Crack Bd Gest 7 67
Pamula Harrison
"Let the Queen know of our gests," Antony instructs his men after a hard-won victory on the battlefield in William Shakespeare's Antony and Cleopatra. Great deeds and heroic acts have been the stuff of gests since medieval days; in fact, the word is more often associated with knights and heroes of old than with modern adventurers. We may not be hearing about many 21st century gests, but we do frequently encounter other relatives of the word. Gest traces to Latin gestus, the past participle of the verb gerere, which means "to wage," "to bear," or "to carry," among other things. That Latin verb gave us stoutly enduring words like gesture, ingest, jest, register, and suggest.
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3 yeman denotes a broad social rank below knights and squires, ranging from a small landowning farmer to an attendant, servant, or lesser official in a royal or noble household (Middle English yoman, perhaps contraction of yongman); for the relevance of the term to the audience of the Robin Hood materials, see General Introduction, pp. 9-11.
5 outlaw. A person excluded from legal protection and rights (Old English utlaga, from Old Norse utlagi). Although the term "outlaw" was applied to anyone who had committed a serious crime - robbery, murder, or rape, the term had a more limited meaning in medieval law. The sentence of outlawry was reserved for those criminals who refused to appear for trial in court: "They become outlaws when, having been lawfully summoned, they do not appear, and are awaited and even sought for throughout the lawful and appointed terms, and yet they do not present themselves for trial" (David C. Douglas and George W. Greenaway, eds., English Historical Documents 1042-1189 [London: Eyre and Spottiswoode, 1968] II, 552). Given the harsh punishments that awaited the convicted felon - blinding, loss of limb, or castration - it is not surprising that many fled to the forest or abroad to escape judgment.
6-7 Apart from as he was one these lines are missing in a, the "Lettersnijder" text, and as with other gaps in this source are provided from b, Wynkyn de Worde's edition.
9 Bernesdale or Bernysdale are medieval spellings of Barnesdale. This has long been identified as a tract of land in the West Riding of Yorkshire: the most recent discussion is by Holt (1989, pp. 83-87). As he notes, however, "there was no forest or chase," and he speculates that the three major locations of the myth - Barnsdale, Sherwood Forest, and Nottingham - "are all confounded." More recently Knight (1994, pp. 29-32) has identified another ancient Barnsdale in Rutland, being a royal forest with other Robin Hood references nearby and even some association with the Earls of Huntingdon before that link was made in literary form in the late sixteenth century. The Gest, however, clearly links Barnsdale with named places in Yorkshire, see lines 69-70. It does not mention Sherwood Forest in Nottinghamshire, but does set part of the story in Nottingham, see note to line 59.
24 gest. Like King Arthur in Sir Gawain and the Green Knight and many other romances, Robin Hood refuses to eat "until something strange and wonderful happens, until he is provided with an appropriately distinguished or unusual guest" (Dobson and Taylor, 1976, p. 32). Though the word Gest in the title of the poem refers to an event or deed (from Latin res gestae, "things done," as used in the French epic Chansons de geste), this context clearly uses the other word gest, meaning "guest," see lines 63-64, 835.
25 This line is missing in all the sources, and Child leaves it blank. It is supplied here on the model of similar passages in early ballads, though it is conceivable that, as the rhymes are the same in the two stanzas, it might have originally been an irregular seven-line stanza.
27 Child inserts som again before squyer, presumably on metrical grounds; it appears in the later texts, but is not necessary.
35 Robin here reveals his special devotion to the Virgin Mary. The Marian cult is of course one of the major features of Roman Catholicism, and it reached its apogee in Western Europe in the eleventh and twelfth centuries. Robin's devotion to the Virgin, and to all women (lines 39-40), has an ironic poignancy when we recall that he is murdered by a religious woman, the prioress of Kyrkely priory. The allusion to the Virgin is also significant because a "miracle of the Virgin" underlies one of the central episodes in the Gest - Robin's loan of four hundred pounds to Sir Richard. See the Introduction and note to line 255.
57 Robin's outlawry is directed primarily at civil and ecclesiastical oppression and corruption. While he is a devoted Christian (see lines 31-37), he targets local officials and religious orders for abusing their authority and for usury, the lending of money at an exorbitant or illegal rate of interest; for a summary see Dobson and Taylor, 1976, pp. 30-31.
59 The Sheriff of Nottingham is Robin Hood's traditional adversary. The Gest does not explain why the Sheriff of one county, Nottinghamshire, would be interested in the activities of an outlaw living and operating in another county; the same occurs in Robin Hood and Guy of Gisborne. This is presumably the result of different ballads being meshed into one longer story. On the variation of place, see Dobson and Taylor, 1976, pp. 14-15 and, for the real activities of such sheriffs, see Bellamy, 1985, Chap. 4.
