Liao Dynasty
YingZheng
The Khitan minority was an ancient nomadic tribe that lived in Northern
China. They were first mentioned in historical records in 389 during
the Northern Wei Period. By the early seventh century they sought to
establish their own state on China's frontier but failed due to the
strong Tang resistance (618-907). As a result, the Khitan tribe was
brought under Chinese rule. After the decline of the Tang, the Khitan
tribe frequently attacked its neighbors, capturing people from other
states that rapidly boosted its power.
In 916, Yelu Abaoji, the chief of the Khitan tribe, established the
Khitan Kingdom and proclaimed himself emperor. Historically, Yelu
Abaoji was called Emperor Taizu. Two years later, Yelu Abaoji based his
capital north of the Xar Moron River and named it Huangdu (imperial
capital).
(In 947, Emperor Taizong renamed his dynasty the "Great Liao"; In 983,
Emperor Shengzong revived the name Khitan; and in 1066, Emperor Daozong
restored the name "Great Liao.")
After the founding of the kingdom, Abaoji gradually conquered its weak
neighboring tribes. In 926, he conquered the Uigurs in Ganzhou and
captured the Bohai State.
Emperor Taizong (Yelu Deguang) reigned from 926 to 947. During this
period, the Liao Dynasty reached Manchuria and the sixteen prefectures
below the Great Wall from the Mongolian border. The area south of the
Great wall remained outside Chinese control for more than 400 years.
Although this posed a threat to theNorthern Song (960-1127), the region
acted as a center for cultural exchanges between the Chinese and
northern peoples during the period.
After obtaining the sixteen prefectures, the Liao founded its alternate
capital in Yanjing (Beijing). Taking Beijing as its base, the Liao
began its expansion to the Central Plains. In 946 it took Kaifeng, the
capital of the Song Dynasty, and proceeded to attack the weak troops of
the civil-oriented Song government. However, due to strong resistance
in the Central Plains, the attempt was abandoned.
Political disputes troubled the Liao court after Emperor Taizong until
the reign of Emperor Jinzong.
Upon the death of Emperor Jinzong, his son, 12-year-old Yelu Longxu
succeeded him to the throne, historically known as Emperor Shengzong.
Since the new emperor was too young to conduct state affairs, the court
was controlled by Empress Xiao, his mother. Empress Xiao appointed Yelu
Xiuge as her senior general and launched a war, defeating the Song army
in 987. From then on, the warfare between the two countries never
stopped.
In 1104, Liao launched another war. In the following year, having tired
of the ceaseless skirmishes with the nomadic people, the Song proposed
the Shanyuan Treaty with the Liao. The treaty required the Liao to
ensure quiet frontiers for the Song. In return, the Song had to pay a
yearly tribute to the Liao.
The conclusion of the Shanyuan Treaty was the pivotal point in
Song-Liao relations. The signing of the Shanyuan Treaty was the first
time the Liao forced the Song -- which considered itself the natural
heir to political dominance as the Central Kingdom -- to recognize its
legitimacy. After many years of fighting the Song and Liao finally
decided to negotiate peace, which was achieved through the Shanyuan
Treaty. The amicable relationship lasted until 1125 when the Song broke
the treaty by inviting the Jin to attack the Liao.
After the treaty was signed, the nature of the relationship between
these two states changed from pure political rivalry to a supposed
fraternity. For the first time in Chinese history the two were the Sons
of Heaven, each recognizing the other.
The Liao Dynasty, using the tributes paid by the Song, achieved rapid
progress and reached a zenith both economically and politically.
The Political System
The dynasty claimed to be the legitimate successor of the Tang. It
incorporated its own tribes under respective chieftains and formed a
confederation with other subdued tribes in the region, which was then
transformed into a hereditary monarchy.
The Liao employed a differential ruling system where different systems
were applied to people from different cultures and economies in
different areas. The administration system mainly consisted of the
tribal, slavery, Bohai and feudal systems for the Han people.
The Khitan people adapted the tribal system in which they maintained
their traditional rites and, to a great extent, retained their own
style of cooking and dress. As for Han people, particularly in the
farming regions, the system from the Tang was imposed. It included the
use of Tang official titles, an examination system for the appointment
of civil service and a Chinese-style tax regime. The Chinese language
continued to be used and the customs of the Han were also preserved.
