10-9 Nano

[Prince Aboubakar]

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Although biomedical applications of carbon nanotubes have been intensively studied in recent years, its sister, graphene, has been rarely explored in biomedicine. In this work, for the first time we study the in vivo behaviors of nanographene sheets (NGS) with polyethylene glycol (PEG) coating by a fluorescent labeling method. In vivo fluorescence imaging reveals surprisingly high tumor uptake of NGS in several xenograft tumor mouse models. Distinctive from PEGylated carbon nanotubes, PEGylated NGS shows several interesting in vivo behaviors including highly efficient tumor passive targeting and relatively low retention in reticuloendothelial systems. We then utilize the strong optical absorbance of NGS in the near-infrared (NIR) region for in vivo photothermal therapy, achieving ultraefficient tumor ablation after intravenous administration of NGS and low-power NIR laser irradiation on the tumor. Furthermore, no obvious side effect of PEGylated NGS is noted for the injected mice by histology, blood chemistry, and complete blood panel analysis in our pilot toxicity study. Although a lot more efforts are required to further understand the in vivo behaviors and the long-term toxicology of this new type of nanomaterials, our work is the first success of using carbon nanomaterials for efficient in vivo photothermal therapy by intravenous administration and suggests the great promise of graphene in biomedical applications, such as cancer treatment.

One nanosecond (ns) represents the time required to perform one full cycle of a 1 gigahertz (GHz) signal. That is, 1/(1^-9 sec) is 1,000,000,000 hertz (Hz). Most current computer processors use a clock signal well above 1 GHz. For example, the Intel Core i9-13900K processor uses a base clock frequency of 3 GHz, which completes a single clock cycle in 1/3,000,000,000 Hz or 0.333^-9 ns -- roughly one-third of one nanosecond.

Nanosecond time scales are also common in associated computer hardware devices such as RAM (random access memory) read and write access times. The nanosecond rating determines the speed and latency of the RAM and significantly impacts the computer system's performance.

At one-billionth of a second, a nanosecond is smaller than a millisecond and microsecond, but larger than a picosecond, femtosecond, attosecond or zeptosecond. Computer memory speed is often represented in nanoseconds. A lower-memory nanosecond specification means the computer can access its memory faster and generally operate at a higher speed to produce its output. Thus, RAM that operates at 60 ns is slower -- and usually less desirable -- than RAM that operates at 20 ns.

In terms of slower (longer) measurements, a second is the smallest unit of time as represented on a watch or clock. A millisecond is one-thousandth of a second (10-3). It's written as ms or msec and is commonly used to measure the time required to read to or write from a hard disk or solid-state drive and to measure the travel time of data packets on the internet. A microsecond is one-millionth (10-6) of a second and is represented as μs (Greek letter mu plus s). The nanosecond comes next at one billionth (10-9) of a second.

The scientific community also has many faster (shorter) time measurements available. A picosecond (ps) is one-trillionth (10-12) of a second or one-millionth of a microsecond. A femtosecond (fs) is one-quadrillionth of a second (10-15) or one-millionth of a nanosecond, and an attosecond is one-quintillionth (10-18) of a second. The femtosecond is sometimes used in laser technology, while the attosecond is used in photon research. The zeptosecond (zs) is one sextillionth (10-21) of a second -- or roughly the time needed for a photon of light to cross the distance of a single hydrogen molecule.

For computer RAM, latency is usually measured in nanoseconds. Latency is a combination of speed and Column Address Strobe (CAS) latency. It can be calculated by multiplying clock cycle duration by the total number of clock cycles. System performance is affected by both speed and latency, so increasing the former and decreasing the latter can result in better performance.

CAS latency (CL) measures the total number of clock cycles the data must go through; that is, the number of clock cycles it takes for RAM to access the data -- called by the CPU -- in one of its columns and make it available on its output pins. A RAM module's latency is determined by CL and the duration of each clock cycle, which is measured in nanoseconds.

