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The Thomist 66 (2002): 577-605 INSTINCT AND CUSTOM A LEO WHITE Morgan State University Baltimore, Maryland STUDYOF St. Thomas Aquinas's theory of animal perception is needed in order to help us understand how humans think. Both speculative and practical reasoning typically involve many layers of influence of sense and intellect upon each other, and this mutual influence needs to be sorted out. Practical reasoning, for example, commences only once one has recognized a situation as calling for possible action. Reason's initial grasp of that situation is brought about by perception. But this perception is determined in part by decisions one has made and deeds one has performed in previous, similar situations. For that reason, Aquinas assigns a special role to the cogitative power in intellectus, the virtue through which one is disposed to form a good initial estimation of a situation.1 The cogitative power, which stands at the pinnacle of human sentient awareness, is the secondary subject of the virtue of prudence, to which intellectus belongs as an integral part.2 As a secondary subject of a virtue, the cogitative power is capable of being modified and perfected by past decisions and commands made by reason. In that way, the very perception that gives rise to the practical intellect's initial 1 See STh H-II, q. 49, a. 2, ad 3 (8:368) and VI Eth., c. 7 (47.2:359). Unless otherwise noted, all citations of and quotations from Aquinas's texts are from the Leonine edition, Sancti Thomae de Aquino opera omnia (Rome, 1882-). Parenthetical numbers indicate volume and page of this edition. All translations are mine unless otherwise indicated. 2 Aquinas says that the cogitative power is the secondary subject of the virtue of prudence, which contains the virtue of intellectus as one of its integral parts (STh H-H, q. 49, a. 2). 577 578 A.LEOWHITE understanding of a situation can be shaped by previous acts of reason. Asimilar pattern is found in the intellectual apprehensions that figure in the formation of propositions, where once again the cogitative power plays a key, instrumental role in the operation of reason. As Aquinas says in the Summa contra Gentiles, the cogitative power prepares the phantasm that serves as the object of the intellect's abstractive activity. He adds that not all humans can understand what they imagine, for only those who have had adequate instruction and practice have a cogitative power wellsuited for preparing the phantasm.3 This reference to previous instruction implies that the very perception that plays an instrumental role in abstraction may be the result of previous reasoning, inasmuch as reasoning is involved in the taking of instruction. The same theme arises in the Commentary on the Posterior Analytics, where Aquinas makes it clear that the cogitative power's apprehension of "this human" is a necessary condition for the intellectual apprehension of "human."4 This internal sense power comes to perceive "this human" by comparing many similar individuals that one has perceived in the past until it recognizes something common to them. This process of comparing individuals, says Aquinas in the same work, is a special form of reasoning called ratiocinatio.5 Hence reasoning of some sort is involved in the process that leads to the development of cogitative perception, through which one acquires new concepts. In order to be able to sort out the influence of reason and perception upon each other, we must first identify those properties that belong to human perception apart from any influence by reason. The present study attempts to uncover such properties by looking at those features of perception that seem to 3 See ScG II, c. 76 (13:481), quoted below, inn. 13. 4 IIPost.Anal., lect. 20 (1:402, par.14). InScG II, c. 77 (13:488).Aquinas makes asimilar remark about the sentient awareness of "this human" being a necessary condition for the intellectual apprehension of "human." 5 II Post. Anal., lect. 20 (1:410, par. 11; see also par. 10). Ratiocinatio is synonymous with counsel or deliberation (VI Eth., cc. 1, 6 [47.2:333, 353)). INSTINCT AND CUSTOM 579 be common to brutes and humans. This study will...
The rise of civilization is synonymous with the creation of tools that extend the intellectual and physical reach of human beings [133]. The pinnacle of such endeavours is to replicate the flexible reasoning capacity of human intelligence within a machine, making it capable of performing useful work on command, despite the complexity and adversity of the real world. In order to achieve such Artificial Intelligence (AI), a new approach is required: traditional symbolic AI has long been known to be too rigid to model complex and noisy phenomena and the sample-driven approach of Deep Learning cannot scale to the long-tailed distributions of the real world. In this book, we describe a new approach for building a situated system that reflects upon its own reasoning and is capable of making decisions in light of its limited knowledge and resources. This reflective reasoning process addresses the vital safety issues that inevitably accompany open-ended reasoning: the system must perform its mission within a specifiable operational envelope.
The rise of civilization is synonymous with the creation of tools that extend the intellectual and physical reach of human beings [133]. The pinnacle of such endeavours is to replicate the flexible reasoning capacity of human intelligence within a machine, making it capable of performing useful work on command, despite the complexity and adversity of the real world. In order to achieve such Artificial Intelligence (AI), a new approach is required: traditional symbolic AI has long been known to be too rigid to model complex and noisy phenomena and the sample-driven approach of Deep Learning cannot scale to the long-tailed distributions of the real world.
In this book, we describe a new approach for building a situated system that reflects upon its own reasoning and is capable of making decisions in light of its limited knowledge and resources. This reflective reasoning process addresses the vital safety issues that inevitably accompany open-ended reasoning: the system must perform its mission within a specifiable operational envelope.
Notwithstanding these business considerations, the creation of AI still relies on good science, especially with regards to requirements engineering, with the initial focus illustrated in Fig. 1.1. Although we set aside those requirements that are mostly issues of hardware, paperwork, or procedures (e.g., constructing curricula for teaching the system as well as its eventual operators), the fact that they must be addressed and fulfilled then imposes constraints on which scientific techniques can even be considered. The requirement-centric perspective dictates which properties are important for a technique to exhibit or avoid. For example, even legal requirements impinge on techniques, such as when GDPRFootnote 1 demands transparency in automated decision making, which is more easily fulfilled when knowledge representation and reasoning are not intrinsically black-box components or processes.
Defines a novel compositional mechanism, using lenses [88], an approach which unifies conventional backpropagation, variational inference, and dynamic programming, for the purpose of abductive reasoning over hybrid numeric-symbolic expressions.
The courts of appeals that have addressed this issue are divided. // The courts in Houston and Corpus Christi have answered the question affirmatively. ExxonMobile Pipeline Co. v. Harrison Interests, Ltd., 93 S.W.3d 188 (Tex. App. Houston [14th Dist.] 2002, pet. filed); ExxonMobile Pipeline Co. v. Bell, 84 S.W.3d 800 (Tex. App. Houston [1st Dist.] 2002, pet. dism d by agr.); Cusack Ranch Corp. v. MidTexas Pipeline Co., 71 S.W.3d 395 (Tex. App. Corpus Christi 2001, pet. granted); Hubenak v. San Jacinto Gas Transmission Co., 65 S.W.3d 791 (Tex. App. Houston [1st Dist.] 2001, pet. granted). The court in Texarkana has answered the question negatively. MidTexas Pipeline Co. v. Dernehl, 71 S.W.3d 852 (Tex. App. Texarkana 2002, pet. granted). // We agree with the reasoning presented by the Houston and Corpus Christi courts.
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