Fk-2000 Air Defence System

[Vannessa Rataj]

TheChina Aerospace Science and Industry Corporation (CASIC) unveiled a new self-propelled air-defence system called the FK-2000 during the Airshow China 2021 exhibition held from 28 September to 3 October in Zhuhai.

In terms of design, the FK-2000 short-range surface-to-air missile (SAM) system appears to have been derived from Russia's Pantsir family. It is capable of engaging aircraft at ranges from 1.2 km to 25 km, and at altitudes ranging from 15 m to 12 km, and is also capable of engaging precision-guided munition (PGM) targets, such as air-to-surface weapons or cruise missiles, at ranges from 1.2 km to 10 km, and at altitudes from 15 m to 8 km, according to the PLA Daily newspaper.

The primary combat vehicle is a transporter, erector, launcher and radar (TELAR) based on an 88 platform that is similar in design to the Minsk Wheeled Tractor Plant (Volat) MZKT-6922 family, albeit provided with an extra pair of wheels.

The TELAR vehicle is equipped with an unmanned turret mounting a search radar at the top-rear and a fire-control radar on the bottom-front. Additionally, an opto-electronic infrared sight can be mounted on top of the turret to provide a backup means for conducting fire control.

The vehicle is fitted with 12 launch containers for SAMs and two Gatling-type cannons, with half of the armament complement located on each side of the turret. Additionally, the armaments appear capable of being elevated independently of one another.

President Vladimir Putin intends to revitalise Russia's ailing economy - whose GDP in 2022 has plunged by -2.1%, according to the World Bank - with all the means at his disposal, revive its ailing industry and invigorate its weakened financial system in order to fuel a war in Ukraine that has been going on for more than 17 months and is on the way to becoming bogged down.

The Kremlin is making strenuous efforts to boost its military-industrial complex and revive its arms exports by any means necessary. But these are actions that are covered down to the last detail in the eleven sanctions packages and restrictive measures imposed by Brussels, the latest of which was adopted in the second half of June.

However, Russia's armed forces need to renew their combat losses, replenish their arsenals and upgrade their weapons systems in order to compensate for the deliveries of arms, materiel and ammunition that the European Union, the United States and NATO countries are dumping on Zelensky's troops.

This is what President Vladimir Putin and one of his most trusted men, 68-year-old General Sergei Shoigu, who has been defence minister for more than a decade, are trying to do. Together with Industry and Trade Minister Denis Manturov, they are encouraging the development of high-tech weaponry, robotic weapons systems and unmanned aerial vehicles with artificial intelligence that, according to Shoigu, "are superior to those of NATO countries".

The wide range of weapons systems, materials and logistical and medical equipment from Russia's military-industrial fabric will be on display at the ninth annual Army 2023 International Military-Technical Forum, which is being held from 14 to 20 August at the Patriot Exhibition and Congress Centre in the vicinity of Moscow.

The "Patriot" complex covers 5,500 hectares and at Army 2023 both private companies and large state corporations, such as Almaz-Antey (air defence systems), Uralvagonzavod (combat vehicles), and the giant Rostec (ammunition, small arms, combat aircraft), with hundreds of subsidiary companies, are exhibiting their innovations. In total there are around 1,500 Russian companies attending - exhibiting more than 28,500 innovations - along with 82 companies from third countries.

In parallel to Army 2023, the 11th Moscow Conference on International Security (MCIS) is taking place. It brought together delegations from 59 nations and more than 3,000 politicians, military personnel, academics and specialists from the Middle East, Asia, Africa, Latin America and Europe to hear presentations by ministers, senior defence officials and military commanders from countries that are friends and allies of the Kremlin.

Both the Forum and the Conference are organised by the Ministry of Defence and opened by General Shoigu and not by President Putin, as in 2022 and previous editions. Nevertheless, Putin appeared via videoconference to emphasise that both events contribute to "strengthening Russia's military alliances and technological cooperation for the benefit of security and stability in the emerging multipolar world".

The two events allow General Shoigu, his deputy, General Aleksander Fomin - Deputy Defence Minister - and the head of the Federal Service for Military-Technical Cooperation, Dmitry Shugayev, to hold bilateral meetings with the ministers, chiefs of defence staff and heads of delegations from the countries that have come to the Kremlin's call.

