[flaxcode] r1332 committed - first commit
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Jun 11, 2012, 8:43:01 AM6/11/12
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Revision: 1332
Author: banoffi
Date: Mon Jun 11 05:34:01 2012
Log: first commit
http://code.google.com/p/flaxcode/source/detail?r=1332
Added:
/trunk/Clade
/trunk/Clade/LICENSE.txt
/trunk/Clade/README.txt
/trunk/Clade/classify.py
/trunk/Clade/data
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/'I' and the 'me'
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/6-3-5 Brainwriting
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Abnormality (behavior)
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Acculturation
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Achievement ideology
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Action assembly theory
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Actor–observer asymmetry
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Alloplastic adaptation
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Altruism
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Altruism in animals
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Ambiguity tolerance
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Ambivalent prejudice
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Analysis of subjective logics
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Anomie
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Anticipatory socialization
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Anticonformism
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Antilocution
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Antiprocess
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Archetype
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Artificial demand
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Asch conformity experiments
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Ascribed status
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Assertiveness
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Assimilation effect
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Attention seeking
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Attribution (psychology)
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Attributional ambiguity
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Audience effect
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Authoritarian personality
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Authoritarianism
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Authority
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Authority (sociology)
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Authority problem
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Autonoetic consciousness
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Autoplastic adaptation
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Availability, salience and vividness
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Basic hostility
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Behavioral economics
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Belief
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Ben Franklin effect
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Benevolent prejudice
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Bilateral descent
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Black sheep
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Blame
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Body language
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Body-to-body communication
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Bogardus social distance scale
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Bogus pipeline
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Boldness
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Bombsite
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Boomerang effect (psychology)
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Boris Parygin
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Brainstorming
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Breaching experiment
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Bullying
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Bullying Awareness Week
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Bystander effect
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Causation (sociology)
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Charism
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Charisma
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Chinese social relations
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Choice overload
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Chris Argyris
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Chris Heuer
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Clandestine abuse
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Code of silence
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Cognitive dissonance
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Cognitive hearing science
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Cognitive polyphasia
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Collective consciousness
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Collective trauma
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Coming out
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Common coding theory
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Community cohesion
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Compassion fatigue
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Competitive altruism
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Complexity theory and organizations
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Compliance gaining
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Complimentary language and gender
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Computer simulation and organizational
studies
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Conflict resolution
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Confounds and artifacts
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Conspicuous consumption
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Conspicuous leisure
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Construal level theory
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Construals
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Contact hypothesis
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Continuous partial attention
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Control freak
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Corporate social entrepreneur
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Covariation model
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Criticism
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Crocodile tears
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Cross-cultural leadership
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Cross-cultural psychology
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Crowdsourcing
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Cultural jet lag
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Cultural mediation
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Culture of fear
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Culture shock
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Cuteness
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Cyranoid
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Dark triad
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Das Experiment
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Dating scripts
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/David C. Funder
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Death row phenomenon
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Defensive attribution hypothesis
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Definition of the situation
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Dehumanization
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Delegated authority
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Diffusion of responsibility
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Disconfirmed expectancy
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Discontinuity effect
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Disenfranchised grief
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Disengagement theory
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Dispositional attribution
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Distraction-conflict
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Distrust
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Dominant response
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Double standard of aging
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Dramaturgy (sociology)
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Drift hypothesis
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Drinking the Kool-Aid
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Drive theory
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Dump job
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Dunning–Kruger effect
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Earworm
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Effort justification
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Ego integrity
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Egonomics
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Emotional blackmail
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Emotional contagion
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Emotional labor
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Empathic accuracy
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Empathic concern
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Empathy
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Empathy gap
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Empathy in media research
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Empathy-altruism
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Enterprise social networking
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Entrepreneurial leadership
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Envy
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Epistemological psychology
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Ethnic stereotype
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Ethnocultural empathy
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Eureka effect
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/European Association of Social Psychology
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Evasion (ethics)
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Exaggeration
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Expectation states theory
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Externalization
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Eyewitness testimony
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Face (sociological concept)
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Fairness dilemmas
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/False alarm
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Familiar stranger
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Family nexus
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Faux pas
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Fear appeals
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/First they came…
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Forced Compliance Theory
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Four-sides model
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Frame analysis
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Free agent (business)
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Frustration–aggression hypothesis
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Fundamental attribution error
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Ganqing
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Gemeinschaft and Gesellschaft
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Gender role
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Generation Flux
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Glenn Harrold
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Greater Good Science Center
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Gregory M. Herek
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Group affective tone
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Group cohesiveness
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Group emotion
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Guanxi
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Guilt
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Guilt society
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Halo effect
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Handicapism
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Health belief model
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Helping behavior
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Henri Tajfel
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Hidden profiles
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Hofling hospital experiment
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Hoplology
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Human ecology
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Human ethology
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Human multitasking
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Hypercompetition
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Hypergamy
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Hysterical contagion
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Idee fixe (psychology)
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Identifiable victim effect
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Identity Formation, Agency, and Culture
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Identity formation
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Idée fixe (psychology)
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Idiosyncrasy credit
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Ilan Meyer
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Illusory superiority
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Impassibility
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Implicit Association Test
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Implicit personality theory
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Impression formation
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Impression management
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Indigenous psychology
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Indoctrination
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Industrial & Organizational Assessment
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Information integration theory
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Infrahumanisation
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Inoculation theory
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Insight
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Insufficient justification
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Interdependence Theory
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Interpersonal perception
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Introspection illusion
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Involuntary celibacy
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Jane Elliott
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Journal of Experimental Social Psychology
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Journal of Personality and Social Psychology
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Juvenile delinquency
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Keiko Holmes
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Kinesics
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Leadership
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Lewin's equation
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Liberation psychology
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Lie
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Limbic regulation
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Limbic resonance
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Limbic revision
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Linda Skitka
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Linderman effect
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Linguistic marketplace
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/List of philosophy categories
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/List of social psychologists
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/List of social psychology theories
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Locus of control
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Machiavellian intelligence
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Machiavellianism
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Maintenance actions
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Marginalization
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Mark Zanna
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Media panic
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Media systems dependency theory
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Megalomania
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Memory conformity
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Memory confusion protocol
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Michael Lamb (psychologist)
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Milgram experiment
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Mind-blindness
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Minimisation (psychology)
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Minority influence
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Misanthropy
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Misplaced loyalty
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Missionary Kids
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Mistrust
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Mnemic neglect
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Moral credential
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Moral disengagement
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Moral panic
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Moral psychology
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Mortality salience
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Motivated tactician
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Motor cognition
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Mutual engagement
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Nagging
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Narcissistic leadership
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/National psychology
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Natural authority
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Need for affiliation
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Negative capability
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Negative-state relief model
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Neuroculture
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Neuroeconomics
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/No soap radio
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Nominal identity
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Norm of reciprocity
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Normative social influence
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Normlessness
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Nuclear family
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Obedience (human behavior)
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Objectification
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Omnipotence
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Omnipresence
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Omniscience
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Online participation
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Organizational conflict
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Ostracism
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Outcast (person)
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Overton window
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Owatonna Art Education Project
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Paranoid social cognition
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Parasocial interaction
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Peer victimization
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Perception management
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Personal boundaries
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Personal distress
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Personal space
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Persuasion
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Physical attractiveness
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Physical attractiveness stereotype
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Pickup artist
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Pigeonholing
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Pluralistic ignorance
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Point of no return
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Political myth
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Portrayal of black people in comics
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Post-Individualism
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Pragmatics
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Praise
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Pratfall effect
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Preparedness (learning)
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Primetime: What Would You Do
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Production blocking
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Propaganda: The Formation of Men's Attitudes
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Prosocial behavior
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Prosperity consciousness
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Proteans (body language)
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Proxemics
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Psychoanalytic sociology
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Psychographic
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Psychological manipulation
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Psychosocial
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Public display of affection
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Rabin fairness
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Race, Evolution, and Behavior
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Radical compassion
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Rapport congruency
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Rational choice institutionalism
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Rationalization (making excuses)
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Reactance (psychology)
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Realistic conflict theory
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Reciprocity (social psychology)
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Reflected appraisal
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Religious identity
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Religious paranoia
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Reproductive value (social psychology)
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Resocialization
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Resource acquisition ability
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Right-wing authoritarianism
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Ringelmann effect
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Robert Josephs
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Role engulfment
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Role set
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Role theory
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Rotten kid theorem
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Sack tapping
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Safety in numbers
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Scapegoating
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Scarcity (social psychology)
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/School bullying
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Seduction community
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Self control
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Self-categorization theory
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Self-disclosure
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Self-evaluation maintenance theory
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Self-perception theory
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Self-serving bias
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Self-stereotyping
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Self-verification theory
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Semi-structured interview
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Semmelweis reflex
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Sense of community
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Seriality
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Sexualization
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Shame
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Shame society
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Shyness
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Significant other
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Sleeper effect
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Social Psychology Network
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Social balance theory
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Social behavior
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Social character
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Social cognition
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Social cognitive theory of morality
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Social cohesion
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Social connectedness
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Social cue
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Social defeat
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Social deprivation
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Social desirability bias
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Social dilemma
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Social disintegration
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Social effects of pornography
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Social facilitation
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Social group
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Social identity approach
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Social identity complexity
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Social identity model of deindividuation
effects
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Social identity theory
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Social impact theory
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Social inertia
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Social influence
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Social intelligence
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Social isolation
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Social judgment theory
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Social loafing
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Social network analysis
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Social neuroscience
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Social perception
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Social preferences
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Social proof
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Social psychology
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Social psychology (sociology)
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Social rejection
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Social representation
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Social salience
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Social support
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Social trap
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Social tuning
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Social undermining
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Social value orientations
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Socialization
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Societal psychology
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Society for Social Neuroscience
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Society of Experimental Social Psychology
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Socio-Analysis
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Socioemotional selectivity theory
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Sociolinguistics
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Sociology of the Internet
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Sociomapping
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Sociometer
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Sociometry
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Sociosexual Orientation Inventory
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Sociosexual orientation
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Sofalising
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Spatial empathy
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Spiral of silence
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Stanford duck syndrome
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Stanford prison experiment
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Stereotype
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Stockholm syndrome
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Structural ritualization theory
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Subpersonality
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Suggestion
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Superficial charm
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Suppression of dissent
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Sycophancy
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Symbolic behavior
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Sympathy
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/T-groups
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Teaching-family model
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Temptation
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Terror management theory
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/The Authoritarian Personality
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/The Experiment (2010 film)
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/The Imagined Contact Hypothesis
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/The Third Wave
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Third culture kid
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Thought suppression
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Time perception
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Toilet paper orientation
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Total institution
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Trait ascription bias
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Triangulation (psychology)
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Tribalism
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Trust (social sciences)
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Trust management (managerial science)
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Two-factor theory of emotion
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Ultimate attribution error
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Unmatched count
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Unrooted Childhoods
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/VALS
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Vested interest
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Victim blaming
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Victim playing
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Victimisation
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Victimology
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Vignette (psychology)
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Village idiot
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Weapons effect
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/When Prophecy Fails
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Workplace bullying
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Xenocentrism
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Yale Attitude Change Approach
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy.csv
/trunk/Clade/delete-all.sh
/trunk/Clade/lib
/trunk/Clade/lib/__init__.py
/trunk/Clade/lib/csv_unicode.py
/trunk/Clade/lib/docx.py
/trunk/Clade/lib/ner.py
/trunk/Clade/lib/sunburnt
/trunk/Clade/lib/sunburnt/LICENSE
/trunk/Clade/lib/sunburnt/__init__.py
/trunk/Clade/lib/sunburnt/dates.py
/trunk/Clade/lib/sunburnt/json.py
/trunk/Clade/lib/sunburnt/schema.py
/trunk/Clade/lib/sunburnt/search.py
/trunk/Clade/lib/sunburnt/strings.py
/trunk/Clade/lib/sunburnt/sunburnt.py
/trunk/Clade/lib/sunburnt/test_schema.py
/trunk/Clade/lib/sunburnt/test_search.py
/trunk/Clade/lib/sunburnt/test_sunburnt.py
/trunk/Clade/lib/taxonomy.py
/trunk/Clade/lib/web
/trunk/Clade/lib/web/__init__.py
/trunk/Clade/lib/web/application.py
/trunk/Clade/lib/web/browser.py
/trunk/Clade/lib/web/contrib
/trunk/Clade/lib/web/contrib/__init__.py
/trunk/Clade/lib/web/contrib/template.py
/trunk/Clade/lib/web/db.py
/trunk/Clade/lib/web/debugerror.py
/trunk/Clade/lib/web/form.py
/trunk/Clade/lib/web/http.py
/trunk/Clade/lib/web/httpserver.py
/trunk/Clade/lib/web/net.py
/trunk/Clade/lib/web/python23.py
/trunk/Clade/lib/web/session.py
/trunk/Clade/lib/web/template.py
/trunk/Clade/lib/web/test.py
/trunk/Clade/lib/web/utils.py
/trunk/Clade/lib/web/webapi.py
/trunk/Clade/lib/web/webopenid.py
/trunk/Clade/lib/web/wsgi.py
/trunk/Clade/lib/web/wsgiserver
/trunk/Clade/lib/web/wsgiserver/__init__.py
/trunk/Clade/lib/web/wsgiserver/ssl_builtin.py
/trunk/Clade/lib/web/wsgiserver/ssl_pyopenssl.py
/trunk/Clade/lib/xmldoc.py
/trunk/Clade/server.py
/trunk/Clade/settings.py
/trunk/Clade/solr-conf
/trunk/Clade/solr-conf/schema.xml
/trunk/Clade/solr-conf/solrconfig.xml
/trunk/Clade/solr-conf/stopwords.txt
/trunk/Clade/stanford-ner-2011-09-14
/trunk/Clade/stanford-ner-2011-09-14/LICENSE.txt
/trunk/Clade/stanford-ner-2011-09-14/README.txt
/trunk/Clade/stanford-ner-2011-09-14/classifiers
/trunk/Clade/stanford-ner-2011-09-14/classifiers/all.3class.distsim.crf.ser.gz
/trunk/Clade/stanford-ner-2011-09-14/classifiers/all.3class.distsim.prop
/trunk/Clade/stanford-ner-2011-09-14/server.bat
/trunk/Clade/stanford-ner-2011-09-14/server.sh
/trunk/Clade/stanford-ner-2011-09-14/stanford-ner.jar
/trunk/Clade/static
/trunk/Clade/static/busy.js
/trunk/Clade/static/clade.js
/trunk/Clade/static/combobox.js
/trunk/Clade/static/direction.js
/trunk/Clade/static/editable.js
/trunk/Clade/static/favicon.ico
/trunk/Clade/static/help.html
/trunk/Clade/static/highlight.js
/trunk/Clade/static/images
/trunk/Clade/static/images/ajax.gif
/trunk/Clade/static/images/flax.png
/trunk/Clade/static/images/ui-bg_flat_0_aaaaaa_40x100.png
/trunk/Clade/static/images/ui-bg_flat_75_ffffff_40x100.png
/trunk/Clade/static/images/ui-bg_glass_55_fbf9ee_1x400.png
/trunk/Clade/static/images/ui-bg_glass_65_ffffff_1x400.png
/trunk/Clade/static/images/ui-bg_glass_75_dadada_1x400.png
/trunk/Clade/static/images/ui-bg_glass_75_e6e6e6_1x400.png
/trunk/Clade/static/images/ui-bg_glass_95_fef1ec_1x400.png
/trunk/Clade/static/images/ui-bg_highlight-soft_75_cccccc_1x100.png
/trunk/Clade/static/images/ui-icons_222222_256x240.png
/trunk/Clade/static/images/ui-icons_2e83ff_256x240.png
/trunk/Clade/static/images/ui-icons_454545_256x240.png
/trunk/Clade/static/images/ui-icons_888888_256x240.png
/trunk/Clade/static/images/ui-icons_cd0a0a_256x240.png
/trunk/Clade/static/index.html
/trunk/Clade/static/jquery-1.6.4.min.js
/trunk/Clade/static/jquery-ui-1.8.16.custom.css
/trunk/Clade/static/jquery-ui-1.8.16.custom.min.js
/trunk/Clade/static/jquery.jstree.js
/trunk/Clade/static/misc.js
/trunk/Clade/static/style.css
/trunk/Clade/static/table.js
/trunk/Clade/static/themes
/trunk/Clade/static/themes/apple
/trunk/Clade/static/themes/apple/bg.jpg
/trunk/Clade/static/themes/apple/d.png
/trunk/Clade/static/themes/apple/dot_for_ie.gif
/trunk/Clade/static/themes/apple/style.css
/trunk/Clade/static/themes/apple/throbber.gif
/trunk/Clade/static/themes/classic
/trunk/Clade/static/themes/classic/d.gif
/trunk/Clade/static/themes/classic/d.png
/trunk/Clade/static/themes/classic/dot_for_ie.gif
/trunk/Clade/static/themes/classic/style.css
/trunk/Clade/static/themes/classic/throbber.gif
/trunk/Clade/static/themes/default
/trunk/Clade/static/themes/default/d.gif
/trunk/Clade/static/themes/default/d.png
/trunk/Clade/static/themes/default/style.css
/trunk/Clade/static/themes/default/throbber.gif
/trunk/Clade/static/themes/default-rtl
/trunk/Clade/static/themes/default-rtl/d.gif
/trunk/Clade/static/themes/default-rtl/d.png
/trunk/Clade/static/themes/default-rtl/dots.gif
/trunk/Clade/static/themes/default-rtl/style.css
/trunk/Clade/static/themes/default-rtl/throbber.gif
=======================================
--- /dev/null
+++ /trunk/Clade/LICENSE.txt Mon Jun 11 05:34:01 2012
@@ -0,0 +1,13 @@
+Copyright 2012 Lemur Consulting Limited
+
+Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the "License");
+you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.
+You may obtain a copy of the License at
+
+ http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0
+
+Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software
+distributed under the License is distributed on an "AS IS" BASIS,
+WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied.
+See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
+limitations under the License.
=======================================
--- /dev/null
+++ /trunk/Clade/README.txt Mon Jun 11 05:34:01 2012
@@ -0,0 +1,183 @@
+==============
+Flax Clade PoC
+==============
+
+Flax Clade PoC is a proof-of-concept open source taxonomy management and
+document classification system, based on Apache Solr. In its current state
it
+should be considered pre-alpha. As open-source software you are welcome to
try,
+use, copy and modify Clade as you like. We would love to hear any
constructive
+suggestions you might have.
+
+- Tom Mortimer <t...@flax.co.uk>
+
+
+--------------------------------------
+Taxonomies and document classification
+--------------------------------------
+
+Clade taxonomies have a tree structure, with a single top-level category
(e.g.
+in the example data, "Social Psychology"). There is no distinction between
+parent and child nodes (except that the former has children) and the
hierachical
+structure of the taxonomy is completely orthogonal from the node data. The
+structure may be freely edited.
+
+Each node represents a category, which is represented by a set
of "keywords"
+(words or phrases) which should be present in a document belonging to that
+category. Not all the keywords have to be present - they are joined with
+Boolean OR rather than AND. A document may belong to multiple categories,
+which are ranked according to standard Solr (TF-IDF) scoring. It is
+also possible to exclude certain keywords from categories.
+
+Clade will also suggest keywords to add to a category, based on the
content of
+the documents already in the category. This feature is currently slow as it
+uses the standard Solr MoreLikeThis component to analyse a large number of
+documents. We plan to improve this for a future release by writing a custom
+Solr plugin.
+
+Documents are stored in a standard Solr index and are categorised
dynamically
+as taxonomy nodes are selected. As this is just a proof of concept, there
is
+currently no way of writing the categorisation results to the documents, or
+anywhere else.
+
+
+--------------------------
+Installation prerequisites
+--------------------------
+
+- Java 6 or 7
+
+- Python 2.6 or 2.7
+
+- Solr 3.6
+ http://www.apache.org/dyn/closer.cgi/lucene/solr/3.6.0
+ Other versions may also work, but we have not tested them with Clade.
+
+- Python modules
+ lxml: http://pypi.python.org/pypi/lxml/
+ httplib2: http://code.google.com/p/httplib2/downloads/list
+
+Download the latest versions from these sites and follow the installation
+instructions. The system has been developed on Linux and the following
instructions
+assume a Linux environment, but it would be relatively simple to translate
them
+to Windows command line syntax if necessary.
+
+
+------------
+Example data
+------------
+
+The Clade distribution includes an example taxonomy and documents derived
+from Wikipedia and on the topic of Social Psychology. The taxonomy is
+provided as a CSV file to illustrate how to import existing taxonomies.
+
+To import the taxonomy, run on the command line:
+
+ $ python classify.py import data/socpsy.csv
+
+This will create a Python data structure, and pickle it as data/tax.
+
+To import the documents, first copy the Clade Solr configuration files
into your
+Solr home, e.g.:
+
+ $ cp -f clade/solr-conf/* apache-solr-3.6.0/example/solr/conf
+
+Then [re]start Solr, e.g.:
+
+ $ cd apache-solr-3.6.0/example
+ $ java -jar start.jar &
+
+Now start the Stanford Named Entity Recognition server, which is used to
pull
+names, places etc. out of the source data:
+
+ $ cd stanford-ner-2011-09-14
+ $ ./server.sh &
+
+Finally, add the example documents (which are provided as plaintext files):
+
+ $ python classify.py textdir data/socpsy-pages
+
+This will output the name of each file as it is processed, and will take a
+few minutes to complete.
+
+
+--------------
+Running the UI
+--------------
+
+The Clade UI is implemented as a web application. To start it, run:
+
+ $ python server.py
+
+Then point a browser at
+
+ http://localhost:8080/
+
+
+-----------
+UI Controls
+-----------
+
+The Clade UI has two modes: Taxonomy and Document. It starts up in the
former.
+
+Taxonomy mode
+-------------
+
+The page is divided into two halves: the taxonomy tree on the left, and
+information about the current selected category on the right. Clade can
support
+multiple taxonomies, which can be selected from the drop-down in the upper
left.
+Selecting a taxonomy will load it into the tree view, where nodes can be
+expanded or collapsed, selected and manipulated.
+
+The taxonomy tree display has three small icons in the upper right. The +
+icon causes a new category to be added as a child of the currently selected
+node. The "pen" icon allows the current node name to be edited, and the X
+icon deletes the current node (with no warning!)
+
+Nodes and sub-trees may be dragged and dropped onto other nodes, allowing
the
+taxonomy structure to be rapidly edited.
+
+On the right: the currently selected category name is listed, along with
the
+number of documents which fit the category. Under this is two keyword
lists.
+
+The list on the left contains the keywords which are active for this
category.
+This list has icons to (from left to right):
+
+ - add a new keyword
+ - edit the selected keyword
+ - toggle the sense of the selected keyword from positive to negative
+ - delete the selected keyword
+
+Negative (NOT) keywords are displayed with a strikethrough. On the right,
there
+is a list of automatically-generated suggested keywords for this category.
To
+add one to the active keywords, select it and click the "left arrow" icon.
+
+Below the two keyword lists is a list of the documents which match the
current
+category, showing the document ID, the title, the current rank and the
previous
+rank (before changing the active keywords). To view a document, click the
title,
+which will switch the UI into document mode.
+
+To add a new taxonomy, make sure the taxonomy drop-down has no taxonomy
+selected, then click the Create button. Enter a name for the new taxonomy
+and click OK. You can then create the taxonomy by adding nodes to the root
+node. All changes will be immediately saved to the data/tax file.
+
+To rename the current taxonomy, click the Rename button, edit the name in
+the dialog box, and click OK.
+
+To delete the current taxonomy, click the Delete button and then OK in the
+confirm dialog.
+
+
+Document mode
+-------------
+
+Again, in document mode the page has a left section and a right section.
On the
+left is a list of taxonomy categories which match the document, ranked in
+decreasing score order. The document ID and full text are displayed on the
+right, together with a list of keywords from the selected category. The
document
+text is highlighted for matching keywords.
+
+To go back to the taxonomy display, click the Back button in the upper
right.
+Don't use your browser back button - it won't work, as the UI is
implemented
+in Javascript/AJAX.
+
=======================================
--- /dev/null
+++ /trunk/Clade/classify.py Mon Jun 11 05:34:01 2012
@@ -0,0 +1,207 @@
+#!/usr/bin/env python
+#-*- coding: utf-8 -*-
+
+"""
+Copyright 2012 Lemur Consulting Limited
+
+Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the "License");
+you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.
+You may obtain a copy of the License at
+
+ http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0
+
+Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software
+distributed under the License is distributed on an "AS IS" BASIS,
+WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied.
+See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
+limitations under the License.
+"""
+
+import os
+import re
+import cPickle
+import csv
+import time
+
+from lib import docx
+from lib import xmldoc
+from lib import taxonomy
+from lib import ner
+from lib import csv_unicode
+from lib import sunburnt
+import httplib2
+
+import settings
+
+csv.field_size_limit(1000000000)
+
+WORD_RE = re.compile(r'[\w\-\']+')
+RE_WORD_DELIM = re.compile(r'[\w\-\']+|[\.\,\:\;\!\?\"\(\)\[\]]')
+DELIMS = '.,:;!?"()[]'
+LINKWORDS = set(('and', 'of', 'the'))
+
+
+def process_dir(solr, dir):
+ """ Process the .docx files in dir, using the supplied taxonomies to
+ classify them, and storing the results in the xapian index.
+
+ """
+ def f(arg, dirname, names):
+ for name in names:
+ if name.lower().endswith('.docx'):
+ process_file(solr, os.path.join(dirname, name))
+
+ os.path.walk(dir, f, None)
+ solr.commit()
+
+def process_dir_xml(solr, dir):
+ """ Process the .xml files in dir, using the supplied taxonomies to
+ classify them, and storing the results in the xapian index.
+
+ """
+ def f(arg, dirname, names):
+ for name in names:
+ if name.lower().endswith('.xml'):
+ process_xml_file(solr, os.path.join(dirname, name))
+
+ os.path.walk(dir, f, None)
+ solr.commit()
+
+def process_dir_text(solr, dir):
+ """ Process the text files in dir, etc.