69-70 These place-names set Robin Hood's activities firmly in the area of the Yorkshire Barnsdale. The Roman Road to the north (in this text erroneously called Watling Street, actually named Ermine Street, and later the Great North Road and the A1) runs north from Barnsdale Bar, crossing the River Went at Wentbridge. The Saylis has been identified by Dobson and Taylor as a plot of ground overlooking the highway on the northern edge of Barnsdale (1976, pp. 22-23); see also Holt, 1989, pp. 83-85.
To counteract the prevalence of highway robbery, Edward I sponsored special measures in the Statute of Winchester (A.D. 1285): "It is likewise commanded that the highways from market towns to other market towns be widened where there are woods or hedges or ditches, so that there may be no ditch, underwood or bushes where one could hide with evil intent within two hundred feet of the road on one side or the other, provided that this statute extends not to oaks or to large trees so long as it is clear underneath" (Harry Rothwell, ed., English Historical Documents, 1189-1327 [New York: Oxford University Press, 1975] II, 461).
79 loke. Child emends to "loked" for consistency of tense, but all the early sources have this dramatic present, which is retained here.
83 The knight is identified with the knight rescued by the outlaws from Nottingham and named as Sir Richard at the Lee (lines 1239-41). He comes from Verysdale (line 504), which is probably the hamlet of Lee in Wyresdale in Lancashire (see Child III, 50; Holt, 1989, p. 100).
103 Child inserts a before gode yoman, but the text is idiomatic Middle English as it stands.
108 Blyth and Doncaster are located on the main road south of the Barnsdale region.
113 lodge refers to a temporary shelter in a forest, usually used for hunting.
125 For the cultural significance of hand washing before a meal, see the note to line 164 of Robin Hood and the Potter. See also line 921 in the Gest, and line 527 in Adam Bell.
128 noumbles. Organ meats such as liver, heart, and kidney, but also, in early usage, particularly for venison, loin cuts. See OED.
145 The source has wened, meaning "thought." Child emends to wende for sense, and this is accepted.
148 Child reads, with the source, knyhht, but this is probably a printer's error.
164 This unusual statement is repeated in line 984, and is not varied by any of the early texts. It presumably means "No peny (of that) I will have."
168 Child inserts a before pounde, but this does not seem required either for sense or meter.
170 Child inserts full before lowe: this is in some other early texts, but seems unnecessary, especially with full styll in the previous line.
177 Child inserts one before worde, as is usual in this collocation; it is found in other early texts and seems necessary for both sense and meter.
179 knyght of force refers to the practice of "distraint of arms," that is "requiring military tenants who held 20 per annum to receive knighthoods or pay a compensation, begun under Henry III, as early as 1224, and continued by Edward I" (Child III, 51). In a Parliamentary writ, dated 1278, Edward I ordered all sheriffs in England "to distrain [compel] without delay all those of your bailiwick who have lands worth twenty pounds a year, or one whole knight's fee worth twenty pounds a year, and hold of us in chief and ought to be knights but are not, to receive from us before Christmas or on that feast the arms of a knight" (Harry Rothwell, ed., English Historical Documents 1189-1327 [New York: Oxford University Press, 1975] II, 413).
180 Or ellys of yemanry refers to the requirement for people owning less than a pound or 20 shillings to provide yeoman such as archers for royal forces (Powicke, 1962, p. 197).
204 Child inserts medial e in kyndnesse, presumably for metrical reasons, but this is not necessary.
212-13 In both lines Child prints both as in the earliest text and some later ones; the b text has beth in 213. It seems that both makes no sense in 213, and has been introduced into 212 by the juxtaposition of the doublet sette and solde. This text emends to beth in each line.
217 In order to provide bail for his son, who has killed a knight in a joust, Sir Richard has pledged his lands as security for a loan of 400 pounds from the abbot of St Mary's Abbey in York. The loan is due, but the knight has only ten shillings, and as a result he stands to lose his pledged property.
255 When Robin asks for security (borowe) for the loan of four hundred pounds, the knight replies that he has none other than Our dere Lady, which, because of his devotion to the Virgin, Robin readily accepts. Sagacious as usual, Child (III, 51-52) cites two parallels: one from the Legenda aurea in which a knight robs travellers, and the other from a Latin miracle of the Virgin in which a Christian borrows money from a Jewish money-lender and pledges the Virgin as his security. While the first example is a little remote - it is the knight in the Gest who is waylaid by robbers - the miracle of the Virgin is much more promising. When we consider (apparently unknown to Child) that the miracle entitled The Merchant's Surety exists in two Middle English versions dating from c. 1390 and c. 1450, the probability of influence is greatly increased. Although there are significant differences between the version in the Gest and the Middle English miracle, the opening plot elements and language are strikingly close: both the knight and the merchant love the Virgin; both are impoverished (due to differing circumstances); both are asked to pledge security for a loan; both offer the Virgin as their borowe/borwe; in both it is proclaimed that the Virgin will never fayle; both swear that they will repay the loans on a certain day; and, finally, Little John and the Jew make sure that the money is wel tolde/wel itold. For the text of The Merchant's Surety, see pp. 44-49 in Beverly Boyd, The Middle English Miracles of the Virgin (San Marino, California: The Huntington Library, 1964). Another edition is in Carl Horstmann, ed., The Minor Poems of the Vernon MS, Early English Text Society, o.s. 98 (London: Kegan Paul, Trench, Trbner & Co., 1892), 157-61.
