Getting out of the car we found that at that altitude it was quite chilly, so we donned our wind-breakers and gilets, grabbed our walking poles and set off on the most populated trail, the anti-clockwise 101, which was crowded with a strange mixture of serious hikers, ill-shod ladies, couples pushing baby-buggies, young children on foot and a golf-cart transporting some less fit souls to a little church where they could take photographs of the view. All pretty busy.
After a while, a small detour seemed to be in order and we went off the trail to admire Lago di Santa Caterina, which was in the valley far, far below us at Auronzo di Cadore. Then back to join the hordes of walkers jostling for space on the wide path.
In 2015, European authorities arrested 15 Iraqi-Kurdish nationals on terrorism-related charges. Rawti Shax recruited foreign terrorist fighters to be sent to Iraq and Syria and provided logistical and financial support, according to the Italian prosecutors who spearheaded the probe. They alleged that Krekar was the leader.
Many others were also put on trial, some of whom eventually received prison sentences for supporting the terrorists or for obstruction of justice. Among them were Licio Gelli, head of the infamous Propaganda Due lodge, and Pietro Musumeci, an officer in the Italian military secret service.
Former politicians, judges and magistrates, as well as investigative journalists and academics, have often added to the confusion and uncertainty surrounding the attack. Manifold theories about the true masterminds exist, alternately accusing left-wing terrorists, the Mafia or Gladio of having orchestrated the attack. In 2008, Francesco Cossiga, member of the former Christian Democratic Party (DC) who served as minister of interior between 1976-78 and held the title of prime minister between 1979-80 and president of Italy from 1985 to 1992, cast doubt on the culpability of the neo-fascists.
Nevertheless, the question remains: Were the Palestinians really responsible, in one form or another, for the terrorist attack in Bologna? As time goes by and more and more archives declassify their documents and make them available for researchers, we may be able to get closer to the truth. In the meantime, however, as historians, we can try to sort myth from reality by contextualizing the events and critically examining the arguments presented. This approach reveals that the Palestinian theory is not as cut and dried as Priore and others claim.
We do not currently have any evidence that the PFLP and its main leaders, Habash and Bassam Abu Sharif, or any other Palestinian group actually demanded the release of Saleh. Furthermore, bombings were not typically the first weapon of choice for Palestinian terrorists, who preferred kidnappings and taking hostages at the time. In addition, the Palestinians usually claimed responsibility for terrorist attacks they committed. Even Carlos, who worked for the PFLP until 1975, usually claimed responsibility for his actions.
That does not mean, however, that the right-wing terrorists did not attempt to influence Italian politics. Bombings, bloodshed and chaos on the streets usually favor conservative groups who claim to be the protectors of law and order. Why right-wing terrorists thought 1980 would be a good year to launch another campaign to push Italy further to the right can only be fully understood when we contextualize Bologna within Italian and European history of the time.
Given the rising tensions between the West and the Eastern Bloc since 1979, anti-communism became a powerful recruitment tool for the radical right in Europe and again offered an opportunity to form alliances with the conservative milieu, including elements of the state secret services. Thus, it comes as no surprise that everywhere in Europe, extreme parts of the radical right started a new campaign of terror to influence the politics of their respective countries and push them further to the right. The campaign started in February 1980 and lasted, with pauses, at least until 1984-85, when the regime in Moscow began to noticeably decline.
The two men will be demanding justice for the victims of Italy's worst terrorist atrocity, the 1980 Bologna railway station bombing. They represent the families of the 85 people who died when a huge blast ripped through the second- class waiting room on a sweltering morning in August.
As they dug deeper, concerns only grew further as secret MI5 intelligence led them to suspect that some of the money gained through the frauds may have ultimately ended up in the hands of terrorists. It is not suggested Ahmed or Salya had any knowledge of this.
HMRC did not realise at the time that this man was in fact the radical Islamist cleric Abu Hamza and were not aware of his links to terror. In 2006 Hamza was sent to prison in the UK for incitement to murder and in 2015 was handed a life sentence in the US for terror-related offences.
Italy also has several active volcanoes, including Mt. Etna in eastern Sicily. Travelers to Sicily should be aware of the possibility for travel disruptions, including airport closures, in the event of volcanic activity, and are advised to check the website of the Istituto Nazionale di Geofisica e Vulcanologia for detailed information and daily updates. Italy has many other areas of potential volcanic activity especially in the vicinity of Naples. Any visit to an active volcano or volcanic field bears a certain amount of risk. Eruptions can occur with little to no warning. Travelers should exercise caution, follow posted instructions, stay on authorized trails, and use reputable tour operators. .