+ """
+ docidbase = int(time.time()) - 1262304000
+ for count, name in enumerate(os.listdir(dir)):
+ if name[0] != '.':
+ with open(os.path.join(dir, name)) as f:
+ text = f.read()
+ name = name.decode('utf8', 'ignore')
+ docid = '%s.%s' % (docidbase, count)
+ update_solr(solr, docid, name, text.decode('utf8'))
+
+ solr.commit()
+
+def process_file(solr, file):
+ _, _, text, title = docx.parse_docx(file)
+ filename = os.path.basename(file)
+ update_solr(solr, filename, title or filename, text)
+ solr.commit()
+
+def process_xml_file(solr, file):
+ _, _, text, title = xmldoc.parse_xml(file)
+ filename = os.path.basename(file)
+ update_solr(solr, filename, title or filename, text)
+ solr.commit()
+
+def process_csv(solr, path):
+ with open(path) as f:
+ for line in csv_unicode.UnicodeReader(f):
+ text = "%s\n\n%s" % (line[0], line[1])
+ update_solr(solr, line[2], line[6] or 'no title', text)
+ solr.commit()
+
+def update_solr(solr, unique_term, title, text):
+ print 'updating', unique_term, title
+ doc = { 'title': title, 'text': text, 'doc_id': unique_term }
+ doc['entity'] = tuple(set(x for x in iter_entity_terms(text)))
+ solr.add(doc)
+
+def iter_entity_terms(text):
+ for term in ner.get_entities(settings.ner_host, settings.ner_port,
text):
+ if len(term) < 50:
+ yield unicode(term, "utf-8")
+
+def iter_text_terms(text):
+ phrase = []
+ not1st = False
+
+ for word in RE_WORD_DELIM.findall(text):
+ if word in DELIMS:
+ if (len(phrase) > 1 and len(phrase) < 6 and
+ phrase[0] not in LINKWORDS and
+ phrase[-1] not in LINKWORDS):
+ yield ' '.join(phrase)
+ phrase = []
+ else:
+ if word[0].isalnum():
+ w = word.lower()
+ if w not in settings.stopwords:
+ yield w
+
+ if not1st:
+ if word[0].isupper():
+ phrase.append(word.lower())
+ elif phrase and word.lower() in LINKWORDS:
+ phrase.append(word.lower())
+ else:
+ if (len(phrase) > 1 and len(phrase) < 6 and
+ phrase[0] not in LINKWORDS and
+ phrase[-1] not in LINKWORDS):
+ yield ' '.join(phrase)
+ phrase = []
+
+ not1st = (word not in '.?!')
+
+def get_doctext(solr, did):
+ """ Return the text for a document ID.
+
+ """
+ return solr.query(doc_id=did).execute()[0]["text"]
+
+
+if __name__ == '__main__':
+ import sys
+ import cPickle
+
+ # FIXME - help message
+
+ if sys.argv[1] == 'import':
+ with open(settings.taxonomy_path, 'w') as f:
+ taxes = [taxonomy.parse_csv_file(x) for x in sys.argv[2:]]
+ cPickle.dump(taxes, f)
+ print 'imported', len(taxes), 'taxonomies'
+ else:
+ with open(settings.taxonomy_path) as f:
+ taxes = cPickle.load(f)
+
+ h = httplib2.Http(cache=settings.http_cache)
+ _solr = sunburnt.SolrInterface(settings.solr_url,
http_connection=h)
+
+ if sys.argv[1] == 'export':
+ with open(sys.argv[2], 'w') as f:
+ taxonomy.write_xml_file(f, taxes)
+
+ elif sys.argv[1] == 'lscat':
+ tax = taxonomy.term_for_path(taxes, sys.argv[2])
+ if tax:
+ print 'tax:', tax
+ for doc in taxonomy.get_docs_for_category(_solr, tax):
+ print doc
+ else:
+ print 'no matching taxonomy'
+
+ elif sys.argv[1] == 'classify':
+ with open(sys.argv[2], 'w') as f:
+ taxonomy.write_classification(_solr, f, taxes)
+
+ elif sys.argv[1] == 'doctext':
+ print get_doctext(_solr, int(sys.argv[2]))
+
+ elif sys.argv[1] == 'suggest':
+ for term in taxonomy.suggest_keywords(_solr, sys.argv[2:], [],
7):
+ print term
+
+ elif sys.argv[1] == 'docdir':
+ process_dir(_solr, sys.argv[2])
+
+ elif sys.argv[1] == 'xmldocdir':
+ process_dir_xml(_solr, sys.argv[2])
+
+ elif sys.argv[1] == 'docfile':
+ process_file(_solr, sys.argv[2])
+
+ elif sys.argv[1] == 'csvfile':
+ process_csv(_solr, sys.argv[2])
+
+ elif sys.argv[1] == 'textdir':
+ process_dir_text(_solr, sys.argv[2])
=======================================
--- /dev/null
+++ /trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/'I' and the 'me' Mon Jun 11 05:34:01 2012
@@ -0,0 +1,34 @@
+The 'I' and the 'me' are terms central to the social philosophy of George
Herbert Mead, one of the key influences on the development of the branch of
sociology called symbolic-interactionism. The terms refer to the psychology
of the individual, where in Mead's understanding, the "me" is the
socialized aspect of the person, the "I"is the active aspect of the person.
+
+One might usefully 'compare Mead's "I" and "me", respectively, with
Sartre's "choice" and "the situation". But Mead himself matched up the "me"
with Freud's "censor", and the "I" with his "ego"; and this is
psychologically apt'.
+
+==Characteristics==
+
+The "Me" is what is learned in interaction with others and (more
generally) with the environment: other people's attitudes, once
internalized in the self, constitute the "Me". This includes both knowledge
about that environment (including society), but "also" about who the person
is: their "sense of self". "What the individual is for himself is not
something that he invented. It is what his significant others have come
to ...treat him as being." This is because people learns to see who they
are (man or woman, old or young, etc.) by observing the responses of others
themselves or their actions. If others respond to a person as (for
instance) a woman, the person develops a sense of herself indeed as a woman.
+
+At the same time, 'the "Me" disciplines the "I" by holding it back from
breaking the law of the community'. It is thus very close to the way in a
man Freud's 'ego-censor, the conscience...arose from the critical influence
of his parents (conveyed to him by the medium of the voice), to whom were
added, as time went on, those who trained and taught him and the
innumerable and indefinable host of all the other people in his environment
- his fellow-men - and public opinion'. It is 'the attitude of the other in
one's own organism, as controlling the thing that he is going to do'.
+
+By contrast, 'the "I" is the response of the individual to the attitude of
the community'. The "I" acts creatively, though within the context of
the "me". Mead notes that "It is only after we have acted that we know what
we have done...what we have said." People, he argues, are not automations.
They do not blindly follow rules. They "construct" a response on the basis
of what they have learned, the "me". Mead highlighted accordingly those
values that attach particularly to the "I" rather than to
the "me", "...which cannot be calculated and which involve a reconstruction
of the society, and so of the 'me' which belongs to that society." Taken
together, the "I" and the "me" form the person or the self in Mead's social
philosophy.
+
+==Fusion==
+
+Mead explored what he called 'the fusion of the "I" and the "me" in the
attitudes of religion, patriotism, and team work', noting what he called
the "peculiar sense of exaltation" that belongs to them. He also considered
that 'the idea of the fusion of the "I" and the "me" gives a very adequate
explanation of this exaltation...in the aesthetic experience'.
+
+In everyday life, however, 'a complete fusion of the "I" and the "me" may
not be a good thing...it is a dynamic sort of balance between the "I" and
the "me" that is required'.
+
+==Conventionality==
+
+When there is a predominance of the "me" in the personality, 'we speak of
a person as a conventional individual; his ideas are exactly the same as
those of his neighbours; he is hardly more than a "me" under the
circumstances' - "...the shallow, brittle, conformist kind of
personality..." that is ""all persona", with its excessive concern
for "what people think"." The alternative—and in many ways Mead's ideal—was
the person who has a definite personality, who replies to the organized
attitude in a way that makes a significant difference. With such a person,
the "I" is the most important phase of the experience.
+
+==Dissociation==
+
+Mead recognised that it is normal for an individual to have 'all sorts of
selves answering to all sorts of different social reactions', but also that
it was possible for 'a tendency to break up the personality' to
appear: 'Two separate "me's" and "I's", two different selves, result...the
phenomenon of dissociation of personality'.
+
+==Literary examples==
+
+Walt Whitman 'marks off the impulsive "I", the natural, existential aspect
of the self, from critical sanction. It is the cultured self, the "me", in
Mead's terms, that needs re-mediation'.
+
+== See also ==
+== References ==
+
+
=======================================
--- /dev/null
+++ /trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/6-3-5 Brainwriting Mon Jun 11 05:34:01
2012
@@ -0,0 +1,10 @@
+6-3-5 Brainwriting (also known as the 6-3-5 Method, or Method 635) is a
group creativity technique used in marketing, advertising, design, writing
and product development originally developed by Professor Bernd Rohrbach in
1968.
+
+Based on the concept of Brainstorming, the aim of 6-3-5 Brainwriting is to
generate 108 new ideas in half an hour. In a similar way to brainstorming,
it is not the quality of ideas that matters but the quantity.
+
+The technique involves 6 participants who sit in a group and are
supervised by a moderator. Each participant thinks up 3 ideas every 5
minutes. Participants are encouraged to draw on others' ideas for
inspiration, thus stimulating the creative process. After 6 rounds in 30
minutes the group has thought up a total of 108 ideas.
+
+==References==
+This method is also known collective notebook method,
+
+
=======================================
--- /dev/null
+++ /trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Abnormality (behavior) Mon Jun 11
05:34:01 2012
@@ -0,0 +1,40 @@
+
+
+Abnormality, in the vivid sense of something deviating from the normal or
differing from the typical (such as an aberration), is a subjectively
defined behavioral characteristic, assigned to those with rare or
dysfunctional conditions. Defining who is normal or abnormal is a
contentious issue in abnormal psychology.
+
+==Several conventional criteria==
+*One criterion for "abnormality" that may appear to apply in the case of
abnormal behavior is statistical infrequency. This has an obvious flaw —
the extremely intelligent, are just as abnormal as their opposites.
Therefore, individual abnormal behaviors are considered to be statistically
unusual as well as undesirable. The presence of some form of abnormal
behavior is not unusual. About one quarter of people in the United States,
for example, are believed to meet criteria for a mental disorder in any
given year 1. Mental disorders, by definition, involve unusual or
statistically abnormal behaviors.
+*A more discerning criterion is distress. A person who is displaying a
great deal of depression, anxiety, unhappiness, etc. would be thought of as
exhibiting abnormal behavior because their own behavior distresses them.
Unfortunately, many people are not aware of their own mental state, and
while they may benefit from help, they feel no compulsion to receive it.
+*Another criterion is morality. This presents many difficulties, because
it would be impossible to agree on a single set of morals for the purposes
of diagnosis.
+*One criterion commonly referenced is maladaptivity. If a person is
behaving in ways counter-productive to their own well-being, it is
considered maladaptive. Although more tenable than the above criteria, it
does have some shortcomings. For example, moral behavior including dissent
and abstinence may be considered maladaptive to some.
+*Another criterion that has been suggested is that abnormal behavior
violates the standards of society. When people do not follow the
conventional social and moral rules of their society, the behavior is
considered abnormal. However, the magnitude of the violation and how
commonly it is violated by others must be taken into consideration.
+*Another element of abnormality is that abnormal behavior will cause
social discomfort to those who witness such behavior.
+*The standard criteria in psychology and psychiatry is that of mental
illness or mental disorder. Determination of abnormality is based upon
medical diagnosis. This is often criticized for removing control from
the 'patient', and being easily manipulated by political or social goals.
+
+*Statistical Infrequency: In this definition of abnormality behaviors
which are seen as statistically rare are said to be abnormal. For instance,
one may say that an individual of above or below average IQ is abnormal.
This definition, however, fails to recognize the desirability of the
particular incidence. This definition also implies that the presence of
abnormal behavior in people should be rare or statistically unusual, which
is not the case. Instead, any specific abnormal behavior may be unusual,
but it is not unusual for people to exhibit some form of prolonged abnormal
behavior at some point in their lives 1.
+
+*Deviation from Social Norms defines the departure or deviation of an
individual, from society's unwritten rules (norms). For example if one was
to witness a man jumping around, nude, on the streets, the man would be
perceived as abnormal, as he has broken society's norms about wearing
clothing, not to mention one's self dignity. There are also a number of
criteria for one to examine before reaching a judgment as to whether
someone has deviated from society's norms. The first of these criterion
being "culture"; what may be seen as normal in one culture, may be seen as
abnormal in another. The second criterion being the "situation & context"
one is placed in; for example, going to the toilet is a normal human act,
but going in the middle of a supermarket would be seen as highly abnormal,
i.e., defecating or urinating in public is illegal as a misdemeanor act of
indecent public conduct. The third criterion is "age"; a child at the age
of three could get away with taking off its clothing in public, but not a
man at the age of twenty. The fourth criterion is gender: a male responding
with behavior normally reacted to as female, and vice versa, is retaliated
against, not just corrected. The fifth criterion is historical context;
standards of normal behavior change in some societies, sometimes very
rapidly.
+
+*FF: The Failure to Function Adequately definition of abnormality defines
whether or not a behavior is abnormal if it is counter-productive to the
individual. The main problem with this definition however is that
psychologists cannot agree on the boundaries that define what
is 'functioning' and what is 'adequately', as some behaviors that can
cause 'failure to function' are not seen as bad i.e. firemen risking their
lives to save people in a blazing fire.
+
+*DIM: Deviation from Ideal Mental health defines abnormality by
determining if the behavior the individual is displaying is affecting their
mental well-being. As with the Failure to Function definition, the
boundaries that stipulate what 'ideal mental health' is are not properly
defined, and the bigger problem with the definition is that all individuals
will at some point in their life deviate from ideal mental health, but it
does not mean they are abnormal; i.e., someone who has lost a relative will
be distressed, but would not be defined as abnormal for showing that
particular behaviour. On the contrary, there are some indications that some
people require assistance to grieve properly 2
+
+A common approach to defining abnormality is a Multi-Criteria approach,
where all definitions of abnormality are used to determine whether an
individuals behavior is abnormal. For example, if an individual is engaging
in a particular behavior that is preventing them from 'functioning', breaks
a social norm and is statistically infrequent, then psychologists would be
prepared to define this individual's behavior as abnormal. A good example
of an abnormal behavior assessed by a multi-criteria approach is
depression: it is commonly seen as a deviation from ideal mental stability,
it often stops the individual from 'functioning' a normal life, and,
although it is a relatively common mental disorder, it is still
statistically infrequent; most people will not experience significant major
depressive disorder in their lifetime 3.
+
+==References==
+
+1NIMH factsheet on frequency of mental disorders.
+2Article on complicated grief.
+3Article on results of the National Comorbidity Study
+
+==See also==
+*Deviance
+*Eccentricity (behavior)
+*Norm (sociology)
+*Normalization (sociology)
+*Psychopathy
+*Social alienation
+
+
+
+
=======================================
--- /dev/null
+++ /trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Acculturation Mon Jun 11 05:34:01 2012
@@ -0,0 +1,119 @@
+
+
+Acculturation explains the process of cultural and psychological change
that results following meeting between cultures. The effects of
acculturation can be seen at multiple levels in both interacting cultures.
At the group level, acculturation often results in changes to culture,
customs, and social institutions. Noticeable group level effects of
acculturation often include changes in food, clothing, and language. At the
individual level, differences in the way individuals acculturate have been
shown to be associated not just with changes in daily behavior, but with
numerous measures of psychological and physical well-being. As
enculturation is used to describe the process of first-culture learning,
acculturation can be thought of as second-culture learning.
+
+The concept of acculturation has been studied scientifically since 1918.
As it has been approached at different times from the fields of psychology,
anthropology, and sociology, numerous theories and definitions have emerged
to describe elements of the acculturative process. Despite definitions and
evidence that acculturation entails a two-way process of change, research
and theory have primarily focused on the adjustments and adaptations made
by minorities such as immigrants, refugees, and indigenous peoples in
response to their contact with the dominant majority. Contemporary research
has primarily focused on different strategies of acculturation and how
variations in acculturation affect how well individuals adapt to their
society.
+
+==Historical approaches==
+The earliest recorded thoughts towards acculturation can be found in
Sumerian inscriptions from 2370 B.C. These inscriptions laid out rules for
commerce and interaction with foreigners designed to limit acculturation
and protect traditional cultural practices. Plato also said that
acculturation should be avoided as he thought it would lead to social
disorder. Accordingly, he proposed that no one should travel abroad until
they are at least 40 years of age, and that travellers should be restricted
to the ports of cities to minimize contact with native citizens.
Nevertheless, the history of Western civilization, and in particular the
histories of Europe and the United States, are largely defined by patterns
of acculturation.
+
+J.W. Powell is credited with coining the word "acculturation" in 1880,
defining it as "the psychological changes induced by cross-cultural
imitation." The first psychological theory of acculturation was proposed in
W.I. Thomas and Florian Znaniecki's 1918 study, "The Polish Peasant in
Europe and America." From studying Polish immigrants in Chicago, they
illustrated three forms of acculturation corresponding to three personality
types: Bohemian (adopting the host culture and abandoning their culture of
origin), Philistine (failing to adopt the host culture but preserving their
culture of origin), and Creative-Type (able to adapt to the host culture
while preserving their culture of origin). In 1936, Redfield, Linton, &
Herskovits provided the first widely used definition of acculturation
as "those phenomena which result when groups of individuals having
different cultures come into continuous first-hand contact, with subsequent
changes in the original cultural patterns of either or both groups…under
this definition acculturation is to be distinguished from…assimilation,
which is at times a phase of acculturation Since then scholars in different
disciplines have developed more than 100 different theories of
acculturation.
+
+==Conceptual Models of Acculturation==
+Although numerous models of acculturation exist, the most complete models
take into consideration the changes occurring at the group and individual
levels of both interacting groups. To understand acculturation at the group
level, one must first look at the nature of both cultures before coming
into contact with one another. A useful approach is Eric Kramer's (1988
1992, 1997a, 2003, 2011, 2012) theory of Dimensional Accrual and
Dissociation.
+
+Kramer's theory of Dimensional Accrual and Dissociation (DAD) utilizes
concepts from several scholars, most notably Jean Gebser and Lewis Mumford,
to synthesize an explanation of widely observed cultural expressions and
differences along a Neo-Kantian manifold of spatial and temporal variance
similar to the work of Edmund Husserl, Maurice Merleau-Ponty, J. T. Faser,
Sigfried Giedion, James Gibson, Maurice Grosser, Edmund Carpenter, Edward
T. Hall, Walter Ong, James Carey, Robert Levine, and others but with many
updates and additions. Most importantly, Kramer's DAD theory emphasizes how
various cultures communicate in generalized terms from idolic to symbolic
to signalic communication styles that helps explain intercultural
differences that influence intercultural and inter-ethnic relations as well
as acculturation processes. The DAD theory stresses however that
dimensional accrual is simply an additive process of dimensions. It does
not presuppose a linear metaphysic nor the ethnocentric concept
of "progress" which is presumed in some theories of acculturation claiming
for example, that intercultural adaptation moves in an "upward-forward"
manner toward the singular and final goal of total assimilation (Gudykunst
and Kim, 2003, pp. 381–382) Gudykunst and Kim (2003) define intercultural
adaptation as an "upward-forward" progress of "acculturation that brings
about change in strangers in the direction of assimilation, the highest
degree of adaptation theoretically conceivable. It is the process by which
strangers resocialized into a new culture so as to attain an increasing
functional fitness... complete adaptation is a lifetime goal." (Gudykunst
and Kim, 2003, p. 360).
+
+Because no utopian goal or final solution to intercultural
misunderstanding or "miscommunication" (as Gudykunst and Kim, 2003, put it
p. 361) is postulated by the DAD theory such as an "upward-forward
progress" in human development toward total assimilation, the DAD theory
cannot be used to measure movement toward final desired and postulated
outcomes based on value judgments. Dimensional Accrual and Dissociation
does not posit and advance a particular type of ideal person or society.
Rather, it is a social scientific theory, not a proposed method of social
engineering. Gudykunst and Kim (2003) make it a point to postulate a
utopian or ideal type person they confusingly call an "intercultural
person" or a "universal person" with "transcultural identity" (pp. 383–
384). They argue that this new ideal type of person and society can and
should be engineered by all means available including using the mass media
and primary schools to manufacture them "by design" (pp. 389, 395). Though
they never cite them, Gudykunst and Kim's intercultural adaptation theory
is not dissimilar to the Victorian Era ideology promoted in England for the
betterment of that empire at home and abroad by Herbert Spencer, Francis
Galton, and Karl Pearson. Interestingly, Pearson saw fit to change the
spelling of his own name from Carl to Karl later in life. In fact Spencer's
use of the concepts adaptation, evolution, and progress are very similar to
how they are used by Gudykunst and Kim (2003) in their theory of
Intercultural Adaptation and their ideal-type person the "Intercultural
person" who presumably, if such a person existed, would live in a world
beyond the "emotional defilements" (p. 385) and distinctions of culture;
entirely "above the hidden forces of culture" (385).
+
+Since natural selection is too slow, Gudykunst and Kim (2003) argue
forcefully that creating conditions on a mass scale to inculcate this new,
more developed and better kind of person is not only moral but will be
a "special privilege" (p. 389) for those so "trained" (p. 359). If primary
enculturation as a child is missed then they argue that the same social
institutions should be used for the "resocialization and acculturation"
(p. 359) of unfit persons by means of the disintegration and reintegration
of their psyches in line with the "conformity pressure" of the dominant
mainstream culture. In this way they may achieve a higher level
of "evolution" (p 384), "competence" (p. 364), "operational ability"
(p. 363), "functional fit" (pp. 372, 382), and "productivity" (pp. 363,
380). This will assure the smooth running of the mainstream culture.
According to Gudykunst and Kim (2003), any resistance to conformity or any
lack of enthusiasm for disintegrating and unlearning one's original self on
the part of the immigrant suggests that they are "mentally ill" (pp. 365,
373), "hostile" and irrationally "aggressive" (pp. 368–372), weak (p. 369),
lacking "self-control" (p. 369), and "maturity" (pp. 377,
381), "self-deceived," "unrealistic," deluded (pp. 369, 379-382), and
simply "maladjusted" and failing to "perceive the world and himself
correctly" (pp. 372–373).
+
+The key to achieving perfect functional fit and communication, according
to Gudykunst and Kim (2003) is for the immigrant to "unlearn"
and "deculturize" (pp. 360, 379-382) themselves and avoid "ethnic
communication activities" (p. 368). According to Gudykunst and Kim (2003),
unfortunately some people have personalities that are inherently less
amenable to such deculturization and training and they tend to
be "unrealistic," "functionally unfit," and "aggressive" (pp. 368–372).
Presumably, since Gudykunst and Kim (2003) define these negative traits
as "personality predispositions" (p. 368) or "adaptive predisposition"
(p. 370) they could, just as Galton and Pearson proposed, be bred out of
the human population through comparison of group statistical means and
selective reproduction. While logic may lead this way, current morality
does not. Gudykunst and Kim (2003) go more for forced compliance via public
education as they argue that the new kind of better person and world they
promote can be created by "programming" peoples' minds (p. 358) through
intense socialization so that the cultural patterns they (Gudykunst and
Kim) evaluate as good are "etched into our nervous systems and become part
of our personalities and behavior" (p. 376).
+
+Differently, Kramer's DAD theory (Kramer, 1992, 1997a, 2003, 2011, 2012.)
is based on the observation that different cultures manifest predominantly
different modes of communicating; idolic or symbolic or signalic, which are
merely different relative to each other. No one mode of communication is
inherently and universally superior to the others. No final solution to
intercultural conflict is suggested by Kramer. Instead he puts forth three
integrated theories, Dimensional Accrual and Dissociation, Cultural Fusion
Theory (Kramer, 1997a, 2000a, 2011, 2012) and Cultural Churning Theory
(Kramer, 1997a, 2003, 2011, 2012) on what he calls "panevolutionary"
systems principles whereby all elements of a system, including minority
elements, directly or indirectly influence each others' future trajectories
in a broader ecological process. This is more in line with chaos theory.
Each modality (idolic, symbolic, and signalic) has its own strengths and
weaknesses depending on circumstance. As dissociation increases from idolic
to symbolic to signalic communication, emotional investment and
identification decreases and symbols become increasingly arbitrary.
+
+For instance, according to Kramer's DAD theory (1992, 1997a, 2003, 2011,
2012) a statue of a god in an idolic community literally is god and if you
steal it you will be in big trouble. Many millions of people in India
believe that "statues of" the god Ganesh drink milk and people in Taiwan
buy airplane seat tickets for the "statue of" the goddess Matsu to visit
her mainland Chinese home. To take such a statue/god from its temple is
more than a theft, it is blasphemy perhaps worthy of death. One-dimensional
idolic perception and communication involves identity and being identical.
Idolic reality involves strong emotional identification. A holy relic does
not simply symbolize the sacred, it is sacred and if lost or destroyed it
cannot be replicated. It can be replaced by another relic but if lost or
destroyed it is gone. Idolic things and places, such as the Temple Mount or
the Dome of the Rock in Jerusalem are not arbitrary. They are not merely
real-estate. They cannot be moved because the land itself is sacred and so
it is very difficult if not impossible to compromise, to negotiate away
commitments for to do so is to violate peoples' very identities as devout
Muslims and Jews. If you lose your lucky rabbit's foot or magic power
crystal you've literally lost your luck or power. By contrast the symbolic
two dimensional nature of a crucifix purchased for a church means that if
you steal it you have not literally stolen God but it is still a more
emotional theft than say a speaker system for that faith community. A
two-dimensional symbol involves ambiguity in the form of both literal and
figural meaning. Finally, if you choose to communicate in a
three-dimensional signalic modality, for instance in x's and o's rather
than p's and q's, few if any will care because everything in the signalic
modality is arbitrary. The circumstantial nature of the relative
communicative competence and effectiveness of one style over another can be
exemplified by coaching. It may be more advantageous given the goal of
winning for an athletic coach to be highly idolic and emotional in a
half-time speech even equating the stadium with "our house," this season
as "our time," and the number previously worn by a deceased teammate
as "his presence on the field" when worn by another player, but it is more
advantageous to be less emotional and more dissociated and signalic when
discussing the x's and o's of strategy and tactics days in advance of a
game. This is why it is not advisable for an otherwise very sober and
analytic surgeon to perform emergency surgery on his own family member but
it is advisable and appropriate for the same father or spouse to become
emotionally involved and overtly cheer for the same family member during a
sporting event or musical performance.
+
+The kind of flexibility that would enable a person to not care too much
about differing lifestyles and to deculturize and acculturize with ease
would constitute a sort of perfect postmodern non-identity. Despite
whatever value judgments one might have about it, pride in one's community,
one's ethnic group membership, one's nation and the like, are forms of
prejudice. A fundamental premise in hermeneutics and semiotics, which
Kramer's DAD theory accepts as true is that identity depends on difference.
So too do meaning, communication, and learning. If everyone assimilates
into a monoculture that would mean that identity, meaning, and
communication would cease to be (Kramer, 1992, 1997a, 2003). Regardless of
how one may judge it, the fact is that the stronger one's sense of
identity, the more likely one is to care about it, to see themselves as
different—the more meaningful it (personal concept) is and the world one
inhabits. The important point here is that the more a person manifests
self-esteem and self-efficacy the more outgoing and resilient they will be
in a foreign environment. In other words, it is not necessarily the case
that the more confident a person is the more flexible they will be. Quite
the contrary. Pride is a form of prejudice. The more dissociated a person
is, the more things become arbitrary and the less they care about them. For
instance, according to Kramer's DAD theory, religious identity for a
predominantly idolic person, is not perceived by them as arbitrary, not
even questionable. By comparison, a predominantly symbolic person may be
able to convert from one religious faith to another but such a change in
identity has very profound emotional consequences. For a signalic person
where everything is arbitrary, changing churches is like shopping. It is a
matter of personal choice and convenience, a matter of membership. In fact
one may choose to not belong to a religious community entirely without much
concern. But for an idolic person religious identity is not at all an issue
of membership or choice. It is inherent to who one is. So acculturation
varies from one person to another depending on what worldview they manifest.