273 The source reads Much, but other texts call him litill Much here, as does the source at lines 291 and 305. Conceivably this name came from confusion with "litill John," but the adjective seems to improve the meter before "Much" in these instances and is accepted here.
279 Robin Hood on several occasions provides "livery" for those he protects. This is more than clothing: "livery and maintenance" were ways of building up a band of retainers, and it was frequently regarded as a crime if a man did not have the right to do that (Bellamy, 1973, especially pp. 8-9). Thus giving livery in an honest cause is another of Robin Hood's "good" crimes.
281 scarlet and grene. While the text is in no doubt about these colors, and both are used of the outlaws' clothing in early ballads, it seems likely that the line was originally scarlet in graine, that is a particularly good form of scarlet dye. But that is no reason to emend. It is, however, a sign that green was not the original color of the outlaws' clothing, but one of the accreted details of the myth.
289-90 Here appears a minor instance of the "bad tradesman" motif, especially clear in Robin Hood and the Potter.
332 The a text is deficient from this point until line 473 and b is followed.
334 The spelling of Litell John changes to Lytel Johan as the b text is taken up as the source.
335 Some thirty miles north of Barnsdale, York, a fine walled city with a 2000-year history, is the location of the powerful St. Mary's Abbey, where the knight must repay his 400 pounds or lose his land.
345 The text has a line missing, and Child sensibly repeats the line that ends the previous stanza - a repetition which may have caused the omission in the first place. Such repetitions for emphasis are not uncommon in early ballads.
351-52 The meaning of the lines seems obscure, but there are no signs of editing in the early texts to suggest miscomprehension. Presumably the Prior means "(If it were me) I would rather pay the hundred pounds right away."
353-54 The Prior seems to have knowledge of the knight's military activities ferre beyonde the see in England's cause. In line 388 the knight confirms that he has just returned from abroad with his meyn or company of soldiers.
354 Child inserts is his into this line, which in the text reads simply In Englonde ryght. The b text reads In Englonde he is right and the later f and g, like Child, have is his right. This suggest different ways of editing an original line reading simply In Englonde ryght, acceptable Middle English for In England's cause, which makes better sense both grammatically and in terms of the support the Prior is here giving the knight. There seems no ground for changing the original.
362 Saynt Rychere. The source reads Richard but the rhyme clearly requires Rychere. It is not fully clear which saint is referred to. In a note on Gamelyn, line 137 (which reads Rychere), Skeat states that, among a number of minor St. Richards, this one, popular in outlaw oaths, is the thirteenth century St. Richard of Chichester, who was "a pattern of brotherly love" (1884, pp. 38-39). Rhyme itself seems sufficient reason to emend to Rychere.
371 justyce. Child inserts hye; the expanded title is also found in some other early texts, but there seems little need for the emendation in terms either of sense or meter.
388 The knight speaks as if he and his company have (as the Prior suspected in line 353) been abroad, perhaps on a military campaign or crusade. This was not indicated earlier, and seems contradicted by his apparent plans to go on crusade (lines 223-28), but if he is travelling north to York, he is not coming from his notional home in Lancashire. The uncertainty may arise from combining different ballads.
389 With a line missing in all the texts, Child inserts a repetition from line 387, which seems sensible.
416 Syr justyce. The justice, or professional lawyer, is the agent of a powerful lord - the abbot in this case. Justices were an important part of the county court system, performing a variety of functions: "pleaders, attorneys, seignorial bailiffs, and seneschals, as well as occasionally filling royal positions such as undersheriff, sheriff, and county clerk" (Robert C. Palmer, The County Courts of Medieval England 1150-1350. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1982, p. 89). When the lawyer says he is holde with the abbot . . . Both with cloth and fee, he is revealing that he has been hired by the abbey to render legal services for a fee or annual annuity (Palmer, pp. 95-96).
425 Referring to the justice's being holde with the abbot, Kaeuper notes that "in the first half of the fourteenth century the practice by which lords retained the king's justices was more prevalent than it had been earlier or would be again" (1988, p. 180).
