Eysenck Personality Questionnaire Revised Scoring Key
Veronica Hernandez
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The short scale of the Eysenck Personality Questionnaire-Revised (EPQR-S; H. J. Eysenck & S. B. G. Eysenck, 1992) is a 48-item personality questionnaire primarily designed to measure an individual's level of extraversion (vs. introversion) and neuroticism. Although L. J. Francis, L. B. Brown, and R. Philipchalk (1992) created the Eysenck Personality Questionnaire Revised-Abbreviated (EPQR-A), an even briefer version of the EPQR-S, the reliability coefficients of some of the measures have been less than satisfactory (S. Forrest, C. A. Lewis, & M. Shevlin, 2000). Because brevity and reliability are both extremely important, the author of the present study created a briefer version of the EPQR-S, more reliable than the EPQR-A, by making slight alterations in the item content as well as the response format of the EPQR-S. Two hundred and sixty eight participants completed the original EPQR-S and the 24-item newly revised briefer version of the EPQR-S (EPQ-BV) twice. The findings revealed that the EPQ-BV has good internal consistency, test-retest reliability, and concurrent validity. A principal component analysis revealed a solution with factor loadings that accurately reflected the primary measures of the EPQR-S. These findings are discussed in relation to the psychometric properties of the EPQR-A and the original version of the EPQR-S.
Most questionnaire measures are designed to generate dimensional (total scale) scores; some also have well-validated sub-scales. For many questionnaire measures it is also possible to apply cut-points to identify individuals with high scores, likely to reflect clinically significant problems. We include details of widely-used cut-points where these are available. Where past studies suggest that different cut-points may be appropriate for different population sub-groups, researchers are advised to consult relevant publications to guide their selection.
For each measure we include reference(s) to papers or books describing the development of the instrument; these typically also include some data on reliability and validity. For many of the more widely-used instruments, further psychometric data (including on the suitability of the measure for use in different population sub-groups) are available in subsequent publications. Once again, researchers are advised to consult such additional sources if they are planning studies of samples that differ markedly from the original validation samples.
The AUDIT is a 10-item self-report screening tool developed by the World Health Organization to assess alcohol consumption, symptoms of dependence, and harmful alcohol use. Most items relate to use in the past year. The AUDIT was designed to be used internationally, and has been validated in a wide range of population groups. Each item is scored on a 0-4 point scale (total score range 0-40, higher scores indicating more difficulties). A score of 8 or more is considered to indicate hazardous or harmful alcohol use in many samples; other cut-points have been proposed for particular populations/ sub-groups.
The AUDIT-C is a brief 3-item self-report screen for heavy drinking and/or active alcohol abuse or dependence. The 3 items are each scored 0-4 (total score 0-12). A score of 3 or more in women and 4 or more in men is considered optimal for identifying hazardous drinking or active alcohol use disorders. The AUDIT-C has sound psychometric properties, with good sensitivity and specificity for identifying problematic alcohol use in community and primary care samples.
References
Babor T., Higgins-Biddle J.C., Saunders J.B., Monteiro M.G. (2001). The Alcohol Use Disorders Identification Test: Guidelines for Use in Primary Care. World Health Organization, Geneva.
The Center for Epidemiological Studies Depression Scale (CES-D) is a 20-item self-report measure designed to measure current (past week) levels of depression in general population samples. Items are rated on 4-point Likert scales (scored 0-3, total score 0-60), reflecting the frequency and severity with which symptoms are experienced. The CES-D demonstrated high levels of reliability in both general population and patient samples. A cut-off score of >=16 is widely used to identify depressed respondents, though different cut-offs may be appropriate in some groups (eg older adults). Briefer versions of the CES-D, based on 8, 10 and 11 items, have also been used in some studies.
The CIS-R is a structured interview examining the presence of symptoms of common mental disorders (CMD) in the past week. It covers 14 types of CMD symptoms (somatic symptoms, fatigue, concentration and forgetfulness, depression, depressive ideas, worry, anxiety, sleep problems, irritability, worry about physical health, phobias, panic, compulsions and obsessions), and six (non-mutually exclusive) ICD-10 disorders (Generalized anxiety disorder, depression, phobias, obsessive compulsive disorder, panic disorder, and CMD not otherwise specified [NOS]), together with a continuous scale that reflects the overall severity of CMD psychopathology. The CIS-R has been shown to be equally reliable when administered by interviewer or in a computer-assisted self-administered format. It has been widely used in population surveys.