+
+A pure postmodern nihilist, if one exists, is not likely to fight for
anything. This may be good or it may be bad depending on your own beliefs
and value system. But regardless of the goodness or badness of such a
status, according to the observations that led to the development of the
DAD theory, there are few if any real total nihilists in this world. Pure
nihilism is a sort of fantasy that is not very useful for explaining actual
conditions in multicultural and intercultural circumstances where
acculturation and assimilation are salient. Additionally and ironically,
nihilism itself is a school of thought, an "ism" which is a particular
perspective. As Hans-Georg Gadamer in his book "Truth and Method" (1960
Ger./1984 Eng.), argues a person without a perspective, a prejudice, could
not understand or make sense of anything because understanding is always
already from a point-of-view which both enables interpretation and limits
it at the same time. Francis Bacon agrees and enumerates such structural
enabling and blinding elements of perception/interpretation in the form of
his four idols (tribe which involves species limitations such as the
innately human abilities to see, hear, taste..., the idol of the theater
which involves dogmas and ideologies, the idol of the cave which involves
my personal limitations such as my education, my IQ, my eyesight..., and
the idol of the market place which involves how others I associate with
influence my thinking and perception). Hence Gadamer's claim that naive
objectivity postulates knowledge without a fallible knower, that such a
philosophy constitutes an irrational prejudice against prejudice. It is
irrational because it is hopelessly idealistic suggesting the possibility
of what Marurice Merleau-Ponty called "immaculate perception."
+
+Bottom line, prejudice is not only inescapable but it is a necessary
condition for understanding or sense-making as we know it. This is why
acculturation, according to Kramer's DAD theory, is a mode of learning, of
integrating new information, and this process of integration is always in
terms understandable to the learner. The fallibility of the human condition
and cultural prejudice may seem "sad" or "bad" but the DAD theory is not
promoting value judgments but instead offers an attempted explanation of
what is the case. Perspectivism in epistemological terms is unavoidable.
Just as I cannot go to the gym and lose weight for you so too I cannot
learn for you. You must learn for yourself. You must make the knowledge
your own. How an individual acculturates is a very individual and personal
process. A predominantly idolic person will integrate into a social milieu
differently than a symbolic or signalic person. A Sub-Saharian tribesman
will integrate into urban Los Angeles differently than a student from
Paris. A good example of differential integration and acculturation based
on the immigrant manifesting one communicative modality and worldview while
their host culture manifests a different one is to be found in Anne
Fadiman's (1997) book "The Spirit Catches You and You Fall Down" about a
Laotian girl who has immigrated to Merced, California and who falls ill.
How her parents interpret her illness is very different from how her
doctors interpret her illness. The conflicts and miscommunications that are
illustrated in this study can best be explained by applying Kramer's theory
of Dimensional Accural and Dissociation. As a social scientist our job is
to offer an explanation of why things are as they are—to understand and
predict. It is inadequate to say that such problems of intercultural
communication can be solved by simply eliminating cultural difference
altogether; by one side totally erasing themselves and conforming to the
other side's way of thinking, feeling, and behaving. This simply does not
and cannot happen. Even if they wish, a person cannot willfully unlearn
themselves or change their racial phenotype. Another good example that
illustrates differential modes of acculturation is found in the 2008
documentary "Split Horn" (directed by Taggart Siegel) about a Hmong Shaman
living in Appleton Wisconsin. Also recommended is Sabine Kuegler's (1980)
book "Child of the Jungle: The True Story of a Girl Caught Between Two
Worlds" about a "German" girl who grew up in the Fayu tribe in West Papua
with her missionary parents and what happened to her when she "returned" to
Europe at age 17.
+
+Taking into consideration the nature of the contact, one must look at how
acculturation results in changes to the culture of both groups. Kramer
(2009) refers to such change as co-evolution. Kramer (2010) also addresses
what he calls the qualities of entrance vectors which addresses the nature
of contact. Interaction potential is one aspect of entrance vector.
Interaction potential deals with the immigrant, migrant, or refugee after
already settling into a host cultural milieu. It involves how receptive a
host culture is to the newcomer, how easy is it for the newcomer to
interact with and get to know indigenous folks, and vice versa. Of course
language is a big part of this and it greatly impacts acculturation.
Regarding entrance vectors, there are essential differences between forced
immigration due to war and famine constituting refugee status and selective
immigration for commercial and professional desires. Entrance vector
involves forced versus voluntary immigration as well as host community
receptivity. A surge of thousands of unwanted and reluctant refugees across
a border may actually prompt a reactionary backlash from a neighboring
nation while, by contrast, corporations may seek out skilled workers in
other countries and attempt to lure them with financial benefits to
relocate. Why a person immigrates is just as important as the receptivity
of her host cultural destination (Kramer, 2000c, 2009, 2011). Unrealistic
expectations on one or both "sides" can lead to increased conflict, and/or
a more profound sense of culture shock, disappointment, and depression.
Examples can include when relatively wealthy people retire to other
countries where the locals may expect an unrealistic boost to their economy
or when a corporation relocates bringing with it unforeseen problems such
as a foreign management style or pollution. Unforeseen variance in presumed
appropriateness of inequality among people (power distance), or age or
gender appropriate decorum are common sources of unrealistic expectations
(see work on expectancy violation theory).
+
+Such differences in motivation, expectation, and perceived sense of agency
have profound consequences for the acculturation process. At the individual
level, elements of both the original cultures from which immigrants hail
and the cultures to which they migrate must be taken into consideration
when considering an individual's psychological acculturation. Psychological
acculturation concerns the behavioral shifts and experienced thoughts,
feelings, and stress associated with cultural change. Differences in
psychological acculturation then affect how well individuals adapt to their
new cultural environment, leading to both psychological and sociocultural
outcomes such as experiencing low self-esteem or acquiring a new language.
+
+===Fourfold Models===
+Meta-analyses of research on acculturation have shown pronounced
disagreement in the categorization of different strategies of
acculturation. However, the majority of these models have divided the ways
in which individuals approach acculturation into four categories.
+
+The fourfold model categorizes acculturation strategies along two
dimensions. The first dimension concerns the retention or rejection of an
individual's minority or native culture (i.e. "Is it considered to be of
value to maintain one's identity and characteristics?"). The second
dimension concerns the adoption or rejection of the dominant group or host
culture (i.e. "Is it considered to be of value to maintain relationships
with the larger society?") From this, four acculturation strategies emerge.
+
+#Assimilation – Assimilation occurs when individuals reject their minority
culture and adopt the cultural norms of the dominant or host culture.
+#Separation – Separation occurs when individuals reject the dominant or
host culture in favor of preserving their culture of origin. Separation is
often facilitated by immigration to ethnic enclaves.
+#Integration – Integration occurs when individuals are able to adopt the
cultural norms of the dominant or host culture while maintaining their
culture of origin. Integration leads to, and is often synonymous with
biculturalism.
+#Marginalization – Marginalization occurs when individuals reject both
their culture of origin and the dominant host culture.
+
+===Predictors of Acculturation Strategies===
+The fourfold models used to describe the attitudes of immigrant groups
parallel models used to describe the expectations of the larger society of
how groups should acculturate. In a melting pot society, in which a
harmonious and homogenous culture is promoted, assimilation is the endorsed
acculturation strategy. In segregationist society, in which humans are
separated into racial groups in daily life, a separation acculturation
strategy is endorsed. In a multiculturalist society, in which multiple
cultures are accepted and appreciated, individuals are encouraged to adopt
an integrationist approach to acculturation. In societies where cultural
exclusion is promoted, individuals often adopt marginalization strategies
of acculturation.
+
+Attitudes of the larger society towards acculturation, and thus the range
of acculturation strategies available, have not been consistent over time.
For example, for most of American history, policies and attitudes have been
based around established ethnic hierarchies with an expectation of one-way
assimilation for European immigrants. Although the notion of cultural
pluralism has existed since the early 20th century, the recognition and
promotion of multiculturalism did not come to prominence in America until
the 1980s. Separatism can still be seen today in autonomous religious
communities such as the Amish and the Hutterites. Immediate environment
also impacts the availability and advantage of different acculturation
strategies. As individuals immigrate to unequal segments of society,
immigrants to areas low on economic and ethnic hierarchies may find efforts
to assimilate leading to limited social mobility and membership to a
disadvantaged community.
+
+It should also be noted that most individuals show variation in both their
ideal and chosen acculturation strategies across different domains of their
lives. For example, among immigrants, it is often easier and more desired
to acculturate to their host society's attitudes towards politics and
government, than it is to acculturate to new attitudes about religion,
principles, and values.
+
+==Outcomes of Acculturation==
+===Individual health===
+A great deal of public health research has used the degree to which
individuals adopt the cultural norms of the dominant host culture as a
predictor of numerous health outcomes, primarily among immigrant groups.
Acculturation is thought to impact health by impacting levels of stress,
access to health resources, and attitudes towards health. Among U.S.
Latinos, higher levels of adoption of the American host culture has been
associated with negative effects on health behaviors and outcomes, but
positive effects on health care use and access. The effects of
acculturation on physical health is thought to be a major factor in the
Immigrant Paradox, the finding that first generation immigrants tend to
have better health outcomes than members of the host culture, and that
these differences decrease over generations.
+
+One prominent explanation for the negative health behaviors and outcomes
(e.g. substance use, low birth weight) associated with the acculturation
process is the acculturative stress theory. Acculturative stress refers to
the psychological, somatic, and social difficulties that may accompany
acculturation processes, often manifesting in anxiety, depression and other
forms of mental and physical maladaptation. Stress caused by acculturation
has been documented in phenomenological research on the acculturation of
adolescent female Mexican immigrants. This research has shown that
acculturation is a "fatiguing experience requiring a constant stream of
bodily energy", an "individual and familial endeavor", and
involves "enduring loneliness caused by seemingly insurmountable language
barriers". However, the same individuals also report "finding relief and
protection in relationships" and "feeling worse and then feeling better
about oneself with increased competencies" during the acculturative process.
+
+===Culture===
+In situations of continuous contact, cultures have exchanged and blended
foods, music, dances, clothing, tools, and technologies. Cultural exchange
can either occur naturally through extended contact, or deliberately though
cultural appropriation or cultural imperialism.
+
+Cultural appropriation is the adoption of some specific elements of one
culture by a different cultural group. It can include the introduction of
forms of dress or personal adornment, music and art, religion, language, or
behavior. These elements are typically imported into the existing culture,
and may have wildly different meanings or lack the subtleties of their
original cultural context. Because of this, cultural appropriation is
sometimes viewed negatively, and has been called "cultural theft."
+
+Cultural imperialism is the practice of promoting the culture or language
of one nation in another, usually occurring in situations in which
assimilation is the dominant strategy of acculturation. Cultural
imperialism can take the form of an active, formal policy or a general
attitude regarding cultural superiority.
+
+===Language===
+The transactional nature of acculturation is particularly notable in the
evolution of languages. In some instances, acculturation results in the
adoption of another country's language, which is then modified over time to
become a new, distinct, language. For example, Hanzi, the written language
of Chinese language, has been adapted and modified by other nearby
cultures, including: Japan (as Kanji), Korea (as Hanja), and Vietnam (as
Chữ-nôm). Another common effect of acculturation on language is the
formation of pidgin languages. Pidgin is a mixed language that has
developed to help communication between members of different cultures in
contact, usually occurring in situations of trade or colonialism. For
example, Pidgin English is a simplified form of English mixed with some of
the language of another culture. Eric Kramer (2009) introduced the concepts
of co- and pan-evolution to help explain acculturation and interculturual
communication.
+
+==Controversies and debate==
+===Definitions===
+Some anthropologists make a semantic distinction between group and
individual levels of acculturation. In these instances, the
term "transculturation" is used to define individual foreign-origin
acculturation, and occurs on a smaller scale with less visible impact.
Scholars making this distinction use the term "acculturation" only to
address large-scale cultural transactions.
+
+===Recommended Models of Acculturation===
+From the vast catalog of theories on acculturation, many different
prescriptions have emerged for the most adaptive form of acculturation.
When asking individuals about their preferred acculturation strategy, there
is an almost universal preference for integration and dislike of
marginalization. In general, most research seems to indicate that the
integrationist model of acculturation will lead to the most favorable
psychosocial outcomes A meta-analysis of the acculturation literature,
however, found these results to be unclear. Recognizing that acculturation
was measured inconsistently among these studies, a later meta-analysis of
40 studies showed that integration was indeed found to have a "significant,
weak and positive relationship with psychological and sociocultural
adjustment". Factors such as how different the two interacting cultures
are, and how easily individuals can integrate these two cultures
(bicultural identity integration) may partially explain why general
statements about approaches to acculturation are not sufficient in
predicting successful adaptation.
+
+Surprisingly, given the work of scholars over the decades such as W.E.B
Dubois (\\The Souls of Black Folk, 1903), and Milton Gordon, Robert Park,
Daniel Patrick Moynihan, Nathan Glazer, and many others in the 1960s and
1970s, and J. W. Berry's work in the 1980s and 1990s there are still some
theories that posit a fixed and dominant "mainstream culture" toward which
the newcomer must conform by means of acculturation (Gudykunst and Kim,
2003). A good example of such a contemporary theory is Intercultural
Adaptation Theory by William Gudykunst and Young Yun Kim (2003). They argue
that an immigrant or migrant, what they call "stranger," manifests mental
illness, immaturity, incompetence, and unsuccessful integration until and
unless they are willing and able to "deculturize," and "unlearn" themselves
(Gudykunst and Kim, 2003). Gudykunst and Kim (2003) argue that
acculturation involves the disintegration and reintegration of the
individual immigrant's psyche so that the immigrant will "evolve" or
increasingly act, think, and feel (behavioral, cognitive, and affective
conformity) just as an indigenous local does (pp. 364, 367). According to
Gudykunst and Kim's theory of Intercultural Adaptation, it is not enough
that when in Rome do as the Romans do but they argue that to be
functionally fit one must think and have the same emotions as Romans.
Failure to do so means, according to Gudykunst and Kim (2003), that the
newcomer is irrationally hostile, immature, mentally ill, maladjusted, and
unrealistic (pp. 367–374). They argue that acculturation is a single
variable so that the newcomer becomes acculturated only to the extent that
she "deculturizes" and "unlearns" herself with equal but opposite measure.
But what if one cannot change color or gender preference or really does not
want to change their language or religion? (Kramer, 2003, 1997b,).
Furthermore, Gudykunst and Kim (2003) postulate that the individual psyche
is like a full container so that every time the immigrant learns something
new she must forget something old. To aid in their version of assimilation,
which they equate with integration, both of which they equate with simple
conformity (p. 373), Gudykunst and Kim (2003) logically argue therefore
that the newcomer should refrain from any contact with their primary
culture including avoiding media content from the home country, association
with groups from the home culture, speaking one's original language,
practicing in one's home faith, and so forth (Gudykunst and Kim, 2003,
pp. 365, 366).
+
+As noted, in the field of intercultural communication, Gudykunst and Kim
(2003, p. 360) have for two decades (through publications from 1984, 1992,
1997, 2003) consistently equated six concepts with each other; adaptation,
integration, acculturation, evolution, conformity (see for instance 2003,
p. 373), and assimilation. They equate these psychological processes
with "upward-forward progress" toward a general "positivity" (p. 369),
greater emotional maturity (p. 377, 381, 384), greater integration
(pp. 381, 383), emancipation from ethnocentrism (p. 376, 382), increased
cognitive complexity (versus being simple-minded, p. 383),
enhanced "clarity" (p. 383), psychic growth/evolution (pp. 376, 380-382,
384), more developed and balanced perception (p. 383), greater mental
health (p. 365, 372-376), greater functional/communicative competence
(p. 361, 369, 372), being more realistic—conforming to "appropriate"
patterns of feeling, thinking, and behaving: "the accepted modes of
experience" ("external objective circumstance", pp. 363, 369, 378, 380),
being more emotionally stable/balanced (p. 383),
overcoming "self-deception" and delusion (p. 380), and other positive
sounding value judgments (Gudykunst and Kim, 2003, pp. 357–390). They
encourage the newcomer to be "plastic" (p. 380) and to fit or conform to
whatever dominating social structure they find themselves in or be regarded
as immature, insane, incompetent communicators, cynical, irrationally
aggressive, devolved, muddled and simple-minded, and so forth. Gudykunst
and Kim (2003) see no value in social change brought about by newcomers, or
in people trying to expand things such as civil liberties in the face of
unfair and unjust social conditions. For them the mainstream with its
appropriate patterns of communication and coercive pressure to conform is
simply a matter of numeric majority (p. 360). Of course this defies the
general social scientific concept of majority power whereby often it is
numerical minorities who rule numerical majorities. In order to help the
newcomer become more mentally healthy, realistic, competent, and fit or
appropriate in their emotional reactions and thoughts Gudykunst and Kim
(2003) encourage the newcomer to "minimize maintenance of their original
cultural habits" (p. 360) by severing relations with their ethnic
relational network and abandoning involvements with their own ethnic
institutions such as their original language, churches, synagogues, mosques
and "ethnic media" (pp. 365–373).
+
+Because Gudykunst and Kim (2003) see cognitive and emotional growth as a
zero-sum process they believe that maintaining contact with one's ethnic
group, institutions, and even media ("ethnic communication activities"
p. 368), will "discourage strangers' development of host communication
competence" (p. 372) and evolutionary transformation of their psyche toward
greater "psychological health and functional fitness" (p. 372, 376).
According to Gudykunst and Kim (2003) the way to being functionally fit
is "to undergo a fundamental psychic transformation" and the way
upward-forward is to "abandon our identification with the cultural patterns
that have symbolized who we are and what we are" (p. 377). According to
Gudykunst and Kim (2003) the newcomers ways are "ethnocentric" while the
host societies ways are realistic and appropriate (p. 363, 369, 378, 380).
The immigrant should "reassess" her "ethnocentric ways" (Gudykunst and Kim,
p. 376). Finally and curiously, while the immigrant is strongly encouraged
to assimilate into the mainstream "appropriate" (p. 363) ways of feeling,
thinking, and behaving, the ultimate solution to intercultural
misunderstanding and conflict, according to Gudykunst and Kim (2003) is
to "rise above the hidden forces of culture" altogether and look at all
cultures "objectively" (Gudykunst and Kim, 2003, p. 385). This they equate
with the Buddhist notion of nirvana. But if hermeneutic theory argues
anything, it is that one cannot escape the perspectival nature of
perception, that, as Ludwig Landgrebe used to say, even God has a
particular and unique way of seeing reality even if it is from all points
simultaneously. Indeed only one being could possibly, inconceivably,
manifest such a perspective.
+
+By contrast, Kramer's (2011, 2010, 2000a,) theory of Cultural Fusion
maintains a clear conceptual separation between assimilation, adaptation,
and integration. Only assimilation involves conformity to a pre-existing
form. Kramer's (2000a, 2000b, 2000c, 2003, 2009, 2011) theory of Cultural
Fusion also postulates that as learning occurs cognitive complexity and
growth increase. In other words, there is no need to unlearn something in
order to learn something new. Learning is not a zero-sum game. So as the
newcomer learns the ways of their adopted homeland they add new
repertoires, new ways of cooking, working, dressing, seeking entertainment,
playing, and so forth. The newcomer does not have to unlearn something old
to learn something new. According to Cultural Fusion theory the individual
and also the community is enriched as difference accrues. In accordance
with hermeneutic theory, Kramer's theory of Cultural Fusion (2011, 2009,
2000b) argues that the old is not lost but is presumed and is necessary for
integrating the new and as new information accrues the individual and the
community is enriched. For example, as new cuisines enter a community,
community members have more choices of restaurants thus enriching their
dining experiences. As new foods become available, like putting colors
side-by-side creates complementarity, old standards take on new meaning.
Also as the individual learns more about spices they can be more innovative
and enjoy more tastes. Borrowing from the hermeneutic theory of fusion of
horizons developed by Hans-Georg Gadamer, Kramer's theory of Cultural
Fusion suggest that as a newcomer enters a community there is mutual
adjustment or Co-Evolution (Kramer, 2009), not merely cultural coersion for
the newcomer to assimilate.
+
+When a process is defined as "natural" the rhetoric suggests that it is
inevitable, normal, good, and futile to question or resist. However,
assimilation, especially forced assimilation, has been shown to be none of
these things. Leon Festinger (1956) and Festinger and James Carlsmith
(1959/2008) already demonstrated a quarter century before Gudykunst and Kim
first published their theory (and this has been replicated many times since
in psychology and sociology) that "forced compliance" does not make people
happy, more peaceful, or enjoy greater "psychic equilibrium." Festinger
(1957) and Festinger and Carlsmith (1959/2008) demonstrated that there are
negative cognitive consequences to forced compliance. And prior to this
work Herbert Kelman (1953) had already discovered that there is no linear
correlation between rewards and change in opinion. A person may be
compelled to change his or her attitude toward a state of affairs through
either reward or punishment or a combination of the two, but it has been
known for some time now that neither works very well in compelling a person
to alter his or her opinion. Even forcing a person to rehearse the desired
narrative or behavior does not achieve much "self-convincing." Rather,
forced compliance can often lead to overt resistance to change. And
compliance gaining is greatly complicated by cultural differences (K.
Miller-Loessi & J. N. Parker, 2003; W. Griswold, 1994; J. Bruner,
1990/2010), gender differences (West & Fenstermaker, 1993; Fausto-Sterling,
1993; Ridgeway, 1993; Sprague & Zimmerman, 1993; Tuana, 1993; Haraway,
1991; Collins, 1991) disability (Cahill & Eggleston, 1994), perceptions of
race and ethnicity (Miall, Ramsbothom, & Woodhouse, 2005; Rawls, 2000;
Devine and Elliot, 1995; Stryker & Burke, 2000; Paul, 1998; Devine, 1996;
Hunt, Jackson, Powell, & Steelman, 2000; Sherif, 1956/2008), comparative
concepts of identity (Hogg, 2003; Stryker, Owens, and White, 2000; Gergen,
1991/2010; Snyder, 1980/2008), comparative concepts of family (Naples,
2001; Ferree, 1990; see the resource Journal of Comparative Family
Studies), body aesthetics (Crandall, et al., 2001/2008; Cowley, 1996/2008),
concepts of masculinity (Duneier, 1992; Anderson, 1990/2010), and so forth.
Already in 1963, Nathan Glazer and Donald Moynihan observed that while some
immigrant groups assimilate others retain aspects of their native culture.
For instance, one may change one's religious affiliation and convert but
even such a conversion for the deeply faithful is not a simple process
of "church membership." Religion is an essential aspect of core identity.
This has been demonstrated time and again (Croucher, 2008; Croucher and
Cronin-Mills, 2011; Rokeach, 1968; Becker, 1973; Campbell, 1988).
+
+According to Kramer (2000a, 2000b, 2000c, 2003, 2009), the presence of
minorities constitutes an organic aspect of social system and as a newcomer
enters a community both the individual and the community are changed. Such
system-wide dynamics Kramer calls "cultural churning" (Kramer, 2003, 2009,
2012). Co-evolutionary relationships can be diffuse, as among all plants
and insects, specific as between two cells in an organism or just two
species, symbiotic or competitive (both being reciprocal), symmetrical or
asymmetrical, and so forth (Kramer, 2000a, 2000c, 2009, 2012). Co-evolution
was already recognized by Darwin in "On the Origin of Species" (1859) as
was the obvious trait of altruism (co-operation) in "The Descent of Man"
(Darwin, 1871). Those who borrow terms such as "evolution" and "adaptation"
need to be aware of what they mean. Adaptation does not mean assimilation
or conformity. And evolution is almost always within a system so that it is
really co-evolution or pan-evolution whereby all parts directly or
indirectly, symmetrically or asymmetrically, symbiotically or competitively
influence each other. Neither evolution nor adaptation means conformity to
an already successful or dominant form such as "mainstream culture" or a
simple majority. Rather as Darwin was amazed by the diversity of life he
found on his voyage, evolution means innovation. It means endless trial of
deviant forms, some of which prove successful and endure. One must remember
that even the value-laden concept of progress requires deviance. The
most "competent" and "successful" people are innovators in all things from
the arts and sciences to industry and engineering. Patents and copyrights
are for the new. This is the proper application of systems ecological
nomenclature to the process of acculturation.
+
+According to Kramer (2000c, 2003) it is impossible to willfully unlearn
one's self and that even if it were possible it would not aid in the
newcomer's adjustment process for the newcomer needs to integrate new
information, making sense of new experiences in accord with their
pre-understanding. An example of fusion, whereby the individual presumes
and relies on pre-understandings to integrate new circumstances is driving
a bicycle or automobile in a foreign environment. While people in England
drive on the other side of the road from people in the United States, the
English immigrant to the U.S. can adjust her driving practices while
relying on her previous understanding of the rules of staying in one's
lane, signaling before turning, leaving proper distance between moving
cars, and other aspects of driving. The same pertains to many jobs. If she
had to relearn all aspects of driving, her adjustment process would be much
harder and take much more time. And as Thomas Sowell (1994) demonstrates,
typically the most successful newcomers are ones who bring some new and
different skills such as violin making, stone cutting, hard rock mining,
and the like to their adopted communities. Those who find themselves to be
redundant with skills already prevalent have a harder time. Evolution
proceeds not through conformity and redundancy but through new emergent
forms. As all business people know, it is easier to create a new niche than
it is to go head-to-head with a firm already well established in the market
place. And if one must go head-to-head, one must find some way to do things
differently to find an identity; either have higher quality and/or lower
prices, faster delivery and/or optionalization, etc. than the competition.
Simply cloning the competition that is already established is not
effective. Fusion of horizons also does not mean "unlearning" or
disintegrating one's self and reintegrating as identical to a local. Fusion
is an explanation of integration, and integration unlike assimilation means
that the identities of individuals endure so that differences, which
constitute meaning and identity, can integrate. Without difference there
can be no integration. Integration ceases once total assimilation occurs.
Gudykunst and Kim (2003) mistakenly use several terms interchangeably
including; integration, adaptation, assimilation, evolution, and so forth.
When difference is eliminated, meaning also vanishes as meaning and
identity are dependent on not being identical with the other—difference.
According to Gudykunst and Kim, total assimilation, what they call "the
process of adaptation," is the ultimate goal and failure to do so makes the
newcomer "inappropriate" in their thinking, feeling, and "functional
operation." Gudykunst and Kim (2003) simply state that failure to conform
is a failure of the newcomer to be "fit to live in the company of others"
(p. 358).
+
+===Typological Approach===
+Several theorists have stated that the fourfold models of acculturation
are too simplistic to have predictive validity. Some common criticisms of
such models include the fact that individuals don't often fall neatly into
any of the four categories, and that there is very little evidence for the
applied existence of the marginalization acculturation strategy. In
addition, the bi-directionality of acculturation means that whenever two
groups are engaged in cultural exchange, there are in fact 16 permutations
of acculturation strategies possible (e.g. an integrationist individual
within an assimilationist host culture). The Interactive Acculturation
Model represents one proposed alternative to the typological approach by
attempting to explain the acculturation process within a framework of state
policies and the dynamic interplay of host community and immigrant
acculturation orientations.