426 The phrase cloth and fee echoes the Latin formula cum robis et foedis, used to designate payment of legal services with both money and gifts of clothing. The abbot had retained the chief justice in order to help him bankrupt the knight. According to Child (III, 52) the practice of giving and receiving robes for such purposes was considered a conspiracy in the legal code of King Edward I, 1305-06; in another statute of King Edward III, dated 1346, justices were required to swear that they would accept robes and fees only from the king.
450 call: the rhyme word is missing in Child's source (b here) but is in other early texts and needs inserting.
465 The abbot is seeking to gain the land by "purchas," that is, by cash sale, not by inheritance. At lines 471-76 the knight resists this; it was an increasingly common form of land transfer in the period, and is at the basis of the conflict in Gamelyn (see note to line 14).
473 The a text is available from this line until 831, with a gap at 532-44.
484 Child notes "the knight would have given something for the use of the four hundred pounds had the abbot been civil, though under no obligation to pay interest" (III, 52).
489 The abbot, having failed to gain the land, asks the justice to repay his retainer, intended to facilitate this process.
493 The a text has only Sir . . . n of lawe and then has a gap until line 507; the text is supplied from b.
504 Verysdale. See note to line 83.
527 The nock is a small v-shaped cut in the end of an arrow to fit the string. This cut can split, and a horn or metal cap prevents this. Silver would be unusually lavish.
530-31 The a text is damaged in the second half of these two lines and then has a gap until line 545. The text is supplied from b.
537 at Wentbrydge. Child reads, with the earliest text, But as he went at a brydge: this is obviously an attempt to edit by a compositor who did not know Wentbridge (this is its first mention in the poem). Child includes this necessary emendation as a possible reading in his textual note, III, 79.
537 Wrestling was not, by the fourteenth century, considered an aristocratic sport. In the portrait of the Miller in the General Prologue to The Canterbury Tales, Chaucer observes of this "churl" that "at wrastlynge he wolde have alwey the ram" (line 548). In Chaucer's Tale of Sir Thopas - a burlesque of the popular romances and ballads of the day - the effeminate hero engages in both wrestling and archery. In Gamelyn the hero only wrestles when he has been effectively disinherited.
548 The prize for an ordinary wrestling match was a ram: in this contest, however, the victor wins a bull, a saddled horse, a pair of gloves, a gold ring, and a cask of wine. This may suggest an "art" or literary context for the Gest.
551 ferre and frembde bested. This appears to mean "set far (from home) and as a stranger." Dobson and Taylor translate as "And because he was a stranger and in the predicament of being a foreigner" (1976, p. 89).
558 in fere. Child emends the phrase to free for the sake of the rhyme, but this is very vague in meaning compared with in fere, and rhymes in the Gest are frequently imprecise.
582 Shooting at sticks stuck in the ground was the hardest challenge for any archer in the ballads; Little John split the stick each time.
588 sawe I me. Child adds me to the line to improve the rhyme; this is found in b, but later texts edit differently That ever I did see. Child follows the same practice in line 675 where there is a little more support in the early texts for I me at the end of the line. The resultant expression seems unusual - a reflexive use of see - but it is found in lines 400 and 736, so the emendation is accepted.
624 While it might seem tempting to emend the source to Gyve me my dynere sone, so improving both the rhyme and the meter, long lines and imprecise rhymes are common in the Gest, and the text is best left unemended.
628 Mi dyner gif thou me. Though Child accepts the source Mi dyner gif me; this very short line is filled out uniformly with thou in other early texts and it seems more probable that thou was lost in a compositor's error rather than different texts hit on the same amplification, simple though it is.
650 The while that he wolde. This is how Child emends the source's The while he wole for both meter and rhyme. Other early texts insert that after while, which is accepted here on metrical grounds, but none has the past tense in wolde. Yet wole and bolde would make a very poor rhyme, and the loss of d is very easy: Child's reading is accepted.
675 sawe I me. Child's addition of me for rhyme is accepted; see note to line 588 for discussion.
701 Child inserts they, with other early texts, and though this is not grammatically essential, it seems a sensible emendation.
704 hore. Hoar or gray, due to the absence of foliage or because of the gray lichen that attaches itself to aged tree trunks.
714 Child emends sende to sendeth to keep the tense consistent with the previous line, but this is not necessary in Middle English.
731 Child prints the source's shryef, but though this is a conceivable condensation of shire-reeve, it is most likely a compositor's error and is emended to shyref.
738 As line 752 reveals, the green hart, with his herd of seven score deer, is an ironic reference (perhaps subliminally mythic) to Robin Hood, the mayster-herte and his men.
775 toke. Child emends the source's to to toke, with other early texts. This is not absolutely necessary grammatically, but to him would be a somewhat strained reading, and Child's emendation is accepted.
803 thy best. Child emends t