They have done so, for example, with the head of the Bolivian Armed Forces, General Hugo Eduardo Arandia, and with the Venezuelan Vice-Minister of Defence, General Renier Enrique Urbez. The aim of the Russian authorities is to learn about the land, naval and air armament and logistics needs of friendly or allied countries and, if possible, to finalise sales contracts or cooperation agreements.

China plays a special role in Army 2023. President Xi Xinping has sent a large delegation led by Defence Minister General Li Shangfu and has erected a pavilion with three of its most advanced systems, the CH-4 multirole combat drone and the HQ-22E and FK-2000 mobile platform anti-aircraft missiles.

The air shows are being held at Kubinka air base near Moscow, where the Russian Air Force's main export-focused aircraft, such as new versions of the Sukhoi Su-57 and Su-35 twin-engine fighters, as well as drones and air defence systems and an extensive range of missiles, have been grouped together.

Dynamic ground demonstrations take place at the Alabino manoeuvring range, also near the capital, where the T-90MS tank, BTR-82A wheeled armoured personnel carriers, Z-STS Akhmat and the tracked amphibious vehicle can be seen evolving. But the star of the show on display is the new T-14 Armata tank, which heads a whole family of heavy tracked vehicles.

Weighing 48 tonnes and armed with a 125-millimetre gun, the T-14 was first shown at the Victory Day military parade held on 9 May 2015 in Moscow's Red Square, when it was still in the preliminary stages of development. The survivability of its three-member crew is novel, being encased in an armoured capsule inside the tank's barge rather than in the turret, as is the norm. The gunner remotely controls the 125-millimetre gun as well as its two machine guns.

On the occasion of both celebrations, Putin has accused NATO member states of "increasing and improving their offensive capabilities, taking military confrontation into outer space and cyberspace, as well as using military and non-military means to put pressure on third countries". And in a clear allusion to China and India, he pointed out that "new economic and political centres" are being consolidated in order to achieve "just" solutions and improve "the quality of life and well-being of millions of people".

As the global climate changes, rising sea levels, combined with high tides, storms and flooding, put coastal and island communities increasingly at risk. Protection can be achieved by building dikes or seawalls and by maintaining natural features like mangroves or coral reefs. Communities can also adjust by reclaiming land from the sea and adapting buildings to cope with floods. However, all measures have their limits, and once these are reached people may ultimately have to retreat. Choices made today influence how coastal ecosystems and communities can respond to sea level rise (SLR) in the future. Reducing greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions would not just reduce risks, but also open up more adaptation options.

For those unable to afford protection, accommodation or advance measures, or when such measures are no longer viable or effective, retreat becomes inevitable. Millions of people living on low-lying islands face this prospect, including inhabitants of Small Island Developing States (SIDS), of some densely populated but less intensively developed deltas, of rural coastal villages and towns, and of Arctic communities who already face melting sea ice and unprecedented changes in weather. The resultant impacts on distinctive cultures and ways of life could be devastating. Difficult trade-offs are therefore inevitable when making social choices about rising sea level. Institutionalising processes that lead to fair and just outcomes is challenging, but vitally important.

Choices being made now about how to respond to SLR profoundly influence the trajectory of future exposure and vulnerability to SLR. If concerted emissions mitigation is delayed, risks will progressively increase as SLR accelerates. Prospects for global climate-resilience and sustainable development therefore depend in large part on coastal nations, cities and communities taking urgent and sustained locally-appropriate action to mitigate GHG emissions and adapt to SLR

This chapter assesses past and future contributions to global, regional and extreme sea level changes, associated risk to low-lying islands, coasts, cities, and settlements, and response options and pathways to resilience and sustainable development along the coast.

Coastal ecosystems are already impacted by the combination of SLR, other climate-related ocean changes, and adverse effects from human activities on ocean and land (high confidence). Attributing such impacts to SLR, however, remains challenging due to the influence of other climate-related and non-climatic drivers such as infrastructure development and human-induced habitat degradation (high confidence). Coastal ecosystems, including saltmarshes, mangroves, vegetated dunes and sandy beaches, can build vertically and expand laterally in response to SLR, though this capacity varies across sites (high confidence). These ecosystems provide important services that include coastal protection and habitat for diverse biota. However, as a consequence of human actions that fragment wetland habitats and restrict landward migration, coastal ecosystems progressively lose their ability to adapt to climate-induced changes and provide ecosystem services, including acting as protective barriers (high confidence). 4.3.2.3

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