+
+==See also==
+*Biculturalism
+*Cultural assimilation
+*Enculturation
+*Intercultural competence
+*Language shift
+*Marginalization
+*Melting pot
+*Multiculturalism
+*Pidgin
+*Racial segregation
+*Westernization
+
+==References==
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
=======================================
--- /dev/null
+++ /trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Achievement ideology Mon Jun 11 05:34:01
2012
@@ -0,0 +1,40 @@
+
+Achievement Ideology is the belief that one reaches a socially perceived
definition of success through hard work and education. In this view,
factors such as gender, race/ethnicity, economic background, social
networks, or neighborhoods/geography are secondary to hard work and
education or are altogether irrelevant in the pursuit of success.
+
+==Contemporary analysis of achievement ideology==
+In 2002, Sandra L. Barnes, offered that people who believe in the American
achievement ideology most likely blame underachievement on attitudinal or
moral differences among individuals. For those who disagree with the
achievement ideology, this difference in attitude is most likely the result
of an oppositional response to negative institutional and structural
forces. In her study, Barnes found that those who most benefit from
achievement ideology (white males in higher class neighborhoods, for
example) are most likely to espouse the achievement ideology. For example,
African Americans are more likely than whites to believe that race is an
ascribed trait that helps some achieve success more easily than others, and
those with higher incomes are more likely to claim that having a strong
social network is an unimportant factor for success. All respondent groups,
however, believe that education and hard work are most important for
success, proving that achievement ideology is alive and well. Ultimately,
Barnes argues that success is best reached when one has an
achievement-oriented attitude coupled with the actual ability to accomplish
one’s goals. While most people might have the proper attitude, structural
factors can keep them from achieving.
+
+Donna Y. Ford sought to discover the differences in ideologies between
male and female and gifted and nongifted African American students. Ford
describes four theories on achievement ideology…
+
+===Need Achievement theory===
+Social scientists who advocate this theory believe that one’s achievement
is a product of the motivation to succeed times the motivation to avoid
failure. This means that individuals weigh their expectancy of success with
the value they place on that success, or, how well an individual thinks
s/he can do and how much doing well actually matters.
+
+===Test Anxiety theory===
+As with need achievement theory, social scientists who support test
anxiety theory look to how a student evaluates her/his ability to succeed.
Students who are preoccupied with the outcome of their performance, who
fear failure or humiliation if they do not perform well, might not perform
well because this anxiety stifles their performance.
+
+===Social Learning theory===
+In this theory, students are socialized from an early age and hold
different expectations or values based on their own experience or social
situation. According to this theory, students who are raised in an
atmosphere of underachievement, who often see previous generations and
family members not succeed, will most likely internalize these values and
perceive their own success as unlikely.
+
+===Attribution theory===
+This theory explains a lack of motivation in students as a result of the
students’ belief in achievement ideology. When a student attributes her/his
own failure to a lack of ability, they consequently are less likely to
expect to do well. If a student fully believes in the achievement ideology,
failure can only be a result of lack of ability or lack of effort.
+
+Ford claims that, while these four theories may explain underachievement
in some students, they only focus on students’ lack of motivation to
achieve and do not consider a student’s failure despite her/his desire to
achieve. She describes this as the “paradox of underachievement,” a
discrepancy between a student’s ideology and their actual achievement
(i.e., when students do not do well in school despite their support of the
achievement ideology). In her study, the majority of both gifted and
nongifted African American students claimed that school is “very
important.” The majority of male and female African American students alike
responded that school was important or very important. If this is true that
most students are, in fact, motivated and view school as important for
success, a student’s failure must be explained by some other variable—most
likely ascribed variables like race/ethnicity, gender, and so on.
+
+==Effects of achievement ideology in the workplace==
+Belief in the American achievement ideology causes employers to look to an
individual’s educational success as the key factor in hiring potential
employees because achievement ideology perpetuates the notion that those
who have succeeded educationally are the most hard working. In "Education
and Jobs", Ivar Berg writes, “The increase in educational requirements for
middle-level jobs…may thus be taking place at some cost to a society that
has historically prided itself on its mobility opportunities.” This process
causes America’s education system to act more like a “licensing agency”
rather than promoting education for education’s sake. This, in turn, causes
many employees to be overqualified for their jobs.
+
+When jobs gradually require higher and higher educational attainment as a
prerequisite, the effort put into achieving these prerequisites (or, the
effort put into school) does not equal the needed effort or skill at one’s
job. Thus, workers’ endorsement of achievement ideology decreases each year
that s/he remains in a particular job for which s/he is overqualified. In
other words, employees begin to see the effort they put forth in school as
unnecessary.
+
+==Reasons for endorsing or rejecting achievement ideology==
+Jay MacLeod studied two groups of boys who live in a low-income
neighborhood for his book, "Ain’t No Makin' It". The “Hallway Hangers,” a
group a mostly white boys, did not endorse the American achievement
ideology. MacLeod found that this was a result of several factors. The
Hallway Hangers' parents wanted the best for their children and for them to
do well but feared encouraging high aspirations because they did not want
to set them up for failure and disappointment.
+
+Therefore, not only do students from low income backgrounds see
underachievement as they grow up, but parents might also be affected by an
environment of underachievement and exacerbate this for their children. The
Hallway Hangers and their parents go against the achievement ideology
because they do not see success in the future through hard work despite the
environment of underachievement. Also, to accept the achievement ideology
would be to say that their parents who have not “succeeded” are lazy or
unintelligent.
+
+The “Brothers” are a group of minority boys who live in the same housing
project as the Hallway Hangers. They, however, do endorse the American
achievement ideology. The Brothers see the racial situation in America as
vastly improved since the situation of previous generations. This causes
them to believe that each generation has worked harder and harder, and, if
they do the same, they will be able to do well in school and succeed in the
workforce. The Brothers have also lived in the housing project for far less
time than the Hallway Hangers whose families have lived there for up to
three generations. Many also moved to the housing project from far worse
situations such as impoverished countries and even lower income
neighborhoods. This causes the Brothers to think that they are upwardly
mobile.
+
+==See also==
+* Protestant work ethic
+
+==References==
+
+
=======================================
--- /dev/null
+++ /trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Action assembly theory Mon Jun 11
05:34:01 2012
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+
+Action assembly theory is a communication theory that emphasizes
psychological and social influences on human action. The goal is to examine
and describe the links between the cognition and behavior – how an
individual's thoughts get transformed into action. It was developed by John
Greene.
+
+== Definition ==
+
+Action assembly theory describes the production of behavior in two
essential processes:
+* the retrieval of procedural elements from long term memory, and
+* the organization of these elements to form an output representation of
action to be taken.
+* Action Assembly Theory (AAT) seeks to explain message behavior (both
verbal and nonverbal). AAT is a communication theory that emphasizes
psychological and social influences on human action. The goal is to examine
and describe the links between the cognition and behavior-how an
individuals thoughts get transformed into action. According to the
psychology wiki, AAT describes the production of behavior in two essential
processes: the retrieval of procedural elements from long term memory, and
the organization of these elements to form an output representation of
action to be taken. For example, assembly is considered a top-to-bottom
process that begins with more general strategy and goes to a more specific
idea about communicating the specific message.
+
+== Retrieval of procedural elements ==
+
+The idea of procedural record is at the center of action assembly. These
records contain information about action, outcomes, and situations. These
records are locked in the individual’s memory where it remembers past
behaviors for the future.
+
+A procedural record is at the center of action assembly. It is a personal
nugget of truth about past behavior stockpiled for future use, part of an
individual's memory system in which information about how to execute
various behaviors is stored. Procedural records contain information about
action, outcomes, and situations; for example, traveling at excessive speed
(action) in a zone that specifies low speed limit (situation)can result in
the issuance of a ticket (outcome).
+
+Procedural records have different levels of strength. Some are mere
scratches that barely leave a trace in the mind, while others are well-worn
into long-term memory.
+
+A central aspect of the action assembly theory is specifying the processes
that link procedural records to behavioral representations. The activation
process is the process used to select particular procedural records. For
example, if a parent disciplined a child for stealing, all procedural
records relevant to this goal and situation would be activated. In turn, if
a common disciplinary tactic was to take away toys and play items, a
procedural record of that would be activated quickly.
+
+== Organization of procedural elements ==
+
+It is also important to consider the process of assembly, which organizes
records into a behavioral representation. For example, assembly is
considered a top-down process that begins with general strategy and goes to
more specific ideas about communicating the specific message.
+
+Action assembly theory has been useful for topics such as speech onset
latency and hesitations during speaking. These concepts are assumed to be
indicators of cognitive processing. Another use is the study of planning –
individuals who plan more effectively are more fluent than those do not,
because planning reduces the cognitive load at the time of message
production.
+
+When an interaction situation has multiple goals, the theory finds
increased demands on an individual's information processing capacity.
Assembly of goals may be difficult because a specific goals may be
incompatible with behaviors associated with the other goals. In turn,
multiple goal messages involve more speech hesitations and latencies. The
utilization of Action Assembly theory can provide a clear opportunity to
plan or assemble goals more careful to mitigate the effect.
+
+== Use of AAT==
+
+When an interaction situation has multiple goals, the theory finds
increased demands on an individual’s information processing capacity.
Assembly of goals may be difficult because a specific goal may be
incompatible with behaviors associated with each other goals. In turn,
multiple goal messages involve more speech hesitation. The utilization of
AAT can provide a clear opportunity to plan or assemble goals more careful
to ease the effect.
+
+==Further reading==
+
+* Athay, M., & Darley, J.M. (1981). Toward an interaction-centered theory
of personality. In N. Cantor & J.F. Kihlstrom (Eds.), "Personality,
cognition, and social interaction" (pp. 281–308). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence
Erlbaum.
+* Coulmas, F. (1981). Introduction: Conversational routine. In F. Coulmas
(Ed.). "Conversational routine: Explorations in standardized communication
situations and prepatterned speech" (pp. 1–17). The Hague: Mouton.
+* Greene, J. (1984). A cognitive approach to human communication theory:
An action assembly theory. "Communication Monographs", 51, 289–306.
+* Greene, J. (1989). The stability of non-verbal behavior: An action
production approach to cross- situation consistency and
discriminativeness. "Journal of Language and Social Psychology", 8, 193–200.
+* Greene, J. (1984). Evaluating cognitive explanations of communication
phenomena. "Quarterly Journal of Speech", 70, 241–254.
+* Miller, K. (2005). "Communication theories, perspectives, processes, and
contexts". New York, NY: McGraw Hill.
+* Norman, D.A. (1980). Twelve issues for cognitive science. "Cognitive
Science, 4," 1–32.
+* Schmidt, R.A. (1975). A schema theory of discrete motor skill
learning. "Psychological Review, 82," 225–260.
+
+==References==
+
=======================================
--- /dev/null
+++ /trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Actor–observer asymmetry Mon Jun 11
05:34:01 2012
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+The actor-observer asymmetry touches on the fundamental questions of how
people gain access to their own and other people's minds and whether those
modes of access are distinct.
+
+The term specifically refers to a difference in the way people explain
their own behavior (when they are in the "actor" role) in contrast to the
way they explain other people's behavior (when they are in the "observer"
role). This asymmetry has been studied primarily within the field of social
psychology and particularly in the area known as
+"attribution" or "attribution theory." Considerations of actor-observer
differences can be found in other disciplines as well, such as philosophy
(e.g., privileged access, incorrigibility), management studies, artificial
intelligence, semiotics, anthropology, and political science (see Malle,
Knobe, & Nelson, 2007, for relevant references).
+
+The specific hypothesis of an actor-observer asymmetry in attribution
(explanations of behavior) was originally proposed by Jones and Nisbett
(1971), when they claimed that "actors tend to attribute the causes of
their behavior to stimuli inherent in the situation, while observers tend
to attribute behavior to stable dispositions of the actor” (p. 93).
Supported by initial evidence, the hypothesis was long held as firmly
established, describing a robust and pervasive phenomenon of social
cognition.
+
+However, a meta-analysis of all the published tests of the hypothesis
between 1971 and 2004 (Malle, 2006) yielded a stunning finding: there was
no actor-observer asymmetry of the sort Jones and Nisbett (1971) had
proposed. Malle (2006) interpreted this result not so much as proof that
actors and observers explained behavior exactly the same way but as
evidence that the original hypothesis was fundamentally flawed in the way
it framed people's explanations of behavior—namely, as attributions to
either stable dispositions or to the situation. Against the background of a
different theory of explanation, Malle, Knobe, and Nelson (2007) tested an
alternative set of three actor-observer asymmetries and found consistent
support for all of them. Thus, the actor-observer asymmetry does not exist
in one theoretical formulation (traditional attribution theory) but does
exist in the new alternative theoretical formulation. Malle (2011) argues
that this favors the alternative theoretical formulation, but current
textbooks have not yet fully addressed this theoretical challenge.
+
+==Background and initial formulation==
+The background to this hypothesis was social psychology's increasing
interest in the 1960s in the cognitive mechanisms by which people make
sense of their own and other people's behavior. This interest was
instigated by Fritz Heider's (1958) book, "The Psychology of Interpersonal
Relations", and the research in its wake has become known as "attribution
research" or "attribution theory."
+
+The specific hypothesis of an "actor–observer asymmetry" was first
proposed by social psychologists Jones and Nisbett in 1971. Jones and
Nisbett hypothesized that these two roles produce asymmetric explanations.
“Actors tend to attribute the causes of their behavior to stimuli inherent
in the situation, while observers tend to attribute behavior to stable
dispositions of the actor” (Jones & Nisbett, 1971, p. 93). According to
this hypothesis, a student who studies hard for an exam is likely to
explain her own (the "actor"'s) intensive studying by referring to the
upcoming difficult exam whereas other people (the "observers") are likely
to explain her studying by referring to her dispositions such as being
hardworking or ambitious.
+
+==Early evidence and reception==
+Soon after the publication of the actor-observer hypothesis, numerous
research studies tested its validity, most notably the first such test by
Nisbett, Caputo, Legant, and Marecek (1973). The authors found initial
evidence for the hypothesis, and so did Storms (1973), who also examined
one possible explanation of the hypothesis: that actors explain their
behaviors by reference to the situation because they attend to the
situation (not to their own behaviors) whereas observers explain the
actor's behavior by reference to the actor's dispositions because they
attend to the actor's behavior (not to the situation). Based largely on
this initial supporting evidence, the confidence in the hypothesis became
uniformly high. The asymmetry was described as “robust and quite general”
(Jones, 1976, p. 304), “firmly established” (Watson, 1982, p. 698), and “an
entrenched part of scientific psychology” (Robins, Spranca, & Mendelsohn,
1996, p. 376). Likewise, evidence for the asymmetry was considered to
be "plentiful” (Fiske & Taylor, 1991, p. 73) and “pervasive” (Aronson,
2002, p. 168).
+
+==Recent evidence==
+Over 100 studies have been published since 1971 in which the hypothesis
was put to further tests (often in the context of testing another
hypothesis about causal attributions). Malle (2006) examined this entire
literature in a meta-analysis, which is a robust way of identifying
consistent patterns of evidence regarding a given hypothesis across a broad
set of studies. The result of this analysis was stunning: across 170
individual tests, the asymmetry practically did not exist. (The average
effect sizes, computed in several accepted ways, ranged from d = -0.016 to
d = 0.095; corrected for publication bias, the average effect size was 0.)
Under circumscribed conditions, it could sometimes be found, but under
other conditions, the opposite was found. The conclusion was that the
widely held assumption of an actor-observer asymmetry in attribution was
false.
+
+==Theoretical reformulation==
+The result of the meta-analysis implied that, across the board, actors and
observers explain behaviors the same way. But all the tests of the classic
hypothesis presupposed that people explain behavior by referring
to "dispositional" vs. "situational" causes. This assumption turned out to
be incorrect for the class of behavioral events that people explain most
frequently in real life (Malle & Knobe, 1997): intentional behaviors (e.g.,
buying a new car, making a mean comment). People explain unintentional
behaviors in ways that the traditional disposition-situation framework can
capture, but they explain intentional behaviors by using very different
concepts (Buss, 1989; Heider, 1958). A recent empirical theory of how
people explain behavior was proposed and tested by Malle (1999, 2004),
centering on the postulate that intentional behaviors are typically
explained by reasons—the mental states (typically beliefs and desires) in
light of which and on the grounds of which the agent decided to act (a
postulate long discussed in the philosophy of action). But people who
explain intentional behavior have several choices to make, and the theory
identifies the psychological antecedents and consequences of these choices:
(a) giving either reason explanations or "causal history of reason (CHR)
explanations" (which refer to background factors such as culture,
personality, or context—causal factors that brought about the agent's
reasons but were not themselves reasons to act); (b) giving either desire
reasons or belief reasons; and (c) linguistically marking a belief reason
with its mental state verb (e.g., "She thought that..."; "He assumes
that..."). Empirical studies have so far supported this theoretical
framework (for a review see Malle, 2011).
+
+Within this framework, the actor-observer asymmetry was then reformulated
as in fact consisting of three asymmetries: that actors offer more reason
explanations (relative to CHR explanations) than observers do; that actors
offer more belief reasons (relative to desire reasons) than observers do;
and that actors use fewer belief reason markers than observers do (Malle,
1999). Malle, Knobe, and Nelson (2007) tested these asymmetries across 9
studies and found consistent support for them. In the same studies they
also tested the classic person/disposition vs. situation hypothesis and
consistently found no support for it.
+
+Thus, people do seem to explain their own actions differently from how
they explain other people's actions. But these differences do not lie in a
predominance of using "dispositional" vs. "situational" causes. Only when
people's explanations are separated into theoretically meaningful
distinctions (e.g., reasons vs. causal history of reason explanations) do
the differences emerge.
+
+===Implications===
+The choices of different explanations for intentional behavior (reasons,
belief reasons, etc.) indicate particular psychological functions. Reasons,
for example, appear to reflect (among other things) psychological
closeness. People increase reason explanations (relative to CHR
explanations) when they explain their own rather than another person's
behavior (Malle et al., 2007), when they portray another person in a
positive light (Malle et al., 2007), and when they explain behaviors of
nonhuman agents for whom they have ownership and affection (e.g., a pet
fish; Kiesler, Lee, & Kramer, 2006). Conversely, people use fewer reasons
and more CHR explanations when explaining behaviors of collectives or
aggregate groups (O'Laughlin & Malle, 2002). Actor-observer asymmetries can
therefore be seen as part of a broader continuum of psychological distance
people have to various kinds of minds (their own, others', groups',
animals' etc.).
+
+==Related but distinct concepts==
+===Actor-observer "bias"===
+Instead of speaking of a hypothesis of an actor-observer asymmetry, some
textbooks and research articles speak of an "actor-observer bias" (within
the framework of dispositional vs. situation causes). The term "bias" is
typically used to imply that one of the explainers—either the actor or the
observer—is biased or incorrect in their explanations. But which one—the
actor or the observer—is supposed to be incorrect is not clear from the
literature. On the one hand, Ross's (1977) hypothesis of a "fundamental
attribution error" suggests that observers are incorrect, because they show
a general tendency to overemphasize dispositional explanations and
underemphasize situational ones. On the other hand, Nisbett and Wilson
(1975) argued that actors don't really know the true causes of their
actions and often merely invent plausible explanations. Jones and Nisbett
(1971) themselves did not commit to calling the hypothesized actor-observer
asymmetry a bias or an error. Similarly, recent theoretical positions
consider asymmetries not a bias but rather the result of multiple cognitive
and motivational differences that fundamentally exist between actors and
observers (Malle et al., 2007; Robins et al., 1996).
+
+===Self-serving bias===
+The actor-observer asymmetry is often confused with the hypothesis of a
self-serving bias in attribution — the claim that people choose
explanations in a strategic way so as to make themselves appear in a more
positive light. The important difference between the two hypotheses is that
the assumed actor-observer asymmetry is expected to hold for all events and
behaviors (whether they are positive or negative) and require a specific
comparison between actor explanations and observer explanations. The
self-serving bias is often formulated as a complete reversal in actors' and
observers' explanation tendencies as a function of positive vs. negative
events. In traditional attribution terms, this means that for positive
events (e.g., getting an A on an exam), actors will select explanations
that refer to their own dispositions (e.g., "I am smart") whereas observers
will select explanations that refer to the actor's situation (e.g., "The
test was easy"); however, for negative events (e.g., receiving an F on the
exam), actors will select explanations that refer to the situation
(e.g., "The test was impossibly hard") whereas observers will select
explanations that refer to the actor's dispositions (e.g., "She is not
smart enough").
+
+==See also==
+
+* Attribution (psychology)
+* Fundamental attribution error
+* List of cognitive biases
+* Self-serving bias
+
+==References==
+* Aronson, E. (2002). "The social animal." (8th ed.) New York, NY: Wiley.
+* Buss, A. R. (1978). Causes and reasons in attribution theory: A
conceptual critique. "Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 36,"
1311–1321.
+* Fiske, S. T., & Taylor, S. E. (1991). "Social cognition" (2nd ed.). New
York: McGraw-Hill.
+* Heider, F. (1958). "The psychology of interpersonal relations." New
York: Wiley.
+* Jones, E. E., & Nisbett, R. E. (1971). "The actor and the observer:
Divergent perceptions of the causes of behavior." New York: General
Learning Press.
+* Jones, E. E. (1976). How do people perceive the causes of
behavior? "American Scientist, 64," 300–305.
+* Kiesler S., Lee, S. L., & Kramer, A. D. I. (2006). Relationship effects
in psychological explanations of nonhuman behavior. "Anthrozoos, 19,"
335-352.
+* Malle, B. F. (1999). How people explain behavior: A new theoretical
framework. "Personality and Social Psychology Review, 3," 23–48.
+* Malle, B. F. (2004). "How the mind explains behavior: Folk explanations,
meaning, and social interaction." Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
+* Malle, B. F. (2006). The actor-observer asymmetry in causal attribution:
A (surprising) meta-analysis. "Psychological Bulletin, 132," 895-919.
+* Malle, B. F. (2011). Time to give up the dogmas of attribution: An
alternative theory of behavior explanation. In J. M. Olson and M. P. Zanna
(eds.), "Advances of Experimental Social Psychology" (Vol. 44, pp.
297-352). Burlington: Academic Press.
+* Malle, B. F., & Knobe, J. (1997). Which behaviors do people explain? A
basic actor-observer asymmetry. "Journal of Personality and Social
Psychology, 72," 288-304.
+* Malle, B. F., Knobe, J., & Nelson, S. (2007). Actor-observer asymmetries
in explanations of behavior: New answers to an old question. "Journal of
Personality and Social Psychology, 93," 491-514.
+* Nisbett, R. E., Caputo, C., Legant, P., & Marecek, J. (1973). Behavior
as seen by the actor and as seen by the observer. "Journal of Personality
and Social Psychology, 27," 154 –164.
+* Robins, R. W., Spranca, M. D., & Mendelsohn, G. A. (1996). The actor–
observer effect revisited: Effects of individual differences and repeated
social interactions on actor and observer attributions. "Journal of
Personality and Social Psychology, 71," 375–389.
+* Ross, L. D. (1977). The intuitive psychologist and his shortcomings:
Distortions in the attribution process. "Advances in Experimental Social
Psychology, 10," 173–220.
+* Storms, M. D. (1973). Videotape and the attribution process: Reversing
actors’ and observers’ points of view. "Journal of Personality and Social
Psychology, 27," 165–175.
+* Watson, D. (1982). The actor and the observer: How are their perceptions
of causality divergent? "Psychological Bulletin, 92," 682–700.
+
+
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+++ /trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Alloplastic adaptation Mon Jun 11
05:34:01 2012
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+Alloplastic adaptation (from the Greek word allos) is a form of adaptation
where the subject attempts to change the environment when faced with a
difficult situation. Criminality, mental illness, and activism can all be
classified as categories of alloplastic adaptation.
+
+The concept of alloplastic adaptation was developed by Sigmund Freud,
Sándor Ferenczi, and Franz Alexander. They proposed that when an individual
was presented with a stressful situation, he could react in one of two ways:
+* Autoplastic adaptation: The subject tries to change himself, i.e. the
internal environment.
+* Alloplastic adaptation: The subject tries to change the situation, i.e.
the external environment.
+
+==Origins and development==
+
+'These terms are possibly due to Ferenczi, who used them in a paper
on "The Phenomenon of Hysterical Materialization" (1919,24). But he there
appears to attribute them to Freud' (who may have used them previously in
private correspondence or conversation). Ferenczi linked 'the
purely "autoplastic" tricks of the hysteric...the bodily performances
of "artists" and actors'.
+
+Freud's only public use of the terms was in his paper "The Loss of Reality
in Neurosis and Psychosis" (1924), where he points out that 'expedient,
normal behaviour leads to work being carried out on the external world; it
does not stop, as in psychosis, at effecting internal changes. It is no
longer "autoplastic" but "alloplastic" '.
+
+A few years later, in his paper on "The Neurotic Character" (1930),
Alexander described 'a type of neurosis in which...the patient's entire
life consists of actions not adapted to reality but rather aimed at
relieving unconscious tensions'. Alexander considered that 'neurotic
characters of this type are more easily accessible to psychoanalysis than
patients with symptom neuroses... to the fact that in the latter the
patient has regresssed from alloplasticity to autoplasticity; after
successful analysis he must pluck up courage to take action in real life'.
+
+Otto Fenichel however took issue with Alexander on this point, maintaining
that 'The pseudo-alloplastic attitude of the neurotic character cannot be
changed into a healthy alloplastic one except by first being transformed,
for a time, into a neurotic autoplastic attitude, which can then be treated
like an ordinary symptom neurosis'.
+
+==Human evolution==
+
+Alloplasticity has also been used to describe humanity's
cultural "evolution". Man's 'evolution by culture...is through alloplastic
experiment with objects outside his own body...Unlike autoplastic
experiments, alloplastic ones are both replicable and reversible'.
+
+In particular, 'advanced technological societies...are generally
characterized by "alloplastic" relations with the environment, involving
the manipulation of the environment itself'.
+
+==References==
+==External links==
+*[http://books.google.com/books?id=ycaSZ8z3kWwC&pg=PA221&lpg=PA221&dq=%22Alloplastic+adaptation%22&source=bl&ots=jV8IFXGHnN&sig=TQIcgv4s6U6cQ3eSj-jrDS1ZHTs&hl=en&ei=NnvES8ylB9GIkAW05oCmDg&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=7&ved=0CCMQ6AEwBg#v=onepage&q=%22Alloplastic%20adaptation%22&f=false]
+*[http://www.prenhall.com/cjcentral/crimtoday4e/glossary/a.html]
+*[http://books.google.com/books?id=xuits3fQYbQC&pg=PA55&lpg=PA55&dq=%22Alloplastic+adaptation%22&source=bl&ots=uQ0IyP0a31&sig=NEKoLTq5fRmFY8ziRZNX91Eyp9c&hl=en&ei=NnvES8ylB9GIkAW05oCmDg&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=10&ved=0CCwQ6AEwCQ#v=onepage&q=%22Alloplastic%20adaptation%22&f=false]
+
+
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+++ /trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Altruism Mon Jun 11 05:34:01 2012
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+
+
+Altruism is a concern for the welfare of others. It is a traditional
virtue in many cultures, and a core aspect of various religious traditions,
though the concept of 'others' toward whom concern should be directed can
vary among cultures and religions. Altruism is the opposite of selfishness.
