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Emmanuelle Riker
Developing self-report Likert scales is an essential part of modern psychology. However, it is hard for psychologists to remain apprised of best practices as methodological developments accumulate. To address this, this current paper offers a selective review of advances in Likert scale development that have occurred over the past 25 years. We reviewed six major measurement journals (e.g., Psychological Methods, Educational, and Psychological Measurement) between the years 1995-2019 and identified key advances, ultimately including 40 papers and offering written summaries of each. We supplemented this review with an in-depth discussion of five particular advances: (1) conceptions of construct validity, (2) creating better construct definitions, (3) readability tests for generating items, (4) alternative measures of precision [e.g., coefficient omega and item response theory (IRT) information], and (5) ant colony optimization (ACO) for creating short forms. The Supplementary Material provides further technical details on these advances and offers guidance on software implementation. This paper is intended to be a resource for psychological researchers to be informed about more recent psychometric progress in Likert scale creation.
For more than three decades, NIAID has fostered and promoted development of antiretroviral therapies that have transformed HIV infection from an almost uniformly fatal infection into a manageable chronic condition. In the 1980s, the average life expectancy following an AIDS diagnosis was approximately one year. Today, with combination antiretroviral drug treatments started early in the course of HIV infection, people living with HIV can expect a near-normal lifespan. Watch then NIAID Director Anthony S. Fauci, M.D., reflect on advances in HIV treatment.
Identification of novel drug targets has played a key role in discovery and development of new antiretroviral drug classes. For example, since the 1980s, scientists have known that a molecule called CD4 is the primary receptor for HIV on immune cells. In the mid-1990s, NIAID scientists reported the discovery of a co-receptor called CXCR4, which is required for entry of certain HIV strains into immune cells. This discovery inspired researchers to look for other co-receptors. A number of research groups, including NIAID scientists, determined that a different receptor called CCR5 is actually the primary co-receptor used by HIV to infect immune cells. This work laid the foundation for the development of the CCR5-blocking drug maraviroc, which received FDA approval in 2007.
Between 2010 and 2016, every drug approved by the FDA was in some way based on biomedical research funded by NIH.39 In many cases, new drugs targeted a disease mechanism that had been identified by advances in basic science resulting from that funding. Indeed, most of the important new drugs introduced by the pharmaceutical industry over the past 60 years were developed with the aid of research conducted in the public sector.40 Publicly funded basic science thus provided the foundation upon which complementary work on the applied science of drug development could be undertaken by the private sector.
FDA approves the human papillomavirus (HPV) vaccine Gardasil, which protects against infection by the two HPV types (HPV 16 and 18) that cause approximately 70% of all cases of cervical cancer and two additional HPV types (HPV 6 and 11) that cause 90% of genital warts. Gardasil is the first vaccine approved to prevent cervical cancer. NCI scientists made technological advances that enabled development of Gardasil and subsequent HPV vaccines.
The Paperwork Reduction Act of 1995 significantly changes many aspects of Information Collection by the Federal government. The act,which went into effect October 1, 1995 requires agencies to plan for the development of new collections of information and the extension of ongoing collections well in advance of sending proposals to OMB. Agencies must:
The Division of Biophysics, Biomedical Technology, and Computational Biosciences (BBCB) facilitates advances in basic biomedical research by supporting the development of experimental and computational methods and tools for understanding basic biology; implementation of novel technologies and approaches in the study of macromolecular, organelle and cellular structure and function; and application of innovative physical and theoretical methodologies, bioinformatics tools, and sophisticated quantitative approaches to lay a foundation for advances in disease diagnosis, treatment, and prevention.
The Division of Genetics and Molecular, Cellular, and Developmental Biology (GMCDB) supports research to understand the structure and function of cells and cellular components, and the cellular and molecular mechanisms that underlie inheritance, gene expression, and development. The results of this research form the foundation for advances in diagnosing, preventing, treating, and curing a wide variety of diseases. Most of the projects supported by the division make use of research organisms, which advance the general understanding of biological processes. In most cases, research whose overall goal is to gain knowledge about a specific organ or organ system or the pathophysiology, treatment, or cure of a specific disease or condition is not supported by the GMCDB Division.
UACDC advances creative development in Arkansas through design, research, and education solutions that enhance the physical environment. Originated in 1995 as an outreach center of the fay Jones School of Architecture, the center has its own downtown facilities and full-time design and planning staff who deliver professional services for communities and organizations statewide. Several staff also hold faculty appointments. While students participate in the development of some of the center's projects, when a project sponsor commissions the center they hire the professional staff. UACDC regularly collaborates with allied professionals and faculty in multiple disciplines. UACDC's signature design approach works with sponsors and agencies to define a multidisciplinary problem framework that solves for the \"triple bottom line\", simultaneously solving for social, economic, and environmental benchmarks--sustainability.
The Department of Defense S&T program is organized into threecategories: basic research, exploratory development, and advanced technologydevelopment. Basic research is the element of the S&T program that seeks toincrease knowledge and understanding of science. It is the foundation on whichfuture technological superiority is based. Twelve fields of inquiry, listed inthe box at top right, compose the Defense Department's basicresearch program. The two other components, exploratory development andadvanced technology development, make up the Defense technology program. Thisprogram is centered around the 19 technology areas listed in thebox at lower right. The exploratory development program providesproof-of-concept experiments and evaluations built around models and laboratoryexperiments, while the advanced technology development program evaluates theeffectiveness of technological advances in providing required militarycapabilities. In total, the three components that make up the program arehighly interrelated, as sharp distinctions between research and developmentphases no longer apply.
In 1995, Congress provided $60 million to "jump-start" thecounterproliferation program within the Department of Defense, and theAdministration has requested $108 million for 1996. These funds are being usedto accelerate development and deployment of essential militarycounterproliferation technologies and capabilities and to leverage existingDepartment of Defense investments relating to countering proliferation. TheDefense Department has placed increased emphasis on detection technology, witha goal of accelerating by six years the deployment of biological and chemicalagent remote detection and characterization systems. In addition, it isaccelerating development of a new generation of hard target defeat andcollateral effects prediction and mitigation capabilities, with the goal ofdemonstrating them within the next two years. The Department of Defense is alsoaccelerating important proliferation prevention efforts such as initial 1996fielding of enhanced capabilities to track nuclear, biological, and chemicalrelated foreign shipments.
Early last summer, a small group of senior leaders and responsible AI experts at Microsoft started using technology from OpenAI similar to what the world now knows as ChatGPT. Even for those who had worked closely with the developers of this technology at OpenAI since 2019, the most recent progress seemed remarkable. AI developments we had expected around 2033 would arrive in 2023 instead.
That trend has begun to reverse in recent years. The intraregional share of global goods trade has increased by 2.7 percentage points since 2013, partially reflecting the rise of emerging-market consumption. This development is most noticeable for Asia and the EU-28 countries. Regionalization is most apparent in global innovations value chains, given their need to closely integrate many suppliers for just-in-time sequencing. This trend could accelerate in other value chains as well, as automation reduces the importance of labor costs and increases the importance of speed to market in company decisions about where to produce goods.
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