Officials were divided into two groups, according to their origin
(north or south). Corresponding administration systems were set up for
each area. The Khitan administrative system, called the orthodox
system, was applied to northern Khitan officials, while the southerners
used the Han system. Because of the different customs and levels of
economic development, the northern officials mainly governed the Khitan
Tartars and other nomadic peoples, while the southern officials took
charge of agriculture mainly in areas where Han people resided. Since
the Liao Dynasty was founded by the Khitan, the northern officials were
considered superior, but the southern administrative system was
actually the feudal system that was practiced in the Central Plain
states. After the Liao conquered the sixteen prefectures in the Yanyun
area, the system was improved.
Social Economy
The Liao went through different stages of economic development. In its
early years, it mainly depended on outward expansion, slavery and
thievery, and its development remained slow and disrupted. It was not
until the reign of Emperor Shengzong when the Liao managed to institute
feudal reform, and its economy attained some distinct progress. Liao
rulers also adopted a differential economic management system similar
to its political one which promoted economic development throughout the
whole northern area.
The Liao economy was based on horse and sheep raising and agriculture.
Fishing also played an important complementary role. The Hans, who
lived in the southern areas, were mostly engaged in agriculture,
including the Bohai people who lived in the east. The nomadic zone
consisted of various northern grassland nationalities, the
fishing-hunting zone that covered the Khitan area between the Xar Moron
and Tuhe rivers and the Jurchen people's area in the northeast. The
integration of the three economic zones into one political system sped
up communications between different nationalities and promoted a higher
level of economic development. The southern economy, which had been
feudal for a long time, dominated the whole economy.
Salt supply was controlled by a government monopoly and provided an
important source of revenue. Iron smelting was also an important
industrial contribution to the wealth of the dynasty.
Culture
Culturally, the Liao achieved much in astronomy, the calendar, medicine
and architecture. Not only did the Liao calendar retain the best parts
of the Central Plain Han calendar, it also kept some of the special
traits of the Khitan people. Important achievements were made in
acupuncture, pulse-feeling diagnosis, gynecology, obstetrics and the
preservation of corpses. The Book of Acupuncture and Pulse-Feeling,
written by a celebrated doctor named Zhi Lugu, enjoyed wide popularity
at the time. Liao architecture, influenced by the Tang and
accommodating Khitan customs, achieved its own unique style.
While the Liao honored Confucian philosophy, the rulers patronized
Chinese Buddhism. The Khitan dialect and the Han language were the main
languages of the Liao.
Collapse of the Liao Dynasty
Following the prosperity enjoyed during the reigns of Emperor Shengzong
and Xingzong, the Liao Dynasty went into decline. In the early years of
the 12th century, the Jurchen tribe gradually grew in strength and
became a great threat to the Liao. In 1115, the Jurchen established its
own dynasty, the Jin (Kin) Dynasty (1115-1234), with Aguda as the
emperor. In the same year, the Jin army captured Huanglong, a
strategically important town of the Liao. Later, the Jurchen
established an alliance with the Song to attack the Liao. This was,
undoubtedly, an alliance the Song would come to regret as the Jurchen
later defeated the Song and established itself as the Jin Dynasty in
1115.
The Liao government, weakened by economical disasters and internal
quarrels, became brittle. Quickly, the Jin army occupied most of the
Liao territory. In 1125, Emperor Tianzuo was captured by the Jin army,
which brought the Liao Dynasty to an end. In 1131, Yelu Dashi, a
minister of the former Liao, re-established the Liao in the Chuhe
valley which became known as the Western Liao. In 1218, the Mongols
conquered the kingdom of Western Liao.
The Liao Dynasty lased for 219 years and had nine emperors. At the
height of its power and influence, its territory reached the coast of
the Northern Sea, Eastern Sea, Yellow Sea and Bohai Sea in the east;
Jinshan (Altai Mountain) and Liusha (Bailongdui Desert in Xinjiang) in
the west; Kelulun, E'erkun and Selun'ge Rivers in the north; the
southern side of the Outer Xing'anling Mountains in the northeast; the
northern part of Shanxi, Baigou in Hebei Province; and the northern
part of Gansu in the south.