+
+Altruism can be distinguished from feelings of duty and loyalty. Altruism
is a motivation to provide something of value to a party who must be anyone
but the self, while duty focuses on a moral obligation towards a specific
individual (for example, a god, a king), or collective (for example, a
government). Pure altruism consists of sacrificing something for someone
other than the self (e.g. sacrificing time, energy or possessions) with no
expectation of any compensation or benefits, either direct, or indirect
(for instance from recognition of the giving).
+
+The term "altruism" may also refer to an ethical doctrine that claims that
individuals are morally obliged to benefit others. Used in this sense, it
is the opposite of egoism.
+
+==The notion of altruism==
+The concept has a long history in philosophical and ethical thought. The
term was originally coined in the 19th century by the founding sociologist
and philosopher of science, Auguste Comte, and has become a major topic for
psychologists (especially evolutionary psychology researchers),
evolutionary biologists, and ethologists. While ideas about altruism from
one field can have an impact on the other fields, the different methods and
focuses of these fields lead to different perspectives on altruism. In
simple terms altruism is caring about the welfare of other people and
acting to help them.
+
+==Scientific viewpoints==
+===Anthropology===
+Marcel Mauss's book "The Gift" contains a passage: "Note on alms". This
note describes the evolution of the notion of alms (and by extension of
altruism) from the notion of sacrifice.
+
+Alms are the fruits of a moral notion of the gift and of fortune on the
one hand,
+and of a notion of sacrifice, on the other. Generosity is an obligation,
because Nemesis
+avenges the poor and the gods for the superabundance of happiness and
wealth
+of certain people who should rid themselves of it. This is the ancient
morality of the
+gift, which has become a principle of justice. The gods and the spirits
accept that
+the share of wealth and happiness that has been offered to them and had
been
+hitherto destroyed in useless sacrifices should serve the poor and
children.
+
+* Compare Altruism (ethics) – perception of altruism as self-sacrifice.
+* Compare explanation of alms in various scriptures.
+
+===Evolutionary explanations===
+
+In the science of ethology (the study of animal behaviour), and more
generally in the study of social evolution, altruism refers to behaviour by
an individual that increases the fitness of another individual while
decreasing the fitness of the actor. Researchers on altruistic behaviours
among animals have been ideologically opposed to the sociological social
Darwinist concept of the "survival of the fittest", under the name
of "survival of the nicest"—not to be confused with the biological concept
of Darwin's theory of evolution. Insistence on such cooperative behaviors
between animals was first exposed by the Russian zoologist and anarchist
Peter Kropotkin in his 1902 book, "".
+
+Theories of apparently altruistic behavior were accelerated by the need to
produce theories compatible with evolutionary origins. Two related strands
of research on altruism have emerged out of traditional evolutionary
analyses, and from game theory respectively.
+
+Some of the proposed mechanisms are:
+* Reciprocal altruism
+* Selective investment theory – a theoretical proposal for the evolution
of long-term, high-cost altruism
+* Sexual selection, in particular, the handicap principle
+* Reciprocity
+** Direct reciprocity (repeated encounters)
+** Indirect reciprocity (for example, reputation)
+** Strong reciprocity
+** Pseudo-reciprocity
+*Kin selection
+*Group selection
+
+The study of altruism was the initial impetus behind George R. Price's
development of the Price equation, which is a mathematical equation used to
study genetic evolution. An interesting example of altruism is found in the
cellular slime moulds, such as "Dictyostelium mucoroides". These protists
live as individual amoebae until starved, at which point they aggregate and
form a multicellular fruiting body in which some cells sacrifice themselves
to promote the survival of other cells in the fruiting body. Social
behavior and altruism share many similarities to the interactions between
the many parts (cells, genes) of an organism, but are distinguished by the
ability of each individual to reproduce indefinitely without an absolute
requirement for its neighbors.
+
+===Neurobiology===
+Jorge Moll and Jordan Grafman, neuroscientists at the National Institutes
of Health and LABS-D'Or Hospital Network (J.M.) provided the first evidence
for the neural bases of altruistic giving in normal healthy volunteers,
using functional magnetic resonance imaging. In their research, published
in the Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences USA in October,
2006, they showed that both pure monetary rewards and charitable donations
activated the mesolimbic reward pathway, a primitive part of the brain that
usually lights up in response to food and sex. However, when volunteers
generously placed the interests of others before their own by making
charitable donations, another brain circuit was selectively activated: the
subgenual cortex/septal region. These structures are intimately related to
social attachment and bonding in other species. Altruism, the experiment
suggested, was not a superior moral faculty that suppresses basic selfish
urges but rather was basic to the brain, hard-wired and pleasurable.
+
+Another experiment funded by the National Institutes of Health and
conducted in 2007 at the Duke University in Durham, North Carolina suggests
a different view, "that altruistic behavior may originate from how people
view the world rather than how they act in it". In the study published in
the February 2007 print issue of Nature Neuroscience, researchers have
found a part of the brain that behaves differently for altruistic and
selfish people.
+
+The researchers invited 45 volunteers to play a computer game and also to
watch the computer play the game. In some rounds, the game resulted in the
volunteers winning money for themselves, and in others it resulted in money
being donated to a charity of the volunteer's choice. During these
activities, the researchers took functional magnetic resonance imaging
(fMRI) scans of the participants' brains and were "surprised by the
results". Although they "were expecting to see activity in the brain's
reward centers", based on the idea that "people perform altruistic acts
because they feel good about it", what they found was that "another part of
the brain was also involved, and it was quite sensitive to the difference
between doing something for personal gain and doing it for someone else's
gain". That part of the brain is called the posterior superior temporal
cortex (pSTC).
+
+In the next stage, the scientists asked the participants some questions
about type and frequency of their altruistic or helping behaviours. They
then analysed the responses to generate an estimate of a person's tendency
to act altruistically and compared each person's level of altruism against
their fMRI brain scan. The results showed that pSTC activity rose in
proportion to a person's self-reported level of altruism. According to the
researchers, the results suggest that altruistic behavior may originate
from how people view the world rather than how they act in it. "We believe
that the ability to perceive other people's actions as meaningful is
critical for altruism", said lead study investigator Dharol Tankersley.
+
+===Psychology===
+
+The International Encyclopedia of the Social Sciences
defines "psychological altruism" as "a motivational state with the goal of
increasing another’s welfare". Psychological altruism is contrasted
with "psychological egoism", which refers to the motivation to increase
one’s own welfare.
+
+There has been some debate on whether or not humans are truly capable of
psychological altruism. Some definitions specify a self-sacrificial nature
to altruism and a lack of external rewards for altruistic behaviors.
However, because altruism ultimately benefits the self in many cases, the
selflessness of altruistic acts is brought to question. The social exchange
theory postulates that altruism only exists when benefits outweigh costs.
Daniel Batson is a psychologist who examined this question and argues
against the social exchange theory. He identified four major motives for
altruism: altruism to ultimately benefit the self (egoism), to ultimately
benefit the other person (altruism), to benefit a group (collectivism), or
to uphold a moral principle (principlism). Altruism that ultimately serves
selfish gains is thus differentiated from selfless altruism, but the
general conclusion has been that empathy-induced altruism can be genuinely
selfless. The "empathy-altruism hypothesis" basically states that
psychological altruism does exist and is evoked by the empathic desire to
help someone who is suffering. Feelings of empathic concern are contrasted
with feelings of personal distress, which compel people to reduce their own
unpleasant emotions. People with empathic concern help others in distress
even when exposure to the situation could be easily avoided, whereas those
lacking in empathic concern avoid helping unless it is difficult or
impossible to avoid exposure to another's suffering. Helping behavior is
seen in humans at about two years old, when a toddler is capable of
understanding subtle emotional cues.
+
+In psychological research on altruism, studies often observe altruism as
demonstrated through prosocial behaviors such as helping, comforting,
sharing, cooperation, philanthropy, and community service. Research has
found that people are most likely to help if they recognize that a person
is in need and feel personal responsibility for reducing the person's
distress. Research also suggests that the number of bystanders witnessing
distress or suffering affects the likelihood of helping (the "Bystander
effect"). Greater numbers of bystanders decrease individual feelings of
responsibility. However, a witness with a high level of empathic concern is
likely to assume personal responsibility entirely regardless of the number
of bystanders.
+
+Many studies have observed the effects of volunteerism (as a form of
altruism) on happiness and health and have consistently found a strong
connection between volunteerism and current and future health and
well-being. In a study of older adults, those who volunteered were
significantly higher on life satisfaction and will to live, and
significantly lower in depression, anxiety, and somatization. Volunteerism
and helping behavior have not only been shown to improve mental health, but
physical health and longevity as well. One study examined the physical
health of mothers who volunteered over a 30-year period and found that 52%
of those who did not belong to a volunteer organization experienced a major
illness while only 36% of those who did volunteer experienced one. A study
on adults ages 55+ found that during the four-year study period, people who
volunteered for two or more organizations had a 63% lower likelihood of
dying. After controlling for prior health status, it was determined that
volunteerism accounted for a 44% reduction in mortality. Merely being aware
of kindness in oneself and others is also associated with greater
well-being. A study that asked participants to count each act of kindness
they performed for one week significantly enhanced their subjective
happiness.
+It is important to note that, while research supports the idea that
altruistic acts bring about happiness, it has also been found to work in
the opposite direction—that happier people are also kinder. The
relationship between altruistic behavior and happiness is bidirectional.
Studies have found that generosity increases linearly from sad to happy
affective states. Studies have also been careful to note that feeling
over-taxed by the needs of others has conversely negative effects on health
and happiness . For example, one study on volunteerism found that feeling
overwhelmed by others' demands had an even stronger negative effect on
mental health than helping had a positive one (although positive effects
were still significant). Additionally, while generous acts make people feel
good about themselves, it is also important for people to appreciate the
kindness they receive from others. Studies suggest that gratitude goes
hand-in-hand with kindness and is also very important for our well-being. A
study on the relationship happiness to various character strengths showed
that “a conscious focus on gratitude led to reductions in negative affect
and increases in optimistic appraisals, positive affect, offering emotional
support, sleep quality, and well-being.”
+
+===Sociology===
+"Sociologists have long been concerned with how to build the good society"
("Altruism, Morality, and Social Solidarity". American Sociological
Association.). The structure of our societies and how individuals come to
exhibit charitable, philanthropic, and other pro-social, altruistic actions
for the common good is a largely researched topic within the field. The
American Sociology Association (ASA) acknowledges Public sociology
saying, "The intrinsic scientific, policy, and public relevance of this
field of investigation in helping to construct 'good societies' is
unquestionable" ("Altruism, Morality, and Social Solidarity". ASA). This
type of sociology seeks contributions that aid grassroots and theoretical
understandings of what motivates altruism and how it is organized, and
promotes an altruistic focus in order to benefit the world and people it
studies. How altruism is framed, organized, carried out, and what motivates
it at the group level is an area of focus that sociologists seek to
investigate in order to contribute back to the groups it studies and "build
the good society".
+
+See also: Public sociology
+
+==Religious viewpoints==
+
+Most, if not all, of the world's religions promote altruism as a very
important moral value. Buddhism, Christianity, Hinduism, Islam, Jainism,
Judaism and Sikhism, etc., place particular emphasis on altruistic morality.
+
+===Buddhism===
+Altruism figures prominently in Buddhism. Love and compassion are
components of all forms of Buddhism, and both are focused on all beings
equally: the wish that all beings be happy (love) and the wish that all
beings be free from suffering (compassion). "Many illnesses can be cured by
the one medicine of love and compassion. These qualities are the ultimate
source of human happiness, and the need for them lies at the very core of
our being" (Dalai Lama).
+
+Since "all beings" includes the individual, love and compassion in
Buddhism are outside the opposition between self and other. It is even said
that the very distinction between self and other is part of the root cause
of our suffering. In practical terms, however, because of the spontaneous
self-centeredness of most of us, Buddhism encourages us to focus love and
compassion on others, and thus can be characterized as "altruistic." Many
would agree with the Dalai Lama that Buddhism as a religion is kindness
toward others.
+
+Still, the very notion of altruism is modified in such a world-view, since
the belief is that such a practice promotes our own happiness: "The more we
care for the happiness of others, the greater our own sense of well-being
becomes" (Dalai Lama).
+
+In the context of larger ethical discussions on moral action and judgment,
Buddhism is characterized by the belief that negative (unhappy)
consequences of our actions derive not from punishment or correction based
on moral judgment, but on the law of karma, which functions like a natural
law of cause and effect. One simple illustration of such cause and effect
would be the case of experiencing the effects of what I myself cause: if I
cause suffering, I will as a natural consequence experience suffering; if I
cause happiness, I will as a natural consequence experience happiness.
+In Buddhism, "karma" (Pāli "kamma") is strictly distinguished from vipāka,
meaning "fruit" or "result". Karma is categorized within the group or
groups of cause (Pāli "hetu") in the chain of cause and effect, where it
comprises the elements of "volitional activities" (Pali "sankhara")
and "action" (Pali "bhava"). Any action is understood to create "seeds" in
the mind that will sprout into the appropriate result (Pāli "vipaka") when
they meet with the right conditions. Most types of karmas, with good or bad
results, will keep one within the wheel of samsāra; others will liberate
one to nirvāna.
+
+Buddhism relates karma directly to motives behind an action. Motivation
usually makes the difference between "good" and "bad", but included in the
motivation is also the aspect of ignorance; so a well-intended action from
an ignorant mind can easily be "bad" in the sense that it creates
unpleasant results for the "actor".
+
+In Buddhism, karma is not the only cause of everything that happens. The
commentarial tradition classified causal mechanisms governing the universe
as taught in the early texts in five categories, known as Niyama Dhammas:
+
+* Kamma Niyama — Consequences of one's actions
+* Utu Niyama — Seasonal changes and climate
+* Biija Niyama — Laws of heredity
+* Citta Niyama — Will of mind
+* Dhamma Niyama — Nature's tendency to produce a perfect type
+
+===Jainism===
+The fundamental principles of Jainism revolve around the concept of
altruism, not only for humans but for all sentient beings. This religion
preaches the view of Ahimsa – to live and let live, thereby not harming
sentient beings, i.e. uncompromising reverence for all life. Jainism
considers all living things to be equal. The first Thirthankar, Rishabh
introduced the concept of altruism for all living beings, from extending
knowledge and experience to others to donation, giving oneself up for
others, non-violence and compassion for all living things.
+
+Jainism prescribes a path of non-violence to progress the soul to this
ultimate goal. Jains believe that to attain enlightenment and ultimately
liberation, one must practice the following ethical principles (major vows)
in thought, speech and action. The degree to which these principles are
practiced is different for householders and monks. They are:
+# Non-violence (Ahimsa)
+# Truthfulness (Satya)
+# Non-stealing (Asteya)
+# Celibacy (Brahmacharya)
+# Non-possession or non-materialism (Aparigraha)
+
+A major characteristic of Jain belief is the emphasis on the consequences
of not only physical but also mental behaviors. One's unconquered mind with
anger, pride (ego), deceit, greed and uncontrolled sense organs are the
powerful enemies of humans. Anger spoils good relations, pride destroys
humility, deceit destroys peace and greed destroys everything. Jainism
recommends conquering anger by forgiveness, pride (ego) by humility, deceit
by straight-forwardness and greed by contentment.
+
+The principle of non-violence seeks to minimize karmas which limit the
capabilities of the soul. Jainism views every soul as worthy of respect
because it has the potential to become Siddha (Param-atma – "highest
soul"). Because all living beings possess a soul, great care and awareness
is essential in one's actions. Jainism emphasizes the equality of all life,
advocating harmlessness towards all, whether the creatures are great or
small. This policy extends even to microscopic organisms. Jainism
acknowledges that every person has different capabilities and capacities to
practice and therefore accepts different levels of compliance for ascetics
and householders. The "great vows" (mahavrata) are prescribed for monks
and "limited vows" (anuvrata) are prescribed for householders. In other
words, the house-holders are encouraged to practice the five cardinal
principles of non-violence, truthfulness, non-stealing, celibacy and
non-possessiveness with their current practical limitations while the monks
have to observe them very strictly. With consistent practice, it will be
possible to overcome the limitations gradually, accelerating the spiritual
progress.
+
+===Christianity===
+Altruism was central to the teachings of Jesus found in the Gospel
especially in the Sermon on the Mount and the Sermon on the Plain. From
biblical to medieval Christian traditions, tensions between
self-affirmation and other-regard were sometimes discussed under the
heading of "disinterested love," as in the Pauline phrase "love seeks not
its own interests." In his book "Indoctrination and Self-deception",
Roderick Hindery tries to shed light on these tensions by contrasting them
with impostors of authentic self-affirmation and altruism, by analysis of
other-regard within creative individuation of the self, and by contrasting
love for the few with love for the many. Love confirms others in their
freedom, shuns propagandas and masks, assures others of its presence, and
is ultimately confirmed not by mere declarations from others, but by each
person's experience and practice from within. As in practical arts, the
presence and meaning of love becomes validated and grasped not by words and
reflections alone, but in the making of the connection.
+
+Though it might seem obvious that altruism is central to the teachings of
Jesus, one important and influential strand of Christianity would qualify
this. St Thomas Aquinas in the "Summa Theologica", II:II Quaestio 25,
Article 4 states that we should love our neighbour more than our ourselves.
His interpretation of the Pauline phrase is that we should seek the common
good more than the private good but this is because the common good is a
more desirable good for the individual. 'You should love your neighbour as
yourself' from Leviticus 19 and Matthew 22 is interpreted by St Thomas as
meaning that love for ourselves is the exemplar of love for others. He does
think though, that we should love God more than ourselves and our
neighbour, taken as an entirety, more than our bodily life, since the
ultimate purpose of love of our neighbour is to share in eternal beatitude,
a more desirable thing than bodily well being. Comte was probably opposing
this Thomistic doctrine, which is present in some theological schools
within Catholicism, in coining the word Altruism, as stated above.
+
+Many biblical authors draw a strong connection between love of others and
love of God. In 1 John 4 it is stated that for one to love God one must
love his fellowman, and that hatred of one's fellowman is the same as
hatred of God.
+
+Thomas Jay Oord has argued in several books that altruism is but one
possible form of love. An altruistic action is not always a loving action.
Oord defines altruism as acting for the good of the other, and he agrees
with feminists who note that sometimes love requires acting for one's own
good when the demands of the other undermine overall well-being.
+
+German philosopher Max Scheler distinguishes two different ways in which
the strong can help the weak, one which is a sincere expression of
Christian love, "motivated by a powerful feeling of security, strength, and
inner salvation, of the invincible fullness of one’s own life and
existence" and another which is merely "one of the many modern substitutes
for love, ... nothing but the urge to turn away from oneself and to lose
oneself in other people’s business." At its worst, Scheler says, "love for
the small, the poor, the weak, and the oppressed is really disguised
hatred, repressed envy, an impulse to detract, etc., directed against the
opposite phenomena: wealth, strength, power, largesse."
+
+===Islam and Sufism===
+In Sufism, the concept of "īṯār" (altruism) is the notion of 'preferring
others to oneself'. For Sufis, this means devotion to others through
complete forgetfulness of one's own concerns. The importance lies in
sacrifice for the sake of the greater good; Islam considers those
practicing i'thar as abiding by the highest degree of nobility.
+This is similar to the notion of chivalry, but unlike the European concept
there is a focus on attention to everything in existence. A constant
concern for Allah results in a careful attitude towards people, animals,
and other things in this world.
+This concept was emphasized by Sufi mystics like Rabia al-Adawiyya who
paid attention to the difference in dedication to Allah and dedication to
people. 13th century Turkish sufi poet Yunus Emre explained this philosophy
as "Yaratılanı severiz, Yaratandan ötürü" or "We love the creature, because
of The Creator". In practice, for many Muslims, i'thar is only practiced
during specific Islamic holidays. However, i'thar is still an Islamic
ideal, to which all Muslims should strive to adhere at all times.
+
+===Judaism===
+Judaism defines altruism as the desired goal of creation. The famous Rabbi
Abraham Isaac Kook stated that love is the most important attribute in
humanity. This is defined as bestowal, or giving, which is the intention of
altruism. This can be altruism towards humanity that leads to altruism
towards the creator or God. Kabbalah defines God as the force of giving in
existence. Rabbi Moshe Chaim Luzzatto in particular focused on the 'purpose
of creation' and how the will of God was to bring creation into perfection
and adhesion with this upper force.
+
+Modern Kabbalah developed by Rabbi Yehuda Ashlag, in his writings about
the future generation, focuses on how society could achieve an altruistic
social framework. Ashlag proposed that such a framework is the purpose of
creation, and everything that happens is to raise humanity to the level of
altruism, love for one another. Ashlag focused on society and its relation
to divinity.
+
+===Sikhism===
+Altruism is essential to the Sikh religion. In the late 17th century, Guru
Gobind Singh Ji (the tenth guru in Sikhism), was in war with the Moghul
rulers to protect the people of different faiths, when a fellow Sikh, Bhai
Kanhaiya, attended the troops of the enemy. He gave water to both friends
and foes who were wounded on the battlefield. Some of the enemy began to
fight again and some Sikh warriors were annoyed by Bhai Kanhaiya as he was
helping their enemy. Sikh soldiers brought Bhai Kanhaiya before Guru Gobind
Singh Ji, and complained of his action that they considered
counterproductive to their struggle on the battlefield.
+"What were you doing, and why?" asked the Guru. "I was giving water to the
wounded because I saw your face in all of them," replied Bhai Kanhaiya.
+The Guru responded, "Then you should also give them ointment to heal their
wounds. You were practicing what you were coached in the house of the Guru."
+
+It was under the tutelage of the Guru that Bhai Kanhaiya subsequently
founded a volunteer corps for altruism. This volunteer corps still to date
is engaged in doing good to others and trains new volunteering recruits for
doing the same.
+
+===Hinduism===
+Advaita Vedanta differs from the view that karma is a law of cause and
effect but instead additionally hold that karma is mediated by the will of
a personal supreme god. This view of karma is in contradiction to Buddhism,
Jainism and other Indian religions that do view karma as a law of cause and
effect.
+
+Swami Sivananda, an Advaita scholar, reiterates the same views in his
commentary synthesising Vedanta views on the Brahma Sutras, a Vedantic
text. In his commentary on Chapter 3 of the Brahma Sutras, Sivananda notes
that karma is insentient and short-lived, and ceases to exist as soon as a
deed is executed. Hence, karma cannot bestow the fruits of actions at a
future date according to one's merit. Furthermore, one cannot argue that
karma generates apurva or punya, which gives fruit. Since apurva is
non-sentient, it cannot act unless moved by an intelligent being such as a
god. It cannot independently bestow reward or punishment.
+
+==Philosophy==
+There are a wide range of philosophical views on man's obligations or
motivations to act altruistically. Proponents of ethical altruism maintain
that individuals are morally obligated to act altruistically. The opposing
view is ethical egoism, which maintains that moral agents should always act
in their own self-interest. Both ethical altruism and ethical egoism may be
contrasted with utilitarianism, which is the view that every individual's
well-being (including one's own) is of equal moral importance.
+
+A related concept in descriptive ethics is psychological egoism, the
thesis that humans always act in their own self-interest and that true
altruism is impossible. Rational egoism is the view that rationality
consists in acting in one's self-interest (without specifying how this
affects one's moral obligations).
+
+==See also==
+
+* Altruism in animals
+* Altruria
+* Charity (practice)
+* Charitable organization
+* Egotism
+* Empathy
+* Empathy-altruism
+* Family economics
+* Gene-centered view of evolution
+* Giving Pledge, pledge by Gates, Buffett and others to donate to charity
at least half of their wealth
+* Inclusive fitness
+* Justice (economics)
+* Group selection
+* Kin selection
+* Misanthropy
+* Mutual aid
+* Philanthropy
+* "The Power of Half"; how a family came to decide to sell its home, so
that it could donate half the proceeds to charity
+* Prisoner's dilemma
+* Prosocial behavior
+* Random acts of kindness
+* Reciprocal altruism
+* Reputation capital
+* Reverse commons
+* Selfishness
+* Social psychology
+* Solidarity (sociology)
+* Tit for tat
+==References==
+;Notes
+;Bibliography
+*
+*
+* Comte, Auguste, "Catechisme positiviste" (1852) or "Catechism of
Positivism", tr. R. Congreve, (London: Kegan Paul, 1891)
+* Kropotkin, Peter, "" (1902)
+*Nietzsche, Friedrich, "Beyond Good and Evil"
+*Pierre-Joseph Proudhon, "The Philosophy of Poverty" (1847)
+*Lysander Spooner, "Natural Law"
+*Matt Ridley, "The Origins of Virtue"
+*Oliner, Samuel P. and Pearl M. Towards a Caring Society: Ideas into
Action. West Port, CT: Praeger, 1995.
+*
+*
+*Wedekind, C. and Milinski, M. Human Cooperation in the simultaneous and
the alternating Prisoner's Dilemma: Pavlov versus Generous
Tit-for-tat. "Evolution", Vol. 93, pp. 2686–2689, April 1996.
+
+
+==External links==
+
+;General
+;Society
+*What is Altruism? from Altruists International
+;Philosophy and religion
+*"Giving and Receiving" from "Kabbalah.info"
+*Selflessness: Toward a Buddhist Vision of Social Justice by Sungtaek Cho
+*Organizes knowledge about empathy/altruism across disciplines
+;Science
+*Biological Altruism at the Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
+*The Altruistic Personality and Prosocial Behavior Institute at Humboldt
State University
+*"Unraveling altruism, conscience, and condemnation"
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
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+
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--- /dev/null
+++ /trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Altruism in animals Mon Jun 11 05:34:01
2012
@@ -0,0 +1,73 @@
+Altruism is a well-documented animal behaviour, which appears most
obviously in kin relationships but may also be evident amongst wider social
groups, in which an animal sacrifices its own well-being for the benefit of
another animal.
+
+== Overview ==
+In the science of ethology (the study of behavior), and more generally in
the study of social evolution, on occasion, some animals do behave in ways
that reduce their individual fitness but increase the fitness of other
individuals in the population; this is a functional definition of altruism.
Research in evolutionary theory has been applied to social behaviour,
including altruism. Cases of animals helping individuals to whom they are
closely related can be explained by kin selection, and are not considered
true altruism. Beyond the physical exertions that mothers, and in some
species fathers, undertake to protect their young, extreme examples of
sacrifice may occur. One example is matriphagy (the consumption of the
mother by her offspring) in the spider "Stegodyphus". Hamilton's rule
describes the benefit of such altruism in terms of Wright's coefficient of
relationship to the beneficiary and the benefit granted to the beneficiary
minus the cost to the sacrificer. Should this sum be greater than zero a
fitness gain will result from the sacrifice.
+
+When apparent altruism is not between kin, it may be based on reciprocity.
A monkey will present its back to another monkey, who will pick out
parasites; after a time the roles will be reversed. Such reciprocity will
pay off, in evolutionary terms, as long as the costs of helping are less
than the benefits of being helped and as long as animals will not gain in
the long run by "cheating" – that is to say, by receiving favours without
returning them. This is elaborated on in evolutionary game theory and
specifically the prisoner's dilemma as social theory.
