The growing might of Hinduism was not revealed to Jainism only in its
losing the followers. It was also expressed in the increasing
inclination of its followers towards Hinduistic views and customs.
Thus more and more Hindu-deities were mentioned in the Jaina-
literature from now on, although they have no place in the Jaina-
system. They also used terms which reveal a strong influence of the
Vedanta; and in the following period, there was greater reconciliation
even in the religious belief and social life.

Jainas Under Islamic Rule The conquest of India by Mohammedan which
began in the year 712 with the foundation of an Islamic State in Sindh
and which continued ever since the invasions of Mahmud Gazni(1001) and
Mohammad Ghori (1175) subjected Jainas, as also Hindus, to the same
persecutions and oppressions at the hands of the new rulers. Thus the
armies of Ala-ud-din Muhammad Shah Khilji, while marching through
Gujarat in 1297-98, committed atrocities, end these are remembered
even now. Holy idols were desecrated, temples were destroyed or
converted into mosques, books were burnt, treasures were looted and
many Jainas were killed. Similar atrocities were perpetrated by the
fanatic Muslims also in the Deccan and the south when they destroyed
the Dravidian states. Jainas had to suffer very much during these
difficult times, and their number which had shrunk on account of
numerous conversions to Saivism and Visnusim diminished further. They
could save themselves from the fanaticism of the Muslims by going
underground. They shifted their libraries to underground vaults. Only
the chosen few had an access to them, and the buildings in their holy
places, which were similar to the tombs of Muslim saints, could keep
the Islamic fanaticism at bay.

The fact that Muslim kings proceeded against Jainas with fire and
sword and tried to convert them forcefully to their religion should
not mean that the relationship between Muslims and Jainas was always
inimical. It appears much more that influential preachers like the
Arabian missionary Pir Mahabir Khamdayat, who came to India in 1304,
succeeded in making many Jainas of Deccan Muslims by his sheer
eloquence, and there were often peaceful and friendly contacts between
Jainas and Muslims. Ala-ud-din whom Jainas called Khuni, "the bloody
fellow" gave the Jaina poet Ramchandra Suri many presents, and Sultan
Firoz Shah Tughlaq (1351-1388) honored Ratnasekhara, the author of
Sripalcarita. Particualrly a few Moguls distinguished themselves by
showing mercy to Jaina teachers. Emperor Akbar (1566-1605) showered
kindness on the Svetambara abott Hiravijaya and took so much active
interest in the religious concepts of Jainas that there was even a
rumour that he had secretly embraced Jaina-faith. At the behest of
Hiravijaya, Akbar issued in the year 1593 an edict by which the five
hills of Rajgir, the mountain Parsnath in Bihar and other shrines of
Svetambaras were declared as places of cultural interest. The emperor
forbade further the killings of animals in the surroundings of the
holy districts, returned to Jainas the books which were robbed from
them and did them many other good deeds. Akbar had also contacts. with
Hiravijaya's successor Vijaysena and with Jinacandra, the head of the
Kharatara-sect. Emperor Jahangir (1605-1627) attracted similarly
Jinacandra and his successor Jinasimha, whom he honoured with the
title Yugapradhana, to his court and issued farman for the protection
of Satrunjaya. Shahjahan issued a similar farman, and his sons Murad
Bakash (at first governor of Gujarat, then emperor for a short period
till the was murdered by his brother) and Aurangzeb (1659-1707)
awarded the district Satrunjaya with its income of 2 lakhs as Inam to
the court-jeweller Satidas, a Jaina. Ahmad Shah (1748-1754) did the
same thing with the mountain Parsnath. It was awarded to Jagat Seth
(world-businessman) Mahatab Rai and his successors, to secure for
Jainas in this way an undisturbed pilgrimage.