The DAWBA is a package of interviews, questionnaires and rating techniques designed to generate ICD-10 and DSM-IV or DSM-5 psychiatric diagnoses about 2-17 year olds. (Versions of the DAWBA are now also available for adults, but have not yet been used in any of the cohorts included here). Information can be collected from up to three sources:
The GAD-7 is a brief self-report scale designed as a screen for symptoms of Generalized Anxiety Disorder (GAD). The 7 items are scored 0-3 (total score range 0-21), reflecting the frequency of experiencing symptoms of GAD in the past 2 weeks. The GAD-7 shows acceptable/good internal reliability, and has been validated as a screen for GAD in both clinical and population samples. Total scores of 5, 10 and 15 represent cut-points for mild, moderate and severe anxiety.
The Hospital Anxiety and Depression Scale (HADS) is a 14-item self-report screening measure of past week anxiety and depression symptoms for adults (age 18 and above) in clinical and community settings. The scale excludes somatic symptoms likely to be present in patients with physical illnesses. Items are scored 0-3, giving a range of 0-21 for each of anxiety (HADS-A) and depression (HADS-D). Scores of 8 and above on each sub-scale have been reported to maximize sensitivity and specificity in determining caseness. The HADS has been widely translated, and has been found to perform well in assessing symptom severity and caseness in clinical and community samples.
The K10 (10 item) and K6 (6 item) Kessler Psychological Distress scales were developed to provide short screens for past month non-specific psychological distress in population samples, with the particular aim of maximizing precision in the clinical range of the distribution (ie the 90th-99th percentile range). Items are scored 1-5 on Likert-type scales (total score range K10: 10-50, K6: 6-30). The scales have good psychometric properties, and discriminate strongly in community samples between individuals with and without interview-identified disorder.
The Malaise Inventory is a self-report measure of psychological distress, including 24 yes/no items (total score range 0-24). It was developed for use in the Isle of Wight epidemiological studies of the 1960s, and was subsequently used (in full, or in an abbreviated 9 item version) in the adolescent/adult sweeps of the 1958 and 1970 British birth cohort studies, and the first sweep of the Millennium Cohort Study. The items primarily tap symptoms of depression and anxiety, but also include some related somatic symptoms. The Malaise Inventory shows acceptable internal reliability, and the full scale shows good validity with respect to interview-assessed major depressive disorder. Scores of >=5 on the 15-item psychological sub-scale, or >=3 on the abbreviated 9-item version, have been taken to reflect clinically significant difficulties.
The PHQ-9 includes the full 9-item Depression Module of the self-report Patient Health Questionnaire, designed to screen for depression symptoms in the past two weeks. The items reflect the 9 DSM-IV criteria for depressive disorders. Each item is rated on a 4-point scale (scored 0-3, total score range 0-27), reflecting the frequency with which symptoms are experienced. The PHQ-9 has been extensively evaluated and found to be valid as both a severity and a diagnostic measure in both patient and community samples. A cut-off score of >=10 has been found to maximize combined sensitivity and specificity overall, and for subgroups, by comparison with semi-structured diagnostic interview assessments of depression. Scores of 10 or higher are commonly used to identify individuals with depression.
The PHQ-8 includes the first 8 items of the PHQ-9, but omits Item 9 (which asks about thoughts of death and self-harm). The PHQ-8 correlates highly with the PHQ-9, and the cut-offs that maximize combined sensitivity and specificity by comparison with interview-based measures of depression are the same. As with the PHQ-9, a cut-off score of >=10 is used to screen for major depression.
The PCL-C, PCL-M and PCL-S are 17-item self-report scales assessing DSM-IV symptoms of posttraumatic stress disorder in the past month. The 3 versions (civilian, military and specific) vary slightly in the instructions and wording of the phrase referring to the index event. Symptoms are rated on 1-5 scales. The PCL has excellent internal consistency and adequate re-test reliability.
The SF-36 is a 36 item self-report measure of health-related quality of life in the past 4 weeks. It assesses eight health concepts, which include general mental health (psychological distress and well-being) and limitations in usual role activities because of emotional problems. Scoring algorithms are used to generate sub-scales (each scored from 0 [low] to 100 [high]), along with a mental component score (MCS); many study data-sets include pre-derived variables for these scores. The SF-36 has been widely validated for use in clinical practice, policy evaluations and population surveys, and with different population sub-groups.
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