+
+==Implications in evolutionary theory==
+Researchers on alleged altruist behaviours among animals have been
ideologically opposed to the social Darwinist concept of the "survival of
the fittest", under the name of "survival of the nicest" — the latter being
globally compatible, however, with the theory of evolution by natural
selection. Insistence on such cooperative behaviours between animals was
first exposed by the Russian zoologist and anarchist Peter Kropotkin in his
1902 book, "".
+
+Recent developments in game theory have provided some explanations for
apparent altruism, as have traditional evolutionary analyses. Among the
proposed mechanisms are:
+
+* Behavioural manipulation (for example, by certain parasites that can
alter the behavior of the host)
+* Bounded rationality (for example, Herbert Simon)
+* Kin selection including eusociality (see also "The Selfish Gene")
+* Memes (by influencing behavior to favor their own spread; see religion
as a meme)
+* Reciprocal altruism, mutual aid
+* Sexual selection, in particular, the Handicap principle
+* Reciprocity
+** Indirect reciprocity (for example, reputation)
+** Strong reciprocity
+* Pseudo-reciprocity
+
+The study of altruism was the initial impetus behind George R. Price's
development of the Price equation which is a mathematical equation used to
study genetic evolution. An interesting example of altruism is found in the
cellular slime moulds, such as "Dictyostelium mucoroides". These protists
live as individual amoebae until starved, at which point they aggregate and
form a multicellular fruiting body in which some cells sacrifice themselves
to promote the survival of other cells in the fruiting body. Social
behavior and altruism share many similarities to the interactions between
the many parts (cells, genes) of an organism, but are distinguished by the
ability of each individual to reproduce indefinitely without an absolute
requirement for its neighbors.
+
+Jorge Moll and Jordan Grafman, neuroscientists at the National Institutes
of Health and LABS-D'Or Hospital Network (J.M.) provided the first evidence
for the neural bases of altruistic giving in normal healthy volunteers,
using functional magnetic resonance imaging. In their research, published
in the Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences USA in October,
2006, they showed that both pure monetary rewards and charitable donations
activated the mesolimbic reward pathway, a primitive part of the brain that
usually lights up in response to food and sex. However, when volunteers
generously placed their interests of others before their own by making
charitable donations, another brain circuit was selectively activated: the
subgenual cortex/septal region. These structures are intimately related to
social attachment and bonding in other species. Altruism, the experiment
suggested, was not a superior moral faculty that suppresses basic selfish
urges but rather was basic to the brain, hard-wired and pleasurable.
+
+A new study by Samuel Bowles at the Santa Fe Institute in New Mexico, US,
is seen by some as breathing new life into the model of group selection for
altruism, known as "Survival of the nicest". Bowles conducted a genetic
analysis of contemporary foraging groups, including Australian aboriginals,
native Siberian Inuit populations and indigenous tribal groups in Africa.
It was found that hunter-gatherer bands of up to 30 individuals were
considerably more closely related than was previously thought. Under these
conditions, thought to be similar to those of the middle and upper
Paleolithic, altruism towards other group-members would improve the overall
fitness of the group.
+
+If an individual defended the group but was killed, any genes that the
individual shared with the overall group would still be passed on. Early
customs such as food sharing or monogamy could have levelled out the "cost"
of altruistic behaviour, in the same way that income taxes redistribute
income in society. He assembled genetic, climactic, archaeological,
ethnographic and experimental data to examine the cost-benefit relationship
of human cooperation in ancient populations. In his model, members of a
group bearing genes for altruistic behaviour pay a "tax" by limiting their
reproductive opportunities to benefit from sharing food and information,
thereby increasing the average fitness of the group as well as their
inter-relatedness. Bands of altruistic humans would then act together to
gain resources from other groups at this challenging time in history.
+
+Altruist theories in evolutionary biology were contested by Amotz Zahavi,
the inventor of the signalling theory and its correlative, the handicap
principle, based mainly on his observations of the Arabian Babbler, a bird
commonly known for its surprising (alleged) altruistic behaviours.
+
+Researchers in Switzerland have developed an algorithm based on Hamilton's
rule of kin selection. The algorithm shows how altruism in a swarm of
entities can, over time, evolve and result in more effective swarm
behaviour.
+
+== Examples of animal altruism ==
+
+*Dogs often adopt orphaned cats, squirrels, ducks and even tigers.
+*Dolphins support sick or injured animals, swimming under them for hours
at a time and pushing them to the surface so they can breathe.
+*Mongooses support elderly, sick, or injured animals
+*Wolves and wild dogs bring meat back to members of the pack not present
at the kill.
+*Male baboons threaten predators and cover the rear as the troop retreats.
+*Gibbons and chimpanzees with food will, in response to a gesture, share
their food with others of the group. Chimpanzees will help humans and
conspecifics without any reward in return.
+*Bonobos have been observed aiding injured or handicapped bonobos.
+*Vampire bats commonly regurgitate blood to share with unlucky or sick
roost mates that have been unable to find a meal, often forming a buddy
system.
+*Raccoons inform conspecifics about feeding grounds by droppings left on
commonly shared latrines. A similar information system has been observed to
be used by common ravens.
+*In numerous bird species, a breeding pair receives support in raising its
young from other "helper" birds, including help with the feeding of its
fledglings. Some will even go as far as protecting an unrelated bird's
young from predators
+*Most mammal carnivores like wolves or dogs have a habit of not harming
pack members below certain age, of opposite sex or in surrendering position
(in case of some animals, the behavior exists within entire species rather
than one pack).
+*Vervet Monkeys give alarm calls to warn fellow monkeys of the presence of
predators, even though in doing so they attract attention to themselves,
increasing their personal chance of being attacked.
+*Walruses have been seen adopting orphans who lost their parents to
predators.
+*Some termites and ants release a sticky secretion by fatally rupturing a
specialized gland. This autothysis altruistically aids the colony at the
expense of the individual insect. For example, defending against invading
ants by creating a tar baby effect.
+*Meerkats often have one standing guard to warn whilst the rest feed in
case of predator attack.
+*African buffalo will rescue a member of the herd captured by predators.
+*Lemurs of all ages and of both sexes will take care of infants unrelated
to them.
+
+== See also ==
+*Cheating (biology)
+* Evolutionarily stable strategy
+* Gene-centered view of evolution
+* Sociobiology
+* Evolution of morality
+* Evolutionary ethics
+
+==References==
+== External links ==
+* Biological Altruism
+* International Union for the Study of Social Insects
+* Quick Guide: Kin Selection (Current Biology)
+* Quick Guide: Altruism (Current Biology)
+* "Mutt-ernal Instincts" An article about dogs caring for other species'
young (cats, tigers, etc.).
+
+
+
=======================================
--- /dev/null
+++ /trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Ambiguity tolerance Mon Jun 11 05:34:01
2012
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+Ambiguity tolerance is the ability to perceive ambiguity in information
and behavior in a neutral and open way.
+
+Ambiguity tolerance is an important issue in personality development and
education. In psychology and in management, levels of tolerance of
ambiguity are correlated with creativity, risk aversion, psychological
resilience, lifestyle, orientation towards diversity (cross-cultural
communication, intercultural competence), and leadership style.
+
+Wilkinson's Modes of Leadership is largely based on ambiguity tolerance.
Mode one leaders have the least tolerance to ambiguity with mode four
leaders enjoying and preferring to work in ambiguous situations. In part
this is due to what Wilkinson calls 'emotional resilience'.
+
+The converse, ambiguity intolerance, which was introduced in "The
Authoritarian Personality" in 1950, was defined in 1975 as a “tendency to
perceive or interpret information marked by vague, incomplete, fragmented,
multiple, probable, unstructured, uncertain, inconsistent, contrary,
contradictory, or unclear meanings as actual or potential sources of
psychological discomfort or threat.”
+
+== References ==
+
+
=======================================
--- /dev/null
+++ /trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Ambivalent prejudice Mon Jun 11 05:34:01
2012
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+Ambivalent prejudice is a social psychological theory that states when
people become aware they have conflicting beliefs about an outgroup (a
group of people that do not belong to an individual's own group), they
experience an unpleasant mental feeling generally referred to as cognitive
dissonance. These feelings are brought about because on one hand an
individual believes in humanitarian virtues such as helping those in need,
but on the other hand also believes in individualistic virtues such as
working hard to improve one’s life.
+
+Bernard Whitley and Mary Kite contend that this dissonance motivates
people to alter their thoughts in an attempt to reduce their discomfort.
Depending on the situation or context that has primed them, people will
give priority to either the positive beliefs or the negative beliefs
leading to a corresponding behavioral shift, known as response
amplification.
+==Views on ambivalent prejudice==
+According to Bernard Whitley and Mary Kite, ambivalent prejudice comes
from one person having both good and bad thoughts about an outgroup. The
example in their book, ”The Psychology of Prejudice and Discrimination,”
talks about race and how White people often have ambivalent attitudes
towards Black people. This means that their behavior is also
ambivalent, "sometimes it is positive, sometimes negative" (Whitley & Kite,
2010, p. 214).
+
+Irwin Katz said ambivalent prejudice only occurs when the individual
becomes aware of the conflicting attitudes, and for most people, simply
coming face-to-face with someone from the out-group can cause this.
According to Katz, this conflict of attitudes can cause problems with one's
self-image, because it seems as though one is not living up to all
important values that one holds. This conflict can cause negative emotions,
which are expressed in negative behavior.
+
+Irwin Katz and Glen Hass believed that contradicting American values is to
blame for ambivalent prejudice (1988). The first value is that hard work
will always pay off and people get what they deserve. The other is that all
people are equal and people should help the less fortunate. When this is
applied to race, many White people are torn. They see disadvantaged Black
people as not working hard enough to be worth as much as White people, but
they also understand that Black people have a harder time financially and
socially. These mixed emotions lead to ambivalence.
+
+Tara MacDonald and Mark Zanna suggested that stereotypes were to blame for
ambivalent prejudice. According to MacDonald and Zanna, people can like
others and respect others, the two emotions working independently of each
other. When a person feels those things towards an entire group, it is
because of stereotypes. Therefore, a White person can like and disrespect
Black people, due to certain stereotypes, or dislike but respect Black
people for other stereotypes.
+
+In a study testing the nature of ambivalent prejudice, Dr. H. Matsuo
(2005) studied American attitudes toward immigrant groups. He proposed that
ambivalent prejudice stems from two views. There is a more individualistic
attitude, which is associated with the importance of the Protestant work
ethic. This attitude is associated with more negative attitudes toward
outgroups. The other view is an egalitarian or humanitarian view. This view
is associated with more positive attitudes toward outgroups.
+
+==Response Amplification==
+When trying to rid themselves of their cognitive dissonance people tend to
act based on the context in which they find themselves. For example if they
are having a negative experience they will react more negatively than the
situation calls for and if they are having a positive experience they will
respond more positively than the situation calls for. Essentially they are
amplifying what they think the correct response is in order to prove to
themselves that they are not behaving in a prejudiced way.
+
+==Example of ambivalent prejudice in action==
+Susan believes she is a tolerant, accepting person. She agrees that
African Americans have many more disadvantages than whites and is therefore
supportive of spending tax dollars to help support the poor. However, she
also believes that people should work hard for what they want and often
wonders why African Americans don't try harder to better themselves. When
someone points out that these beliefs contradict with a tolerant
perspective, Susan gets very uncomfortable.
+
+In an effort to overcome this discomfort Susan prioritizes one set of
beliefs over the other, responding more positively in response to a
positive interaction and more negative in response to a negative
interaction. In other words If she has a pleasant interaction with an
African American she will respond more positively than a person who is not
experiencing ambivalent prejudice would and conversely if she has a
negative reaction she would respond more negatively than a person who is
not experiencing ambivalent prejudice would.
+
+==See also==
+*Ambivalent sexism
+*Benevolent prejudice
+*Hostile prejudice
+*Prejudice
+*Ingroups and outgroups
+
+==References==
+
+
=======================================
--- /dev/null
+++ /trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Analysis of subjective logics Mon Jun 11
05:34:01 2012
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+
+
+Analysis of subjective logics (ASL) is an original method of discourse
analysis developed and taught by the French psychoanalyst Jean-Jacques
Pinto.
+
+== A Brief Presentation of Analysis of Subjective Logics (ASL) ==
+
+=== Definition ===
+ASL is a method of analysis of the words (lexemes) of a spoken or written
text, drawing from psychoanalytical theory. ASL allows the analyst to
ascertain a notional understanding of the personality of the author of the
examined work, without studying nonverbal communication, as well as of
those of the audience that is the target of the text.
+
+The word-only analysis defined by ASL allows an exponent of the method to
use either anonymous or signed texts to influence readers on an emotional
level (sympathy, antipathy, indifference), even though the author (who can
be remote in time and/or space) is unknown to them.
+
+In ASL, the analyst takes into account the partial meaning of words by
breaking their meaning down into the most elementary components possible.
The purpose of this deconstruction is to find general tendencies and
subjective invariant items, independent of the issue/s broached in the text.
+
+=== Series (definition in extension) ===
+
+There are, in a language such as French for instance, subjective
sub-languages or "speeches" which, though different, are understood as they
mutually translate into the other. These are combinations of words endowed
with a positive or negative value.
+* Simple words ("atoms") are adjectives expressing simple properties
(opened / closed, new / ancient), classified in two lists of opposites
called "series" :
+** Series " A " concerns the outside, changement, disorder, destruction of
the ancient. It is made up of simple adjectives such as : opened, flexible,
divers, changeable, new, free etc.
+** Series " B " concerns by contrast the inside, non-change, order,
permanence. It is made up of simple adjectives such as : serious, firm,
stable, ancient, solid, lasting etc.
+* Complex words ("molecules ") are complex adjectives, names, verbs and
adverbs, whose meaning can be broken down into A or B atoms. When they are
of almost homogeneous composition, they are attributed to series either A
(i.e. "butterfly": "mobile, light, quick, unruly") or B
(i.e. "turtle": "heavy, slow, rigid"). It is approximative, for only the
simple adjectives make up the series. If they are of mixed composition or
difficult to analyse, they will be qualified respectively as "neutral"
(noted "0 ") or "undecidable" (noted "? ").
+* The value attributed to a word depends on the favourable or
disadvantageous echo this word holds for the speaker. It is positive ("+"),
negative ("-"), neutral ("0") or undecidable ("?"). It can change depending
on the moment or the time of life.
+
+=== Points of view ===
+
+One obtains points of view by comparing for every pertinent word in a text
its series and its value. They can change, as the value, according to
instants or according to ages of life.
+
+The "extraverted" point of view (indicated by the letter E) values series
A and depreciates series B, expressed thus:
+
+:::::A + = B — = E...Example: I am open-minded, I am not narrow-minded
+
+(From now on, to make their location easier, words A will appear
in "italics", and words B in bold).
+
+The "introverted" point of view (indicated by I) values series B and
depreciates series A, expressed thus:
+
+:::::B + = A — = I...Example: I am serious, I am not a phoney.
+
+The "extraverted" point of view will therefore choose its words in series
A to express what it likes, and in series B to express what it criticises,
does not like or even fears :
+
+The "introverted" point of view will on the contrary choose its words from
series B to express what it likes, and in series A to express what it
criticises, does not like or even fears:
+
+Consequences :
+The "same" word or the "same" expression can be valued (+) according to
the "extraverted" point of view and depreciated (-) according to
the "introverted" point of view, and conversely.
+
+In fact, it is not the "same" words or expressions, but homonyms (same
form, different use) as seen by A.L.S.
+
+To describe the same kind of pleasure, the speakers use words from
opposite series.
+
+Also, to describe the same type of annoyance.
+
+=== Speeches ===
+
+It is the extension to a whole life of the notion of point of view,
matching the empirical notion of personality and the psychoanalytic notion
of identification: each one plays "his" biography as an actor says "his"
text, in fact written by another. The subjective sub-languages,
or "speeches", make combinations in time (from adolescence to the end of
life, see Genesis §) of the "I " and " E " points of view, what succeeds
in :
+
+1) A "conservative" speech (I → I), corresponding to the obsessional
personality : "incorruptible introvert", nostalgic for a lost Paradise, who
begins "I" and finishes "I".
+
+2) A "change / destruction" speech (E → E) corresponding to the hysterical
personality : "incorrigible extravert", attracted by Hell, which begins "
E " and finishes " E ".
+
+3) A "progressive" or "constructor" speech (E → I), "repentant extravert",
passing in transit through Purgatory, which begins " E " and finishes "I ".
+
+4) A "hesitating" speech(I or E, abbreviation of I → E → I → E.), roughly
the phobic personality: "eternally undecided", wobbling all his life
between "I " and " E ".
+
+=== Combinations of speeches ===
+
+There is a «missed E → I» speech in which the speaker fails or even dies
at the very time when he finishes the masterpiece which compensates its
previous restless wandering. The representatives of the "hesitating" speech
can "lean out" on the side of the I → I speech or of the E → E speech:
facing a frightening situation, the first ("cautious") will be held on
their guard, the second ("ambitious") will nevertheless go ahead, as
knights "with fear and with reproach"! These names are borrowed from B.
Cathelat and his Socio-Styles-Système (cf. § Validation, infra). The
existence of these combinations shows to the reader suspecting A.S.L. of
simplification that the current list of possibilities is not limitative.
+
+== Filiation ==
+
+A.S.L. draws its inspiration from some swordings of Jacques Lacan (theory
of « Four discourses »); it tries to validate them by putting them in
contact with corpuses drawn of the common speech. What relation between
speeches in A.L.S and discourses in Lacan ? His "Mathèmes" (symbols
formalizing clinical experience) describe the discourses of the Master, of
the University, of the Hysterical and of the Analyst. But they do not
prevent the unreliable interpretations by the disciples, and correlations
with clinical observation are sometimes doubtful (cf. § Applications).
+
+Refusing these expressions, ambiguous and perhaps premature, to start from
the word for word of swordings, led to create A.S.L. It describes speeches
coinciding only partly with the discourses of Lacan, what does not prevent
the compatibility of A.S.L. with lacanian premises, and the fact that to
speeches can be applied what Jean-Claude Milner says about "four
discourses": « [... a speech [...] is [...] nothing but a group of rules of
synonymy and of non-synonymy. [...] telling that there is a division
between two discourses, is only telling that none of the proposals of one
is synonymous with any of the proposals of the other. [...] there can only
be synonymies [...] inside the same discourse, and between different
discourses the only possible resemblances belong to homonymy. »
+
+== Genesis of the series and speeches ==
+
+Starting with the noticing that there are different sub-languages, let us
now present arguments in favour of the identificatory and fantastical
nature of series, points of view and speeches described by A.S.L.
+
+=== The psychoanalytical term "identification" ===
+
+The first moment of identification consists in starting to speak, in
becoming identified with the functioning of language, however without
indicating oneself in the swording (the child does not straightaway
say "I").
+
+The second moment founds in the speech of the parent (proper name,
personal pronouns) the conviction of the child that he is somebody, an
unified entity, and moreover the author of his speech, although it comes
from another one.
+
+The « third identification » sets up the fantasy, which can accept a
linguistic definition : "according to freudian theory, a fantasy is always
expressed by a sentence, or more exactly by a sentence phrase, every
variant of which answers in principle a distinct fantasy" (Jean-Claude
Milner). The subject of the unconscious, as the freudo-lacanian theory of
subjectivity defines it, is then constituted.
+
+=== Hypothesis of A.S.L. ===
+
+It is the "parental discourse" that determines, not in a linear way but
with transformations themselves « programmed », the "fantastical discourse
of the child", depending on whether it is "idealised" or "rejected"
(extreme cases). The child, once identified with the text of parental
desire, will "describe" and will "treat" from now on any object (including
himself and his parent) as the parent "described" him and wanted to "treat"
him. It is "the satisfaction of the parent, and not his", that he expresses
and searches without knowing it. The adjectives extracted from the
evaluations of the parent on him, and the verbs describing the fate which
he wishes upon him, will give the atoms valued in fantastical wordings, and
constituent of the series.
+
+# Adjectives describe the object :
+## such as he is considered by the parent (beautiful, "ugly", as
expected, "not as expected", etc.)
+## plus such as it ought to be so that the action the parent would wish to
accomplish upon it, or the behaviour he expects from it are made possible,
i.e. "light" to more easily get rid of it if it is "a burden", careful if
it is a matter of protecting it.
+
+# Verbs describe the attitude of the parent :
+## in front of the idealised child: to like, to love, to take seriously,
to respect, to look, to see, to consider, to own, to control, to keep, to
protect, to lock up, to hold, to contain, to isolate, to incorporate (often
metaphorized as to eat), to feed, to fill, etc.
+## in front of the unwanted child: verbs
expressing "disappointment", "surprise", "astonishment", "fright", "horror", "to
hate, to detest, to curse, not to take seriously, to deride", as well as
the means to get rid of such a child, to make it change, or to ignore
it : "to destroy (to open, break, demolish, burn, burst, tear, pierce,
etc.), to change, alter, corrupt, distort, twist, displace, move, shake,
move away, move aside, chase away, chase out" (sometimes metaphorized
as "to vomit"), "to leave, to let go, to drop down, to throw out, to lose,
to mislead, to give, to sell, to exchange, to disregard, to ignore, to
forget", etc. all these words being secondarily valued by the adult this
child will become.
+
+The verbs expressing the wish of the parent will be able to be found in
the discourse of the child in the active, passive or reflexive voice.
+
+* The connection is generally easily perceived between the fact having
been carefully kept (parental « I keep him/her »), and the fact finding I
keep « its » satisfaction to keep objects or persons, to guard against
(dangers or of contacts), and to be kept. Filial love, where the deified
child worships his parents, is as for it an example of « return to sender ».
+
+* It is less obvious to consider that (French) « "s'éclater, se défoncer,
s'envoyer en l'air, se fendre la gueule" » may result from the reflexive
transformation of a parental « "je l'éclate, je le défonce, je l'envoie en
l'air, je lui fends la gueule" ». It is however quite simply the
freudolacanian thesis of reversibility between subject and object in
fantasy. The auto-aggressiveness which ranges from exhibition to danger up
to suicide is coupled with a hetero-aggressiveness which ranges from the
disrespect to others up to their destruction, both of them uniting in the
example of the terrorist exploding with his bomb. It is possible to admit
in the parricide a « return to sender » to the parent dreaming about
infanticide.
+
+Minimal semantic features or "atoms" extracted from these verbs and
adjectives are precisely those who constitute the two series :
+
+* series "destruction-disappearance-moving away-change", or A series.
+
+* series conservation-integrity-stability, or B series.
+
+== In depth description of series, points of view and speeches ==
+=== Attempt at a linguistic description ===
+
+The two points of view I and E, and their combinations (speeches), recall
the lects described by Michel Le Guern (1983) :
+:A language is a polyhierarchy of subsystems. Some [...] offer to speakers
choices between various variants. Each one a lect. Lects [... will be
allocated neither to an individual, nor to a social category, nor to a
geographical area, nor to a particular type of communication. They will be
studied "in itself ", in their pure oppositive relations [...].
+
+- The two series of atoms A and B are therefore lists of minimal semantic
features (or Seme (semantics)|semes) compared urgent term, for example open
/ close, flexible / rigid, distant / close.
+
+-The complex signifiers (verbs, complex adjectives, nouns, adverbs) do not
a priori belong to series. It is possible for each of them to describe its
composition in atoms.
+
+- Expressions and frozen expressions,
+
+It is often possible to find out simple rules of calculation to determine
the series of an expression with the form Verb + Direct object, using its
elements :
+
+* Verb A + Noun B → expression A
+* Verb B + Noun A → expression B
+* Verb A + Noun A → expression A
+* Verb B + Noun B → expression B
+
+The study of these expressions allows to compare the ways to describe the
same referent using the different points of view (it is possible to list
the "translations" of an expression from a point of view into another).
+
+- The sentences. As well as symmetrical expressions exist, it is possible
to meet :
+
+1. symmetrical sentences,
+
+2. symmetrical analogies,
+
+3. symmetrical proverbs, aphorisms and maxims.
+
+- The texts of variable length.
+
+- The biographies. It is possible to consider a biography to be a text
which argues in favour of one of the identifications described sooner, as a
subjective lect (a subjilect), a speech deriving from an identification to
the parental discourse.
+
+=== Rules and comments===
+
+- Each and every perception, event, and content can be talked of in at
least two ways, two different forms.
+
+- Rules of the « dialogical game » : CONSENSUS, CONFLICT
+* CONSENSUS (agreement of opinion on the content). Whenever there is
consensus, the words of the other party are translated by the speaker into
« his own » speech.
+* CONFLIT : there might be disagreement on the content (issue of the
debate) or on the form (kind of speech).
+
+- Cross-overs from one point of view to the other : they may be structural
or conjonctural
+
+* Structural (dependant on the structure of a speech)
+
+* Conjonctural (« exceptions confirming the rule »)
+
+- Depreciation of a « friend-like » word or appreciation of a « fiend-like
» word : when the speakers have to use in a negative manner a word of the
series they value, and vice and versa.
+
+- « Atoms » and « molecules » of a same series are potentially
exchangeable within metaphorical expressions, even in cases when they are
non-synonymous, or moreover incompatible at a cognitive level. These
synonymies can only be explained by A.S.L.
+
+== Direct and indirect validation, critics and self-critics, results ==
+=== Direct validation of A.S.L. ===
+=== Indirect validation of A.S.L. ===
+=== Critics and self-critics ===
+== Applications of A.S.L. ==
+=== To psychoanalysis ===
+
+A.L.S allows a logicized presentation of clinical descriptions in
neuroses, thus avoiding some confusions. For example:
+* The notion of « I or E » speech helps to better understand why typical
phobics are simultaneously agoraphobic (I point of view) and claustrophobic
(E point of view).
+
+* The possible confusion between obsessional discourse and discourse of
the University is overcome thanks to the terminology of A.S.L. («
conservative » speech and « constructive » speech). Indeed Lacan often
considers these two designations to be synonyms. And the logic of the « I →
I » speech (counterpart of obsessional discourse) makes its assimilation
impossible to university discourse (counterpart of the « E → I » speech) :
the first assumes an initial perfection, a « inbred wisdom », incompatible
with the acquisition of new knowledge (the obsessed man/woman is « full of
dirty ignorance », and nevertheless pedant) ; the second assumes a
secondary perfectibility and allows one to « fill up with knowledge » in
order to redeem a « mad » and not very studious youth, and to acquire the
respectability which one had not at first.
+
+The validation of A.L.S allows as an indirect consequence to contribute to
« upstream » validation of general theses which it presupposes (Lacan, 1966
), notably:
+
+* The subject of unconscious represented in language, « perfectly
accessible to the calculation of conjecture » and pertaining to « the
inscription of a combinatory the exhaustion of which would be possible »,
+* the fundamental notion that « the desire of man is the desire of Other »,
+* The reversibility between subject and object in phantasy.
+
+« Series and speeches » can also and especially be applied to the
discourses of the analysts.
+
+The analysts being made with the same "clay" as their patients, the
analytical discourse should not consist simply in their statements, often
fantastical. To characterise it, it is easier to proceed by elimination, to
say what it is not, as the identification of the different phantasies goes
along.