Jainas in Hindu-Kingdoms
As it is seen, Jainas could follow their religious practices
undisturbed even under many Mohammedan rulers. This was naturally to a
greater degree in the case in the independent or almost independent
Hindu-states which were little effected by Islam, albeit the fact that
the number and significance of the Tirthankaras had diminished
considerably on account of their fights with the rivalling Saivite and
Visnavite sects. Inscriptions and buildings reveal that the royal
patronage of the Jaina faith had not year become extinct in South-West
India. The two Gommata-statue erected by believing rulers in two
places in South Canara in imitation of the colossus of Sravana Belgola
are a visible sign of the loyalty to the faith of Mahaveera's
religion: the one in Karkala by the prince Virapandya in the year
1432, and the other in Venur by Timmaraja in 1604. It is interesting
to note that Jainism in Mysore had to fight Christianity in the midst
of the 16th century. It is reported in an inscription in Humcha
written around 1530 that Monk Vidyananda made the Viceroy of
Sriraganagara give up the Franconian faith (Peringiyamata) to which he
was apparently converted.

Jainas got a great significance in that period above all, in Central
India and Rajaputana besides in their old home-state Gujarat. They had
a great influence as businessmen and bankers in different princedoms
of these regions, and they gave also excellent officers to the state.
Supernatural powers were generally attributed to Jaina monks. Thus it
is said that Master Munisundarasuri (who died in 1446), known as an
author of Upadesarat-nakara and other works, could banish famine by
reciting a Stotra and prevented in Sirohi the destruction of the
harvest by locust.

Testimony of the glory and riches of Jaina-community are the works of
art of this period, above all, the great figures of the Tirthanakras
hewed out from the rock near Gwalior in the Tonvar-dynasty
(1440-1473), the temples of Rakhabdev and Ranapur (both from the 15th
century), the marvellous victory-towers in Rajaputana, etc. Favours
shown by the princess of the Sisodiya-dynasty are characteristic for
the attitude shown by the Rajputa Hindu-rulers towards them. Since
years, Ranas of Mevar gave them their patronage and granted them many
privileges. Jainas on their part showed that they were always the true
servants of their masters. When Pratap Singh_I (1572-1597) was
defeated by emperor Akabar's army and dissolved his fleeing army, a
Jaina offered his riches to him to enable him to form a new army, he
thus enabled the Rana to continue his march and get final victory. The
princes expressed their gratitude by giving Jainas all sorts of
freedom. Thus Maharana Raj Singh issued an edict in 1963 by which he
forbade killing of animals on the pieces of land belonging to Jainas
and ordered that every living being entering the district of their
holy places be protected, and besides, not only the animals which were
taken to slaughter-house, but also the criminals who had escaped from
the arms of the law. Maharana Jay Singh gave orders in an inscription
engraved on one of the pillars in Bakrole that no one should dry out
the sea-water in the four months of the rainy season, i.e., from the
11th of the month of Asadha (June) to the full moon of Asvina
(September), run an oil mill, produce pots that no one should harm a
living being during this season in which life sprouts everywhere.

It is worth noting that Jainism got a foothold even in North India in
the 15th century. It is said that King Narendracandra of Kangra who
ruled around 1427 had become a
Movements for ReformA number of reformers appeared among the Hindus
influence by Islamic tendencies which were inimical to idol-worship.
They fought very strongly against the use of cult-idols and the
worship dedicated to them. The efforts of these men-and we can mention
here only the most prominent like Kabir (around 1470), Nanak (around
1500) and Dadu (around 1575) - found an inspiring response and they
prompted the establishment of a number of sects which fought against
the superficial rituals.

Even amongst Jainas, there was a movement in the same period which
rejected idol-worship. The founder of this movement was an influential
businessman in Ahmedabad. His name was Lonka Sa and he was a
Svetamabara. He visited in the year 1451/52 a temple in which Monks
Jnanaji was busy arranging the manuscripts. He offered to contribute
to the preservation of these manuscripts which were getting ruined
under the influence of time, by taking up the pious work of rewriting
them. Jnanaji, gave, therefore, some books, and Lonka started to copy
them. While reading holy books he discovered that there was no mention
in them about the idol-worship done in the temples and he also found
that many things taught by the qualified representatives during his
period did not agree with Jainism. He, therefore, studied further and
wrote the Sutras he got for copying also for his own purpose.
Impressed by his discoveries he decide to reform the Jaina-faith,
which was according to him corrupted and re-established it in its
original purity. Of course he could not convert Jnanaji, and many
others with whom he exchanged his views, but did not also agree with
him. But finally, succeeded in winning over a group of pilgrims who
were coming from Satrunjaya and marching through Ahmedabad. But the
establishment of the sect was not possible till there was a monk who
could be its master (Acarya). A layman by name Bhana became ascetic to
get over this shortcoming and ordained himself (in 1467). He was the
first spiritual head of the community of the Lonkas (Lunkas) or
Lumpakas, and his position was inherited by his pupils.