Just after dawn we slipped into the forest and hiked a steep trail to a limestone wall. A curious ladder of U-shaped steel rungs was fixed to the rock. To reach the battlefield we would trek several miles along this via ferrata, or iron road, pathways of cables and ladders that traverse some of the most stunning and otherwise inaccessible territory in the mountains of northern Italy. We scaled the 50 feet of steel rungs, stopping every ten feet or so to clip our safety tethers to metal cables that run alongside.
For the next two hours our trail alternated between heady climbing on rock faces and mellow hiking along the mountain ridge. By mid-morning the fog and low clouds had cleared, and before us lay the battlefield, its slopes scored with trenches and stone shelters, the summits laced with tunnels where men lived like moles. We had all served in the military, Chris as a Navy corpsman attached to the Marine Corps, and Joshua and I with the Army infantry. Both Joshua and I had fought in Iraq, but we had never known war like this.
On May 9, 1978, the body of former Italian prime minister Aldo Moro is found, riddled by bullets, in the back of a car in the center of historic Rome. He was kidnapped by Red Brigade terrorists on March 16 after a bloody shoot-out near his suburban home. The Italian government refused to negotiate with the extreme left-wing group, which, after numerous threats, executed Moro on May 9. He was a five-time prime minister of Italy and considered a front-runner for the presidency of Italy in elections due in December.
The Red Brigade, established in 1970 by Italian Renato Curcio, employed bombings, assassinations, kidnappings, and bank robberies as a means of promoting communist revolution in Italy. The Italian Communist Party, which supported democracy and participated in Parliament, condemned the terrorist Red Brigade, and the Red Brigade accused the Communist Party of being a pawn of the bourgeoisie. Renato Curcio and 12 other Red Brigade members were on trial in Turin when Moro was kidnapped, and legal proceedings were only briefly halted after his abduction.
An Italian judge has found 23 Americans and two Italians guilty of the 2003 kidnapping of an Egyptian cleric from Milan. The Americans were convicted in absentia. The trial was the first in the world on extraordinary rendition. That's the CIA practice of capturing terrorism suspects in one country and taking them for questioning to another, where torture is often practiced.
SYLVIA POGGIOLI: Reading out the names of the defendants, Judge Oscar Magi handed down his verdict. The stiffest sentence, eight years, went to the former Milan station chief, Robert Seldon Lady. Another 22 Americans were each given five years in prison. Two Italian members of the secret services were sentenced to three years. Joanne Mariner, counterterrorism expert at Human Rights Watch, hailed the verdict.
Ms. JOANNE MARINER (Counterterrorism Expert, Human Rights Watch): It's been a historic judgment. I mean, this is the first case in which the war on terror has been on trial, and I think the judge issued a strikingly powerful repudiation of the war on terror crimes committed by the CIA.
Judge Magi cited this impediment as the reason for acquitting the two top Italian defendants, the former head of the Italian military intelligence agency and his deputy. He also cited diplomatic immunity for the acquittal of three Americans, including the former Rome CIA station chief, Jeff Castelli. Chief Prosecutor Armando Spataro hailed the verdicts as very courageous, sending a strong message to all governments that basic rights cannot be ignored in the fight against terrorism.
POGGIOLI: The prosecution had charged 26 Americans and seven Italians with a 2003 kidnapping on a Milan street of the cleric known as Abu Omar. The cleric, who had been under investigation for terrorism, says he was blindfolded and was taken to Cairo, where he says he was brutally tortured in prison. The prosecution showed that the operation was very sloppy. The CIA suspects were tracked down thanks to cell phone calls made from near the abduction site and hotel credit card payments, as well as tickets for speeding.
Prosecutors said the agent's carelessness was a sign they believed they could operate with impunity. None of the American defendants are likely to serve jail time. Prosecutor Spataro said he's considering the possibility of seeking the extradition of the American defendants, who were tried in their absence and were represented by court-appointed lawyers. But he's not optimistic. In Washington, a State Department spokesman said the Obama administration is disappointed with the verdicts. Spataro, nevertheless, says that under the Obama administration, Europeans and Americans will be able to cooperate fruitfully in combating terrorism.
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