+
+* On the goals of the analytical "therapy", it can exist an unconscious
complicity between the analyst and his patient in a common phantasy, when
they share the same speech, what A.S.L. can detect. And such phantasies
have an effect on the practice and effects of analyses, which in that case,
instead of sending back all the identifications back to back to tend
towards the "désêtre", the subjective deposition (Lacan), take back
the "analysing one" in a neurotic speech only dressed with psychoanalytic
jargon.
+
+* On theory : analytical literature is swarming with suspicious
conceptualisations, which sometimes put forward as an alibi the « structure
of fiction of truth ». A.S.L. allows, in this jungle of « analytical »
productions, to make a first sorting between the wrong tracks (banally
fantastical) and potentially interesting hypotheses (in the operating sense
by Gardin), which then remain to demonstrate.
+
+A.L.S. cannot apply directly to the psychoanalytic "therapy". Thus the
applications of A.S.L., method based on psychoanalytic theses, are mostly
extra-psychoanalytic.
+
+=== To speech sciences ===
+==== To semantics ====
+
+Since there is subjective universaux, distinct from cognitive universaux,
following from the genesis of identifications, and exceeding the style of
an author, the languages or the epochs, A.S.L. has some explicative
potential, or even predictive in the semantics of rhetoric figures. This
can be seen in cognitively unexplainable synonymies. So the MORFLER article
of the Dictionary of non conventional French (Cellard, on 1980) points out:
«(1) to receive (blows, bullet): of series Morfiler, « to eat », by
figurative passage to « to take »(cf. "déguster"). (2) to speak, to
confess, to report : incomprehensible meaning. It must be a confusion
between "Morfler" and "Moufter" (to speak)».
+
+==== To rhetorics and to argumentation ====
+
+Each one is made by his parent the lawyer of a type of identification,
therefore is dedicated to a kind of lexical advocacy. To hear "his" dialect
or the opposing dialect provokes adhesion or opposition, consensus or
conflict. Series are therefore tanks of metaphoric elements with
argumentative value, where one scoop out to argue without using reasoning"
+
+Misunderstanding being the thing best shared in the world, A.S.L. has
consequences in the field of negotiation. It allows to explain and
sometimes to solve misunderstanding generative either of conflicts (cf. §
Rules of " dialogic game") or wrong consensus bound to break.
+
+==== To poetry and to litterature ====
+
+Baudelaire (1993) declared (Salon of 1859): « Rhetorics and prosodies are
not tyrannies arbitrarily invented, but collection of rules claimed by the
organisation of the spiritual being ».
+
+These rules of the subjective organisation intervene in composition as
well in reception of the literary text. A.S.L. adds a dimension to the
classical or modern analyses. Independently of poetic singularity
(singularity of the poet by its biography, singularity of the poem by its
place in work and by its unique character), it searches :
+* the common denominator to the author, to his heirs (other " accursed
poets " for example) and to his readers : who appreciates him, who rejects
him, and in which terms (networks of complicity). A study on
Baudelaire's "The Flowers of Evil", to be published, shows the reliability
of this approach.
+
+* constancy or variation of its "point of view" in the course of his life.
So Aragon (1977) passes from E point of view to I point of view, as shown
by the opposite prefaces of 1924 and 1964 of "Le libertinage" , unlike Paul
Nizan who stays in the dialect E → E.
+
+==== To translations ====
+
+One can take into account the level of language of terms to be translated,
and to render depending on circumstances original expression either by «
perdre la raison », or « devenir fou », or « péter les plombs ».. But it is
unlikely that they differentiate, at the same level of language,
between "fondu" and "givré" or they enter « y passer » and « y rester »
(pseudosynonyms) there. Of this fact the reader will be deprived of a key
information concerning the personality of the author (autobiography), or
the psychology of the character.
+
+=== To all human sciences ===
+
+Brunetto Latini wrote in the Middle Ages ("The Book of Treasure"): «
Tullius Tullius Cicero said that the highest science of city governing is
rhetorics, that is the science of speech ; because if speech did not exist,
neither would city exist nor any establishment of justice or of human
company ».
+
+Lakoff (1985) and Johnson point out : « Metaphors can create realities,
especially social realities », and J. Molino (1979) : « Metaphor, at the
moment when linguists rediscover its importance, appears therefore as a
strategical instrument of analysis of culture ... But if metaphor is
necessary to the interpretation of cultures, would not it be at the same
time one of its essential ingredients ? ».
+
+For A.S.L., which here agrees with Lacan, metaphor is constituent of
phantasy, and institutions (which are based on statements or texts), social
realities and cultures are only aspects of the subjective text or «
psychical reality » which derives from our condition of speaking beings.
And so one can and must, to understand them, approach the study of "human
being" from the angle of speech. A.S.L., among other methods, can
contribute to the critic of psychological, sociological, economic,
political, philosophical, or even pseudo-psychoanalytic explanations
of "discontents in civilisation" : learning to raise the pertinent
questions - i.e. in any "theory" to look for phantasy - is imperative
before even beginning to look for solutions. Indeed the speaker described
by A..S.L. as the simple spokesperson of a "cleared out from its
singularity identification" is no more neither the individual subject of
psychology, nor the collective subject of sociology : « it speaks », there
is no author, were he unique or numerous, of speeches and their effects.
+
+== Notes and references ==
+== See also ==
+== References ==
+== External links ==
+* Tout sur l'Analyse des Logiques Subjectives
+
+== Literature ==
+
+* Arrivé (M.). 1994. "Langage et psychanalyse, linguistique et
inconscient". Paris : P.U.F.
+* Cathelat (B.) & Cathelat (M.). 1992. "Panorama des styles de vie
1960-90". Paris : Les Éditions d’organisation.
+* Dumarsais (C.). 1730. "Des tropes ou des différents sens dans lesquels
on peut prendre un même mot dans une même langue". Paris : Broca. Réédition
présentée, commentée et annotée par Douay, F. (1988). Paris : Flammarion.
+* Dupriez (B.). 1984. "Gradus, les procédés littéraires". Paris : 10/18.
+* Gardes-Tamine (J.). 1996. "La rhétorique". Paris : Armand Colin.
+* Gardin (J.-C.) & Molino (J.). 1987. "La logique du plausible, essais
d'épistémologie pratique en sciences humaines". Paris : Éditions de la
Maison des Sciences de l'Homme.
+* Lakoff, G., Johnson, M. (1985). "Les métaphores dans la vie
quotidienne". Paris : Les Éditions de Minuit.
+* Le Guern (M.). 1973. "Sémantique de la métaphore et de la métonymie".
Paris : Larousse.
+* Milner (J.-C.). 1989. "Introduction à une science du langage". Paris :
Seuil, Coll. « Des travaux ».
+* Milner (J.-C.). 1995. « Linguistique et psychanalyse ».
in : "Encyclopædia Universalis France" CD-Rom.
+* Molino (J.), Soublin (F.) & Tamine (J.). 1979. « Présentation :
problèmes de la métaphore ». in : "Langages", 54.
+* Rastier (F.). 1987. "Sémantique interprétative". Paris : P.U.F.
+* Ronat (M.). 1974. « Énonciation et « grammaire » de l'inconscient ».
in : "L'Arc", 58, pp. 73–78.
+* Tamba-Mecz (I.). 1981. "Le sens figuré". Paris : P.U.F.
+
+
+
+
=======================================
--- /dev/null
+++ /trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Anomie Mon Jun 11 05:34:01 2012
@@ -0,0 +1,72 @@
+
+Anomie describes a lack of social norms; "normlessness". It describes the
breakdown of social bonds between an individual and their community ties,
with fragmentation of social identity and rejection of self-regulatory
values. It was popularized by French sociologist Émile Durkheim in his
influential book "Suicide" (1897). Durkheim borrowed the word from French
philosopher Jean-Marie Guyau. Durkheim never uses the term normlessness;
rather, he describes anomie as "a rule that is a lack of
rule," "derangement," and "an insatiable will."
+
+For Durkheim, anomie arises more generally from a mismatch between
personal or group standards and wider social standards, or from the lack of
a social ethic, which produces moral deregulation and an absence of
legitimate aspirations. This is a nurtured condition:
+
+== History ==
+
+In 1893, Durkheim introduced the concept of "anomie" to describe the
mismatch of collective guild labor to evolving societal needs when the
guild was homogeneous in its constituency. He equated homogeneous
(redundant) skills to "mechanical solidarity" whose inertia retarded
adaptation. He contrasted this with the self-regulating behavior of a
division of labor based on differences in constituency, equated to "organic
solidarity", whose lack of inertia made it differentially sensitive to need
changes.
+
+Durkheim observed that these two labour forms could not co-exist. The
conflict between the evolved organic division of labor and the homogeneous
mechanical type was such that one could not long exist in the presence of
the other: "This social type rests on principles so different from the
preceding that it can develop only in proportion to the effacement of that
preceding type". and "The history of these two types shows, in effect, that
one has progressed only as the other has retrogressed". When solidarity is
organic, anomie is "impossible whenever solidary organs are sufficiently in
contact or sufficiently prolonged. In effect, being contiguous, they are
quickly warned, in each circumstance, of the need they have of one another,
and, consequently, they have a lively and continuous sentiment of their
mutual dependence. For the same reason that exchanges take place among them
easily, they take place frequently, and in time the work of consolidation
is achieved". Their sensitivity to mutual needs promotes the evolution in
the division of labor "because the smallest reaction can be felt from one
part to another. ... They foresee and fix, in detail, the conditions of
equilibrium". "Producers, being near consumers, can easily reckon the
extent of the needs to be satisfied. Equilibrium is established without any
trouble and production regulates itself." Durkheim contrasted the condition
of anomie as being the result of mechanical solidarity: "But on the
contrary, if some opaque environment is interposed, then only stimuli of
certain intensity can be communicated from one organ to another. Relations
being rare, are not repeated enough to be determined; each time there
ensues new grouping. The lines of passage taken by the streams of movement
cannot deepen because the streams themselves are too
intermittent". "Contact is no longer sufficient. The producer can no longer
embrace the market at a glance, nor even in thought. He can no longer see
its limits, since it is, so to speak limitless. Accordingly, production
becomes unbridled and unregulated."
+
+Durkheim's use of the term anomie was about a phenomenon of
industrialization—mass-regimentation that could not adapt due to its own
inertia—its resistance to change, which causes disruptive cycles of
collective behavior (e.g. economics) due to the necessity of a prolonged
buildup of sufficient force or momentum to overcome the inertia.
+
+Later in 1897, in his studies of suicide, Durkheim associated anomie to
the influence of a lack of norms or norms that were too rigid. But such
normlessness or norm-rigidity was a "symptom of anomie", caused by the lack
of differential adaptation that would enable norms to evolve naturally due
to self-regulation, either to develop norms where none existed or to change
norms that had become rigid and obsolete.
+
+== Etymology ==
+
+The word comes from Greek ανομία, namely the prefix "a-" "without",
and "nomos" "law". The Greeks distinguished between "nomos" (νόμος, "law"),
and "arché" (αρχή, "starting rule, axiom, principle"). For example, a
monarch is a single ruler but he or she might still be subject to, and not
exempt from, the prevailing laws, i.e. "nomos". In the original city state
democracy, the majority rule was an aspect of "arché" because it was a
rule-based, customary system, which might or might not make laws,
i.e. "nomos". Thus, the original meaning of "anomie" defined anything or
anyone against or outside the law, or a condition where the current laws
were not applied resulting in a state of illegitimacy or lawlessness.
+
+The contemporary English understanding of the word "anomie" can accept
greater flexibility in the word "norm", and some have used the idea of
normlessness to reflect a similar situation to the idea of anarchy. But, as
used by Émile Durkheim and later theorists, "anomie" is a reaction against
or a retreat from the regulatory social controls of society, and is a
completely separate concept from anarchy, which is an absence of effective
rulers or leaders.
+
+== As social disorder ==
+
+The nineteenth century French pioneer sociologist Émile Durkheim borrowed
the word from French philosopher Jean-Marie Guyau and used it in his
influential book "Suicide" (1897), outlining the social (and not
individual) causes of suicide, characterized by an absence or diminution of
standards or values (referred to as normlessness), and an associated
feeling of alienation and purposelessness. He believed that "anomie" is
common when the surrounding society has undergone significant changes in
its economic fortunes, whether for good or for worse and, more generally,
when there is a significant discrepancy between the ideological theories
and values commonly professed and what was actually achievable in everyday
life. This is contrary to previous theories on suicide which generally
maintained that suicide was precipitated by negative events in a person's
life and their subsequent depression.
+
+In Durkheim's view, traditional religions often provided the basis for the
shared values which the anomic individual lacks. Furthermore, he argued
that the division of labor that had been prevalent in economic life since
the Industrial Revolution led individuals to pursue egoistic ends rather
than seeking the good of a larger community. Robert King Merton also
adopted the idea of "anomie" to develop Strain Theory, defining it as the
discrepancy between common social goals and the legitimate means to attain
those goals. In other words, an individual suffering from "anomie" would
strive to attain the common goals of a specific society yet would not be
able to reach these goals legitimately because of the structural
limitations in society. As a result the individual would exhibit deviant
behavior. Friedrich Hayek notably uses the word "anomie" with this meaning.
+
+According to one academic survey, psychometric testing confirmed a link
between anomie and academic dishonesty among university students suggesting
that universities needed to foster codes of ethics among students in order
to curb it. In another study anomie was seen as a "push factor" in tourism.
+
+As an older variant, the Webster 1913 dictionary reports use of the
word "anomie" as meaning "disregard or violation of the law" but anomie as
a social disorder is not to be confused with "anarchy". Proponents of
anarchism claim that anarchy does not necessarily lead to "anomie" and that
hierarchical command actually increases lawlessness. Some subsets of
anarchism, such as anarcho-primitivism argue in works such as Industrial
Society and Its Future that conditions such as anomie are directly caused
by complex societies, particularly industrial and post-industrial societies
due to their deprivation of individual self-determination and a relatively
small reference group to relate to, such as the band, clan, or tribe.
+
+== In literature, film, and theater ==
+
+In Albert Camus's existentialist novel "The Stranger", the bored,
alienated protagonist Meursault struggles to construct an individual system
of values as he responds to the disappearance of the old. He exists largely
in a state of "anomie", as seen from the apathy evinced in the opening
lines: "" ("Today mother died. Or maybe yesterday, I don't know"). When
Mersault is prosecuted for shooting an Arab man during a fight, the
prosecuting attorneys seem more interested in the inability or
unwillingness of Meursault to cry at his mother's funeral than the murder
of the Arab, because they find his lack of remorse offensive. The novel
ends with Meursault recognizing the universe's indifference toward
humankind. In the first half of the novel Meursault is clearly an
unreflecting, unapologetic individual. Ultimately, Camus presents the world
as essentially meaningless and therefore, the only way to arrive at any
meaning or purpose is to make it oneself.
+
+Fyodor Dostoyevsky, whose work is often considered a philosophical
precursor to existentialism, often expressed a similar concern in his
novels. In "The Brothers Karamazov", it is expressed more than once by
different characters that in the absence of God and immortal life,
everything would be lawful. That one can do as one likes, but this one
cannot. The novel explores the existence of God, the nature of truth, and
the importance of forgiveness through the actions of its characters.
Raskolnikov, the anti-hero of Dostoevsky’s novel "Crime and Punishment",
puts this philosophy into action when he kills an elderly pawnbroker and
her sister, later rationalizing this act to himself with the words, "...it
wasn’t a human being I killed, it was a principle!" Raskolnikov's inner
conflict in the opening section of the novel results in a
utilitarian-altruistic justification for the proposed crime: why not kill a
wretched and "useless" old moneylender to alleviate the human misery?
+
+The Swiss Friedrich Dürrenmatt's 1956 tragicomic play The Visit is another
striking example of anomie. The town of Guellen eagerly surrenders to the
temptation of modern-day fiscal freedom promised by billionairess Claire
Zachanassian in exchange for the dead body of the Alfred Ill. Now the
recently elected mayor-to-be, he was also the man who jilted Zachanassian
(and their unborn child) several decades ago leaving her destitute.
Initially reluctant, the townsfolk quickly forgo the established societal
norms and basic human values, disrupting and disregarding the victim's ties
to his family and community. Inevitably, the people of Guellen fall in the
trap of gaudy materialism, justifying themselves as they increasingly allow
themselves to become selfish; they promote normlessness. Eventually they
succeed in alienating and hypocritically passing judgment on the man, to
the extent where they carry out his public execution - he is lynched by his
townsmen. They then abandon his body as they are too distracted in
celebration of their 'rightful' blood-money - signifying that anomie
continues even after they are gone.
+
+Hermann Hesse's "Der Steppenwolf" also expresses a picture of anomie. The
novel tells the story of a middle-aged man named Harry Haller who is beset
with reflections on his being ill-suited for the world of "everybody", the
regular people. In his aimless wanderings about the city he is given a book
which describes the two natures of man: one "high", spiritual and "human";
while the other is "low" and animal-like. Thus, man is entangled in an
irresolvable struggle, never content with either nature because he cannot
see beyond this self-made construct. While Haller longs to live free from
social convention, he continually lives as a bourgeois bachelor. Haller
argues that the men of the Dark Ages did not suffer more than those of
Classical Antiquity, and vice-versa. It is rather those who live between
two times, those who do not know what to follow, that suffer the most. In
this token, a man from the Dark Ages living in Classical Antiquity, or the
opposite, would undergo a gulping sadness and agony.
+
+The characters Vladimir and Estragon in Samuel Beckett's absurdist
play "Waiting For Godot" express a sense of anomie. The play follows two
consecutive days in the lives of a pair of men who divert themselves while
they wait expectantly and unsuccessfully for someone named Godot to arrive.
Frustrated at the long wait, they think of what to do to pass the time.
Estragon suggests that they hang themselves, but since they are concerned
that they might not both die, they decide to do nothing: "It's safer",
explains Estragon. Another character, Lucky, describes an impersonal and
callous God. Lucky next asserts that man 'wastes and pines', mourns an
inhospitable earth, and claims that he diminishes in a world that does not
nurture him". The play illustrates an attitude toward man's experience on
earth: the poignancy, oppression, camaraderie, hope, corruption, and
bewilderment of human experience that can only be reconciled in the mind
and art of the absurdist.
+
+The Yugoslav film "When I Am Dead and Gone" (1967) is a relentless
portrayal of anomie throughout the contemporary Yugoslav society,
experiencing rapid industrialization and urbanization. The main character
seeks to settle down in an environment where all norms are habitually
broken.
+
+== See also ==
+== References ==
+
+== Bibliography ==
+
+* Durkheim, Émile. (1893). "The Division of Labour in Society"
+* Durkheim, Émile. (1897). "Suicide"
+* Realino Marra, "Suicidio, diritto e anomia. Immagini della morte
volontaria nella civiltà occidentale", Edizioni Scientifiche Italiane,
Napoli, 1987, ISBN 209776
+* Realino Marra, "Geschichte und aktuelle Problematik des
Anomiebegriffs", "Zeitschrift für Rechtssoziologie", XI-1, 1989, 67-80.
+* Marco Orru. "The Ethics of Anomie: Jean Marie Guyau and Émile
Durkheim", "British Journal of Sociology", Vol. 34, No. 4 (Dec., 1983),
pp. 499–518
+* Riba, Jordi (1999). "La Morale Anomique de Jean-Marie Guyau'.
L'Harmattan. ISBN 978-2-7384-7772-9
+
+== External links ==
+
+* "Anomie" discussed at the Émile Durkheim Archive.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
=======================================
--- /dev/null
+++ /trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Anticipatory socialization Mon Jun 11
05:34:01 2012
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+Anticipatory socialization is the process, facilitated by social
interactions, in which non-group-members learn to take on the values and
standards of groups that they aspire to join, so as to ease their entry
into the group and help them interact competently once they have been
accepted by it. It is the process of changing one's attitudes and
behaviours, in preparation for a shift in one's role. Words commonly
associated with anticipatory socialization include grooming, play-acting,
training and rehearsing.
+
+The concept of anticipatory socialization, first defined by sociologist
Robert K. Merton, has its origins in a 1949 study of the United States
military which found that privates who modelled their attitudes and
behaviours on those of officers were more likely to be promoted than those
who didn't.
+
+When people are blocked from access to a group they might have wanted to
join, they reject that group's values and norms, and instead begin the
anticipatory socialization process with groups that are more receptive to
them. People doing this, for example economically disadvantaged teenagers
who aspire to become drug dealers rather than professionals, are sometimes
criticized as lacking motivation, however sociologists say they are simply
making a pragmatic adjustment to the opportunities available to them.
+
+Examples of anticipatory socialization include law school students
learning how to behave like lawyers, older people preparing for retirement
and Mormon boys getting ready to become missionaries.
+
+==References==
+
+
=======================================
--- /dev/null
+++ /trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Anticonformism Mon Jun 11 05:34:01 2012
@@ -0,0 +1,24 @@
+
+The term Anti-conformism has been defined as when a human seeks to "spit
in society's face, doing things just to shock or spite them." It is unknown
when the term first came to be used in society, but the term can be
confused with "non-conformism". The etymology of the actual word reveals
that the first section of the word is the Greek anti- (αντι),
meaning "against" or "instead of"; whilst the second part of the term,
conformist, can be traced back to the Old French (O.Fr.) word "conformer",
meaning to "make or be similar".
+
+==Definition==
+Anti-conformism is a philosophy which actively rejects conformity.
Anti-conformists are not merely individualists, but more so, believe that
conformity is responsible for many of the world's ills and problems.
Anti-conformists usually equate the pressure to conform to social norms
with a form of cultural bigotry and therefore champion a free-spirited
individualism that attempts to rid him or herself of all vestiges of
socially-based desires and characteristics.
+
+The Anticonformism is the opposite of conformity. We use this word to
describe the attitude of opposition to it, even hostility to the standards,
of the established practices.
+
+The Standard, from the Latin norma (square, ruler), functions as a model,
reference, or even a rule. It corresponds to the usual state, consistent
with the majority of cases. So it means the average, normal .
+
+Any individual who, in society, deviates from the norm, and is often
considered abnormal, and sometimes even deviant. In this regard, Andre
Gide(French writer of the twentieth century) writes:
+
+"Every non-compliant thought is suspect." Suspect in the eyes of those who
conform precisely to a standard of thought and often behavioral standard.
These individuals end up resembling, as their desire to imitate is huge.
And Marcel, the Conformist hero in Alberto Moravia's book (1951), is
delighted to be like everyone else.
+
+The Anticonformist is often an individualist, derived from the Latin word
dividere, which means to "split", "separate". It is "separated" from the
mass, from his environment, because he does not comply with the models laid
down by the majority. The nonconformist therefore declined to be the one
that he should be. He asserts his originality: indeed, the nonconformist
wants to innovate, invent.
+
+True artists are almost all anticonformists, We should think about of the
Romantic artists of the early nineteenth century, the Impressionist
painters who opposed then by their creative freedom, the aesthetic
standards of academic painting. And, closer to us, the surrealist movement
which has deeply influenced the years 1920-1930.
+
+But if conformity favors, one can guess, social integration,
non-conformist is sometimes a source of mistrust, (see quote from Andre
Gide above); hostility or exclusion of the representatives of the standard,
of the order.
+Even if a anticonformist, might be seen as a resistant, or a rebel, the
philosopher Pascal Bruckner points out in "the conformism of subversion",
the systematic critique of modern society and, more particularly, of the
liberal system, the advertising and media, with whom he is in affinity,
becomes a conformist upside down, a new way, just as excessive and
ridiculous, to be the part of the herd. Pierre Bourdieu also emphasized
that conformity and homogenization of thought is conveyed in most media.
+
+==References==
+
+
=======================================
--- /dev/null
+++ /trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Antilocution Mon Jun 11 05:34:01 2012
@@ -0,0 +1,8 @@
+
+Antilocution is a term defined by psychologist Gordon Allport in his
book "The Nature of Prejudice", 1954. Antilocution is defined as verbal
remarks against a person, group or community, which are not addressed
directly to the target. Generally referred to as "talking behind someone's
back," the impact of this is often overlooked. However because antilocution
creates an environment where discrimination is acceptable, it frequently
progresses to other more damaging forms of prejudiced behavior. It's use is
overshadowed by the more modern term Hate speech which has almost the same
meaning.
+
+==See also==
+*Allport's scale
+
+
+
=======================================
--- /dev/null
+++ /trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Antiprocess Mon Jun 11 05:34:01 2012
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+
+
+Antiprocess is the preemptive recognition and marginalization of undesired
information by the interplay of mental defense mechanisms: the subconscious
compromises information that would cause cognitive dissonance. It is often
used to describe a difficulty encountered when people with sharply
contrasting viewpoints are attempting (and failing) to discuss a topic. In
other words, when one is debating with another, there may be a baffling
disconnect despite his apparent understanding of the argument. Despite the
apparently sufficient understanding to formulate counter-arguments, the
mind of the debater does not allow him to be swayed by that knowledge.
+
+There are many instances on the Internet where antiprocess can be
observed, but the prime location to see it is in Usenet discussion groups,
where discussions tend to be highly polarized. In such debates, both sides
appear to have a highly sophisticated understanding of the other position,
yet neither side is swayed. As a result, the debate can continue for years
without any progress being made.
+
+Antiprocess occurs because:
+
+# The mind is capable of multitasking;
+# The mind has the innate capability to evaluate and select information at
a preconscious level so that we are not overwhelmed with the processing
requirements;
+# It is not feasible to maintain two contradictory beliefs at the same
time;
+# It is not possible for people to be aware of every factor leading up to
decisions they make;
+# People learn argumentatively effective but logically invalid defensive
strategies (such as rhetorical fallacies);
+# People tend to favour strategies of thinking that have served them well
in the past; and
+# The truth is just too unpalatable to the mind to accept.
+
+The ramifications of these factors are that people can be engaged in a
debate sincerely, yet the appearances suggest that they are not. This can
lead to acrimony if neither party is aware of antiprocess and does not
adjust his or her debating style accordingly.
+
+==External links==
+*Introduction to Antiprocess (archive)
+
=======================================
--- /dev/null
+++ /trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Archetype Mon Jun 11 05:34:01 2012
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+
+An archetype () is a universally understood symbol, term, or pattern of
behavior, a prototype upon which others are copied, patterned, or emulated.
Archetypes are often used in myths and storytelling across different
cultures.
+
+In psychology, an archetype is a model of a person, personality, or
behavior.
+
+In philosophy, archetypes have, since Plato, referred to ideal forms of
the perceived or sensible objects or types.
+
+In the analysis of personality, the term "archetype" is often broadly used
to refer to:
+# A stereotype— a personality type observed multiple times, especially an
oversimplification of such a type.
+# An epitome— a personality type exemplified, especially the "greatest"
such example.
+# A literary term to express details.
+
+Archetype refers to a generic version of a personality. In this
sense, "mother figure" may be considered an archetype, and may be
identified in various characters with otherwise distinct (non-generic)
personalities.
+
+Archetypes are likewise supposed to have been present in folklore and
literature for thousands of years, including prehistoric artwork. The use
of archetypes to illuminate personality and literature was advanced by Carl
Jung early in the 20th century, who suggested the existence of universal
contentless forms that channel experiences and emotions, resulting in
recognizable and typical patterns of behavior with certain probable
outcomes. Archetypes are cited as important to both ancient mythology and
modern narratives.