Later there were splits and divisions in the Lonka-sect. The reforms
of Lavaji, Vira's son, a layman from Surat who had become an ascetic,
was the most significant among them. He found that the life of the
Lonkas, with respect to the strictness, fell short of the precepts of
the holy scriptures. He, therefore, founded a new sect. It was
propagated in the curse of time to such an extent that it became later
the most important custodian of Lonka's teachings. This community
established in 1653 got the nickname Dhundiya (seekers) from the
population of Gujarat, and it meant an honour. But the Dhundiyas gave
themselves the name Sthanakavasis, because all their religious action
took place in the community house (Sthanak = Upasrya), and not in the
temples. Today, their number is more or less the same as that of
Digambaras and of idol-worshipping Svetambaras, and they are to be
considered to some extent as the third creed of the Jaina-church. But
they count themselves among Svetambaras. The only difference they
have, apart from some subordinate point, is that they recognize 32
canonic scriptures (Lonka had accepted only 31 scriptures; but the
Vyavhar-Sutra rejected by him was considered as authoritative by the
Sthankavasis). Their main difference from Svetambaras in the cult was
that they do not worship any idols, do not possess temples and give no
importnce to pilgrimages. There were again among them different
branches. They led a stricter life of monks.

Reforms introduced by Lonka and his successors were not directed
against the iconolatry and the form of worship, but they were meant
for a general improvement of the discipline and customs. Even though
Lonka's opponents fought against his reform in the cult and the
ritual, they had to concede that Jainism needed a thorough
reformation, because the discipline in monk-orders had become
partially slack in the course of time. Lax interpretation of the
strict rules of Mahaveera was made so that they were even partially
reversed. The ban (except during the rainy season) from staying for
long at one place was disregarded, as also the rule of "Aparigraha",
i.e. of not possessing any property. The monks all too often gratified
their desires, appropriated the property of the church and neglected
their spiritual duties. Heads of many monasteries acted like
Sankaracaryas and other heads of Hindu-mathas and appeared on
elephants and in palanquins followed by their satellites and servants
and they utilized the richly flowing charities of their lay-followers
in leading a comfortable life. Discerning leaders had again and again
tried to fight against these abuses, but without getting a lasting
success. It appears that materialism among Svetam-baras had
particularly strongly spread in the 17th century. This can be
partially explained by the general feeling of insecurity and the
degeneration caused by it. But a number of highly talented men filled
with genuine piousness succeeded in forming a very powerful tribe of
followers who one more brought respect to the old ascetic ideal.
Anandaghana, Satyavijaya, Vinayavijaya and Yasovijaya (1624-1688) were
the leaders of the movement which was aimed at realizing the old,
strict rules meant for monks. The two last named were also fruitful
and active writers; we owe to Vinayavijaya the great compendium
Lokaprakasa (Torch of the world), an overall depiction of the Jaina-
doctrine in its different ramifications, while Yasovijaya has made a
name as a writer of nearly a hundred works in Sanskrit an Gujrati. The
ascetics who are the followers of these masters wear saffron-yellow
clothes to distinguish themselves from the others who wear white
clothes. Even now, the community of the "Samavegis" exists and it is
respected everywhere for its exemplary conduct of life.

There were also significant radical changes among Digambaras. The
ancient, strict discipline of nude asceticism had already become slack
in the last centuries of the 1st millennium A.D. This can be seen from
the moving complaints of the writers of the that period. The Muslim
rulers made it impossible for the monks to move around in nude for
Muslims persecuted the naked Yatis. It became thus customary that
Munis clothed themselves in the public. This practice is said to have
found it s mouthpiece in Vasantakirti (around 1200); his Digamabara
followers were later called Visva (Visa- or Bisa-) Panthis, the
followers of a "universal" path, i.e., an easy path, accessible to
all. Friends of older, stricter views opposed this practice. They
later found their main representative in Pandita Banarsidas, who
founded in Agra the Terapanthi-sect around the year 1626.