A module's latency in terms of nanoseconds enables comparisons between modules. Specifically, it shows whether one module is more responsive than another. For example, a single data rate (SDR) module with a clock cycle time of 8 ns and CL of 3 has a total latency of 24 ns. In comparison, a double data rate 5 (DDR5) module with a clock cycle time of 0.42 ns and CL of 40 has a total latency of only 16.67 ns. Since DDR5 has lower latency, it indicates that it's more responsive than the SDR memory.

As memory technology has improved, clock cycle times have decreased, and therefore, overall processing speeds have increased. But, at the same time, the CL values have also increased. Combining these two factors means that the true RAM latency as measured in nanoseconds has remained roughly the same.

That said, it's possible to improve system performance by using newer, faster and more efficient memory; for example, upgrading from a computer with DDR4 memory to a system with DDR5 memory. The key is to maintain a balance between the maximum speed the processor is capable of and the lowest latency memory available within a user's budget.

A nanosecond is sometimes referred to as a light foot, since light can travel approximately 1 foot -- 11.8 inches -- in 1 ns. Electricity also travels about 1 foot in 1 ns. Rear Admiral Grace Hopper is famous for demonstrating this phenomenon by handing out foot-long lengths of wire to those who attended her lectures on technology to illustrate how far an electrical signal can travel in 1 ns. Since the wire is a tangible object, it helps to show the difficult-to-comprehend concept of a billionth of a second in more tangible terms.

A nanosecond laser, also known as a nanolaser, is a type of Q-switched pulsed laser. Q-switching, also known as Q-spoiling or giant pulse formation, is a laser technique that produces a pulsed output beam with extremely high peak power and lower pulse repetition rates. The pulses are generated using a high-speed shutter.

The depletion time for gain materials used in the laser is usually a few nanoseconds, which results in the generation of light pulses. Many lasers that can be Q-switched can be used to produce nanosecond pulse width lasers. These include solid-state lasers, flash lamp lasers, fiber lasers and microchip lasers. Nanosecond lasers are available in many wavelength ranges -- ultraviolet to infrared -- as well as pulse energies from nanojoule to joule and repetition rates from hertz to megahertz.

The mineral salts reduce during this period, producing the optimum quality outcome. Plants can absorb nano iron without expending any energy. Nano iron also enhances the rates of photosynthesis in plants, allowing them to save more energy for continued growth and flowering.

This product results from several scientific achievements in nutrient technology involving unique patented components. It delivers plant nutrition at scale, making this nourishment more readily transported and absorbed.

The amino acid lysine works as a chelator to enhance uptake rates; plants use this to control growth rates, trigger responses to the surrounding environment, and build protein. This process stimulates healthy growth while solving everyday nutrient-based problems such as lockouts, pH fluctuations and dropouts.

So what is Nano Day? Nano Day, or National Nanotechnology Day, is a celebration started by the National Nanotechnology Initiative (NNI) to celebrate all the advancements that nanomaterials have brought us. But why did they settle on October 9th? The answer comes from the use of scientific notation and how it relates to metric prefixes.

Scientific notation is a way of writing extremely large OR extremely small numbers more clearly and concisely. For example, which is easier to read at a glance: 5,320,000,000,000 or 5.3 trillion? Scientific notation is a sort of mathematical shorthand, in which our example would be written as 5.3 x 1012.

So, coming back to Nano Day: what makes October 9th symbolize nano? This is where metric prefixes come in. These are a series of prefixes we use to help quickly describe the scale of a unit of measurement. You may be familiar with some like milli (think millimeter or millisecond) or kilo (like kilometer or kilogram).

Going larger you have the kilometer (km, 103) which is equivalent to a little over half a mile. Many humans can run multiple kilometers at a time, like 5k or 10k races you might have watched in the Olympics this past summer. Larger than that are megameters (Mm, 106) which could be used to describe the size of medium to large countries, and gigameters (Gm, 109), which start to describe the size of planetary bodies. Our sun makes a good example, with a diameter of 1.3 Gm; the distance between the earth and the sun is 150 Gm!

This material is based upon work supported by the National Science Foundation under the Center for Sustainable Nanotechnology, grant number CHE-2001611. Any opinions, findings, and conclusions or recommendations expressed on this web site are those of the participants and do not necessarily reflect the views of the National Science Foundation or the participating institutions.

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