+
+==Etymology==
+First attested in English in 1540s, the word "archetype" derives from the
Latin noun "archetypum", the latinisation of the Greek noun ἀρχέτυπον
("archetupon") and adjective ἀρχέτυπος ("archetupos"),
meaning "first-moulded", which is a compound of ἀρχή ("archē",) "beginning,
origin" + τύπος ("tupos"), amongst others "pattern, model, type".
+
+"Pronunciation note": The "ch" in archetype is a transliteration of the
Greek chi () and is most commonly articulated in English as a "k".
+
+==Origins==
+The origins of the archetypal hypothesis date back as far as Plato. Jung
himself compared archetypes to Platonic ideas. Plato's "ideas" were pure
mental forms that were imprinted in the soul before it was born into the
world. They were collective in the sense that they embodied the fundamental
characteristics of a thing rather than its specific peculiarities.
+
+The Platonist Jewish philosopher Philo of Alexandria used the term to
describe the "Imago Dei", and the Gallic Christian theologian Irenaeus of
Lyons used the term to describe the act of Creation.
+
+==Jungian archetypes==
+The concept of psychological archetypes was advanced by the Swiss
psychiatrist Carl Jung, c. 1919. In Jung's psychological framework,
archetypes are innate, universal prototypes for ideas and may be used to
interpret observations. A group of memories and interpretations associated
with an archetype is a complex ( e.g. a mother complex associated with the
mother archetype). Jung treated the archetypes as psychological organs,
analogous to physical ones in that both are morphological constructs that
arose through evolution.
+
+Jung outlined five main archetypes:
+*The Self, the regulating center of the psyche and facilitator of
individuation,
+*The Shadow, the opposite of the ego image, often containing qualities
with which the ego does not identify, but which it possesses nonetheless,
+*The Anima, the feminine image in a man's psyche, or
+*The Animus, the masculine image in a woman's psyche,
+*The Persona, the image we present to the world, usually protecting the
Ego from negative images (like a mask), and considered another of 'the
subpersonalities, the complexes'.
+
+Although archetypes can take on innumerable forms, there are a few
particularly notable, recurring archetypal images:
+*The Child
+*The Hero
+*The Martyr
+*The Great Mother
+*The Wise old man or Sage
+*The Wise Old Woman/Man, archetypes of the collective unconscious
+
+*The Damsel in distress
+*The Trickster or Fox
+*The Devil or Satan
+*The Scarecrow
+*The Mentor
+*The Warrior
+Jung also outlined what he called archetypes of transformation, which are
situations, places, ways, and means that symbolize the transformation in
question. These archetypes exist primarily as energy and are useful in
organizational development, personal and organizational change management,
and extensively used in place branding.
+
+==In pedagogy (teaching)==
+Clifford Mayes (born July 15, 1953), professor in the Brigham Young
University McKay School of Education, has developed what he has termed
archetypal pedagogy. Mayes' work also aims at promoting what he calls
archetypal reflectivity in teachers; this is a means of encouraging
teachers to examine and work with psychodynamic issues, images, and
assumptions, as those factors affect their pedagogical practices.
Archetypal reflectivity, which draws not only upon Jungian psychology but
transpersonal psychology, generally offers an avenue for teachers to probe
the spiritual dimensions of teaching and learning in non-dogmatic terms.
+
+In the USA, Mayes' two most recent works, "Inside Education: Depth
Psychology in Teaching and Learning" (2007) and "The Archetypal Hero's
Journey in Teaching and Learning: A Study in Jungian Pedagogy" (2008),
incorporate the psychoanalytic theories of Heinz Kohut (particularly
Kohut's notion of the selfobject) and the object relations theory of Ronald
Fairbairn and D.W. Winnicott. Some of Mayes' work in curriculum theory,
especially "Seven Curricular Landscapes: An Approach to the Holistic
Curriculum" (2003) and "Understanding the Whole Student: Holistic
Multicultural Education" (2007), is concerned with holistic education.
+
+==In literature and art==
+
+Archetypes can be found in nearly all forms of literature, with their
motifs being predominantly rooted in folklore.
+
+William Butler Yeats completed an automatic writing with his wife
(Georgie) Hyde-Lees. Their book, A Vision, contains an interesting mapping
and list of 28 archetypes by these characters' will and fate.
+Tarot cards depict a system of archetypes used for divination of a
persons' fate or story.
+In the Noh plays of Japan, the characters are skillfully depicted with
exaggerated expressions and elaborate costumes to clearly portray a system
of archetypes.
+
+William Shakespeare is responsible for popularizing several archetypal
characters. Falstaff, the bawdy rotund comic knight; Romeo and Juliet, the
ill-fated ("star-crossed") lovers; Richard II, the hero who dies with
honour; and many others. Although Shakespeare based many of his characters
on existing archetypes from fables and myths (e.g., Romeo and Juliet on
Arthur Brooke's "Romeus and Juliet"), Shakespeare's characters stand out as
original by their contrast against a complex social literary landscape. For
instance, in" The Tempest", Shakespeare borrowed from a manuscript by
William Strachey that detailed an actual shipwreck of the Virginia-bound
17th-century English sailing vessel "Sea Venture" in 1609 on the islands of
Bermuda. Shakespeare also borrowed heavily from a speech by Medea in
Ovid's" Metamorphoses "in writing Prospero's renunciative speech;
nevertheless, the combination of these elements in the character of
Prospero created a new interpretation of the sage magician as that of a
carefully plotting hero, quite distinct from the wizard-as-advisor
archetype of Merlin or Gandalf. Both of these are likely derived from
priesthood authority archetypes, such as Celtic Druids, or perhaps Biblical
figures like Abraham, Moses, etc.; or in the case of Gandalf, the Norse
figure Odin.
+
+Certain common methods of character depiction employed in dramatic
performance rely on the pre-existence of literary archetypes. Stock
characters used in theatre or film are based on highly generic literary
archetypes. A pastiche is an imitation of an archetype or prototype in
order to pay homage to the original creator.
+
+Sheri Tepper's novel" Plague of Angels "contains archetypical villages,
essentially human zoos where a wide variety of archetypal people are kept,
including heroes, orphans, oracles, ingénues, bastards, young lovers,
poets, princesses, martyrs, and fools.
+
+Similarly, the song "Atlantis" by the folk singer Donovan mentions twelve
archetypal characters leaving the sinking Atlantis and spreading to the far
corners of the world to bring civilization, though only five of the twelve
are mentioned in the song:
+
+Knowing her fate, Atlantis sent out ships to all corners of the Earth.
+On board were the Twelve:
+The poet, the physician, the farmer, the scientist, the magician,
+And the other so-called Gods of our legends,
+Though Gods they were.</poem>
+
+The superhero genre is also frequently cited as emblematic of archetypal
literature.
+
+—"Superman on the Couch "by Danny Fingeroth 151
+==See also==
+
+* Archive for Research in Archetypal Symbolism
+* Character (arts)
+* Cliché
+* Mental model
+* Ostensive definition
+* Perennial philosophy
+* Personification
+* Prototype
+* Simulacrum
+* Theory of Forms
+* Wounded healer
+==References==
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
=======================================
--- /dev/null
+++ /trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Artificial demand Mon Jun 11 05:34:01
2012
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+
+Artificial demand constitutes demand for something that, in the absence of
exposure to the vehicle of creating demand, would not exist. It has
controversial applications in microeconomics (pump and dump strategy) and
advertising. Synonyms for "artificial demand" include "fake demand"
and "false need".
+
+A demand is usually seen as artificial when it increases consumer utility
very inefficiently; for example, a physician proscribing unnecessary
surgeries would be creating artificial demand. Government spending with the
primary purpose of providing jobs (rather than deliverying any other end
product) has been labelled "artificial demand".
+
+Vehicles of creating artificial demand can include mass media advertising,
which can create demand for goods, services, political policies or
platforms, and other entities.
+
+Another example of artificial demand can be seen in penny stock spam.
After purchasing a large number of shares of an extremely low-value stock,
the spammer attempts to create artificial demand by implementing a
spam-based guerilla marketing strategy.
+
+== Notes ==
+==See also==
+*Pump and dump
+
+
+
+
=======================================
--- /dev/null
+++ /trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Asch conformity experiments Mon Jun 11
05:34:01 2012
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+
+The Asch conformity experiments were a series of laboratory studies
published in the 1950s that demonstrated a surprising degree of conformity
to a majority opinion. These are also known as the Asch Paradigm.
+
+==Influences on Asch==
+Solomon Asch attributed his research on group conformity to an experience
he had as a child growing up in Poland. When Asch stayed up late to
participate in his first Passover, he witnessed his grandmother setting out
an extra glass of wine out on the table. When Asch asked who would be
drinking that glass of wine, his uncle replied that it was for the prophet
Elijah. Asch was “filled with the sense of suggestion and expectation” and
believed he saw the level of wine in the glass decrease slightly.
+
+At the beginning of World War II, Asch began to study the effects
propaganda and indoctrination at Brooklyn College. Asch came to the
conclusion that propaganda was most effective when fear and ignorance
played a part on the intended targets.
+
+==Methodology==
+
+Experiments led by Solomon Asch of Swarthmore College asked groups of
students to participate in a "vision test." In reality, all but one of the
participants were confederates of the experimenter, and the study was
really about how the remaining student would react to the confederates'
behavior.
+
+Each participant was put into a group with 5 to 7 "confederates" (people
who knew the true aims of the experiment, but were introduced as
participants to the naive "real" participant). The participants were shown
a card with a line on it, followed by another card with 3 lines on it
labeled A, B, and C. The participants were then asked to say which line
matched the line on the first card in length. Each line question was called
a "trial". The "real" participant answered last or next to last. For the
first two trials, the subject would feel at ease in the experiment, as he
and the other "participants" gave the obvious, correct answer. On the third
trial, the confederates would start all giving the same wrong answer. There
were 18 trials in total and the confederates answered incorrectly for 12 of
them, these 12 were known as the "critical trials". The aim was to see
whether the real participant would change his answer and respond in the
same way as the confederates, despite it being the wrong answer.
+
+==Results==
+In a control group, with no pressure to conform to an erroneous view, only
one subject out of 35 ever gave an incorrect answer. Solomon Asch
hypothesized that the majority of people would not conform to something
obviously wrong; however, when surrounded by individuals all voicing an
incorrect answer, participants provided incorrect responses on a high
proportion of the questions (32%). Seventy-five percent of the participants
gave an incorrect answer to at least one question.
+
+Variations of the basic paradigm tested how many cohorts were necessary to
induce conformity, examining the influence of just one cohort and as many
as fifteen. Results indicate that one cohort has virtually no influence and
two cohorts have only a small influence. When three or more cohorts are
present, the tendency to conform increases only modestly. The maximum
effect occurs with four cohorts. Adding additional cohorts does not produce
a stronger effect.
+
+The unanimity of the confederates has also been varied. When the
confederates are not unanimous in their judgment, even if only one
confederate voices a different opinion, participants are much more likely
to resist the urge to conform (only 5-10% conform) than when the
confederates all agree. This finding illuminates the power that even a
small dissenting minority can have. Interestingly, this finding holds
whether or not the dissenting confederate gives the correct answer. As long
as the dissenting confederate gives an answer that is different from the
majority, participants are more likely to give the correct answer. Males
show around half the effect of females (tested in same-sex groups); and
conformity is higher among members of an ingroup.
+
+==Interpretations==
+===Public conformity vs. social influence===
+The Asch conformity experiments are often interpreted as evidence for the
power of conformity and normative social influence. That is, the
willingness to conform publicly in order to attain social reward and avoid
social punishment. Others have argued that it is rational to use other
people's judgments as evidence. Along the lines of the latter perspective,
the Asch conformity experiments are cited as evidence for the
self-categorization theory account of social influence. From that
perspective the Asch results are interpreted as an outcome of
depersonalization processes whereby the participants expect to hold the
same opinions as similar others.
+
+===Social comparison theory===
+The conformity demonstrated in Asch experiments is problematic for social
comparison theory, which predicts that social reality testing, or
informational influence, will arise when physical reality testing yields
uncertainty. The Asch conformity experiments demonstrated that uncertainty
can arise as an outcome of social reality testing. Relatedly, this
inconsistency has been used to support the position that the theoretical
distinction between social reality testing and physical reality testing is
untenable.
+
+==See also==
+* No soap radio, a joke or prank that preys upon a subject's likeliness to
conform to other people's reactions to a stimulus. The basic setup is very
similar to an Asch conformity experiment.
+* Three men make a tiger, a Chinese proverb which refers to an
individual's tendency to accept absurd information as long as it is
repeated by enough people.
+
+==References==
+
+==Bibliography==
+* Asch, S. E. (1951). Effects of group pressure upon the modification and
distortion of judgment. In H. Guetzkow (ed.) "Groups, leadership and men".
Pittsburgh, PA: Carnegie Press. (summary here)
+* Asch, S. E. (1955). Opinions and social pressure. "Scientific American,
193", 31-35.
+* Asch, S. E. (1956). Studies of independence and conformity: A minority
of one against a unanimous majority. "Psychological Monographs, 70" (Whole
no. 416).
+* Bond, R., & Smith, P. (1996). Culture and conformity: A meta-analysis of
studies using Asch’s (1952b, 1956) line judgment task. "Psychological
Bulletin", 119, 111-137.
+* Hayes, N. (2000). Foundations of psychology. 3rd edition. Thomson,
p. 518-520.
+
+==External links==
+
+*Science Aid: Asch experiment A look at majority influence and Asch's
experiment for high school level
+*Changingminds: Normative social influence
+*Age of the sage summary of one Asch experiment
+*BBC Radio: Mind changers: Solomon Asch
+*Video
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
=======================================
--- /dev/null
+++ /trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Ascribed status Mon Jun 11 05:34:01 2012
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+
+Ascribed status is the social status a person is assigned at birth or
assumed involuntarily later in life. It is a position that is neither
earned nor chosen but assigned. These rigid social designators remain fixed
throughout an individual's life and are inseparable from the positive or
negative stereotypes that are linked with one's ascribed statuses.
+
+The practice of assigning such statuses to individuals exists
cross-culturally within all societies and is based on sex, gender, race,
family origins, and ethnic backgrounds. For example, a person born into a
wealthy family has a high ascribed status based solely on the social
networks and economic advantages that one gains from being born into a
family with more resources than others.
+
+In contrast, an achieved status is a social position a person takes on
voluntarily that reflects both personal ability and merit. An individual's
occupation tends to fall under the category of an achieved status; for
example, a teacher or a firefighter.
+
+Individuals have control over their achieved statuses insofar as there are
no restrictions that are associated with their ascribed statuses that could
potentially hinder their social growth. Ascribed status plays an important
role in societies because it can provide the members with a defined and
unified identity. No matter where an individual's ascribed status may place
him or her in the social hierarchy each has a set of roles and expectations
that are directly linked to each ascribed status and thus, provides a
social identity.
+
+==Factors==
+The various factors which determine ascribed status are:
+
+*Age, as in age stratification
+*Kinship
+*Sex
+*Appearance
+*Race
+*Group
+*Caste
+
+In addition to ascription, at birth there are also:
+*Delayed Ascription - When the social status is given at a later stage of
life
+*Fluid Ascription - When the ascribed status leads to an achieved status
+
+==Reversible and irreversible ascribed status==
+The sociologist, Ralph Linton, developed definitions for ascribed status
and achieved status. According to Linton, ascribed status is assigned to an
individual without reference to their innate differences or abilities.
Achieved status is determined by an individual's performance or effort.
Linton noted that while the definitions of the two concepts are clear and
distinct, it is not always easy to identify whether an individual's status
is ascribed or achieved. His perspective offers a deviation from the view
that ascribed statuses are always fixed.
+
+Religion is generally perceived as an ascribed status but for those
individuals that choose a religion as an adult or convert to another
religion their religion is then an achieved status, based on Linton's
definition. It is commonly perceived that ascribed statuses are
irreversible while achieved statuses are reversible. Linton uses Leo
Schnore's research to illustrate how ascribed statuses can be both
irreversible and reversible. An example of an ascribed reversible status is
the status of citizenship.
+
+An example of ascribed irreversible status is age. His conclusion is based
on the fact that an ascribed status within a social structure is indicative
of the behavior that one can exhibit but it does not explain the action
itself. Ascribed status is an arbitrary system of classifying individuals
that is not fixed in the way that most people think.
+
+Status is a social phenomenon rather than a biological one. The meaning is
derived from the collection of expectations of how an individual should
behave and what the expected treatment of that individual is. If an
individual lies about a biological fact or social accomplishment and this
lie remains undiscovered by others and is accepted by them then in this
social system, his status will be based on the lie. His status would not be
based on a biological fact or social accomplishment.
+
+Behavior toward the individual will be in accordance with the accepted
lie. Consequently, behavior expected from that individual will also be in
accordance with that accepted lie rather than the ascribed status that
would be associated with him if the truth were known. The success of the
structure requires that the expectations remain constant, even if they are
illegitimately acquired, given that the truth is never discovered. This
further highlights the arbitrariness of ascribed status because there is no
biological basis or universal truth for assigning these societal rankings
to individuals.
+
+==Low self-esteem and ascribed status==
+There is a positive correlation between an individual's self-esteem and
their ascribed status; for this purpose, self-esteem is defined as a liking
and respect for oneself which has its basis in reality. Individuals with a
low social status generally have a lower self-esteem. A negative image of
oneself among individuals with lower ascribed statuses is the result of the
internalization of the expectations that others have of them and the
treatment that they receive based on those statuses.
+
+The juxtaposition of their own value systems against the larger society's
view often leaves individuals of a lower status with low self-esteem
without regard to the individual’s actual capabilities. A negative
self-image may stifle an individual's efforts to acquire a certain achieved
status; this illustrates how a low ascribed status can result in a low
achieved status.
+
+==Minorities and status inconsistency==
+Ascribed statuses are determined by the dominant groups in society and as
a result, minorities are often assigned lower statuses. Within the social
structure of the United States, minority groups are forced to attempt to
reconcile the conflicts that arise from the social expectations that are
linked with their assigned statuses in society and their perceived view of
themselves. In the face of the knowledge that individuals occupy more than
one ascribed role at a time, it becomes evident that there may be some
statuses in society’s multi-dimensional structure that do not comfortably
coexist.
+
+Status consistency is defined as the degree to which an individual’s
social rank positions that exist within important status hierarchies are at
a comparable level. The greater mobility of class systems produces less
status consistency. In Canada, for example, most university professors with
advanced academic degrees enjoy high social prestige but earn only average
salaries. Low status consistency means that classes are much harder to
define than castes.
+
+At the root of the problem of status inconsistency is the inability of
individuals to reconcile the conflicting expectations. A woman from a
racial minority group may not experience status inconsistency because as a
woman and as a member of a minority group she may be considered to be of a
lower ascribed status. But, if this woman rejects the assigned roles that
are associated with her status she is then experiencing status
inconsistency.
+
+To offer another example, a woman born into a wealthy family occupies both
a high and a low ascribed status within the social structure because her
inherited resources and social networks are advantageous while her role as
a woman may be considered inferior. When a person holds a high rank on one
status dimension and low rank on another, the expectations of the two are
often at odds with one another.
+
+The two general consequences that arise from the tension that exists
between the differing expectations are frustration and uncertainty about
how one should act given how others believe they should behave and their
own perceived notions of their abilities and the course of action that they
should take to achieve their goals.
+
+==Types of statuses in upper class population==
+*The Ascribed Status - an inherited status which symbolizes ownership of
wealth and vast land. The royal family fall into this category
+*The 'Pop Aristocracy' in which famous people who originated from working
and middle class background made their money. Football players, actors and
the like are included in this category.
+*Achieved Status - the last group of upper class are the entrepreneurs.
They will have made their money from business. Firstly starting with a
small family business, they slowly expanded and made their wealth in this
way.
+
+==Religion==
+Wealth is not the only social characteristic that defines an individual's
ascribed status. Religion is also a factor that must be considered. If your
family identifies with a particular religion be it Christianity, Hinduism,
Islam, etc., you are identified as the same religion as your biological or
adopted parents. An individual's religion or absence of religion then
becomes apart of his or her ascribed status. The social norms of a
particular religion may have different ascribed statuses than those that
are given by the larger society that it assigns to its followers based on
the religious doctrines that govern their belief. Ascribed status can also
be closely linked with master status as they both involve what you were
born with although master status is a broader term and looks at more topics
than ascribed status. Another way to look at ascribed status is through the
caste system in India.
+
+==Caste system==
+
+The caste system in India long has been an extreme example of a
stratification structure based on ascribed status. Each level in the
stratification structure is known as a caste. Everyone is born belonging to
a specific caste. The caste of the parents thus generally determines the
status of their children, regardless of ability or merit. The ranks of the
caste system include:
+
+*Brahmins- These is the highest rank of the whole caste system. The
Brahmins consist of all priests, scholars, and enlightened people that have
been through many lives.
+
+*Kshatriyas- These are the rulers, warriors, and those concerned with the
defense and administration of the well-being of their town or village.
+
+*Vaishyas- These people consisted of all the traders, merchants, and
people involved in agricultural production
+
+*Sudra- These people are the lowest of the caste system. Hindu religion
believes this class is where first life starts. The sudras spend most of
their time being the laborers and servants for the other castes.
+
+*Untouchables- The untouchables are the lowest of the low. They are so low
that they do not have a place in the caste system. The jobs of these people
include the cleaning of dead bodies and fecal excrement.
+
+==See also==
+* Achieved status
+* Master status
+* Social status
+
+==References==
+==Citations==
+
+# http://www.sociologyguide.com/basic-concepts/Ascribed-Statuses.php
+# A Clarification of "Ascribed Status" and "Achieved Status", by Irving S.
Foladare The Sociological Quarterly © 1969 Midwest Sociological Society.
+# A Clarification of "Ascribed Status" and "Achieved Status", by Irving S.
Foladare The Sociological Quarterly © 1969 Midwest Sociological Society.
+# Self-Esteem and Low Status Groups: A Changing Scene?, by Jeffrey M.
Jacques and Karen J. Chason The Sociological Quarterly © 1977 Midwest
Sociological Society.
+# Status Consistency and Symptoms of Stress, by Elton F. Jackson American
Sociological Review © 1962 American Sociological Association.
+
+
+
=======================================
--- /dev/null
+++ /trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Assertiveness Mon Jun 11 05:34:01 2012
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+Assertiveness is a particular mode of communication. "Dorland's Medical
Dictionary" defines assertiveness as:
+During the second half of the 20th century, assertiveness was increasingly
singled out as a behavioral skill taught by many personal development
experts, behavior therapists, and cognitive behavioral therapists.
Assertiveness is often linked to self-esteem. The term and concept was
popularized to the general public by books such as "Your Perfect Right: A
Guide to Assertive Behavior" (1970) by Robert E. Alberti, and "When I Say
No, I Feel Guilty: How To Cope Using the Skills of Systematic Assertiveness
Therapy" (1975) by Manuel J. Smith.
+
+==Training==
+Joseph Wolpe originally explored the use of assertiveness as a means
of "reciprocal inhibition" of anxiety, in his 1958 book on treating
neurosis; and it has since been commonly employed as an intervention in
behavior therapy. Assertiveness Training ("AT") was introduced by Andrew
Salter (1961) and popularized by Joseph Wolpe. Wolpe's belief was that a
person could not be both assertive and anxious at the same time, and thus
being assertive would inhibit anxiety.
+The goals of assertiveness training include:
+* increased awareness of personal rights
+* differentiation between non-assertiveness and assertiveness
+* differentiation between passive–aggressiveness and aggressiveness
+* learning both verbal and non-verbal assertiveness skills.
+
+As a communication style and strategy, assertiveness is thus distinguished
from both aggression and passivity. How people deal with personal
boundaries, their own and those of other people, helps to distinguish
between these three concepts. Passive communicators do not defend their own
personal boundaries and thus allow aggressive people to abuse or manipulate
them through fear. Passive communicators are also typically not likely to
risk trying to influence anyone else. Aggressive people do not respect the
personal boundaries of others and thus are liable to harm others while
trying to influence them. A person communicates assertively by overcoming
fear of speaking his or her mind or trying to influence others, but doing
so in a way that respects the personal boundaries of others. Assertive
people are also willing to defend themselves against aggressive people.
+
+==Communication==
+Assertive communication involves respect for the boundaries of oneself and
others. It also presumes an interest in the fulfillment of needs and wants
through cooperation.
+
+According to the textbook "Cognitive Behavior Therapy" (2008), "Assertive
communication of personal opinions, needs, and boundaries has been ...
conceptualized as the behavioral middle ground, lying between ineffective
passive and aggressive responses". Such communication "emphasizes
expressing feelings forthrightly, but in a way that will not spiral into
aggression".
+
+If others' actions threaten one's boundaries, one communicates this to
prevent escalation.
+
+In contrast, "aggressive communication" judges, threatens, lies, breaks
confidences, stonewalls, and violates others' boundaries.
+
+At the opposite end of the dialectic is "passive communication". Victims
may passively permit others to violate their boundaries. At a later time,
they may come back and attack with a sense of impunity or righteous
indignation.
+
+Assertive communication attempts to transcend these extremes by appealing
to the shared interest of all parties; it "focuses on the issue, not the
person". Aggressive and/or passive communication, on the other hand, may
mark a relationship's end, and reduce self-respect.
+
+==Assertive people==
+Assertive people tend to have the following characteristics:
+* They feel free to express their feelings, thoughts, and desires.
+* They are "also able to initiate and maintain comfortable relationships
with people"
+* They know their rights.
+* They have control over their anger. This does not mean that they repress
this feeling; it means that they control anger and talk about it in a
reasoning manner.
+* "Assertive people ... are willing to compromise with others, rather than
always wanting their own way ... and tend to have good self-esteem".
+* "Assertive people enter friendships from an 'I count my needs. I count
your needs' position".
+
+==Techniques==
+Techniques of assertiveness can vary widely. Manuel Smith, in his 1975
book "When I Say No, I Feel Guilty", offered some of the following
behaviors:
+
+===Broken record===
+The "broken record" technique consists of simply repeating your requests
or your refusals every time you are met with resistance. The term comes
from vinyl records, the surface of which when scratched would lead the
needle of a record player to loop over the same few seconds of the
recording indefinitely. "As with a broken record, the key to this approach
is repetition ... where your partner will not take no for an answer."
+
+A disadvantage with this technique is that when resistance continues, your
requests may lose power every time you have to repeat them. If the requests
are repeated too often, it can backfire on the authority of your words. In
these cases, it is necessary to have some sanctions on hand.
+
+===Fogging===
+Fogging consists of finding some limited truth to agree with in what an
antagonist is saying. More specifically, one can "agree in part" or "agree
in principle".
+
+===Negative inquiry===
+Negative inquiry consists of requesting further, more specific criticism.
+
+===Negative assertion===
+Negative assertion is agreement with criticism without letting up demand.
+
+===I-statements===
+I-statements can be used to voice one's feelings and wishes from a
personal position without expressing a judgment about the other person or
blaming one's feelings on them.
+
+==Applications==
+Several research studies have identified assertiveness training as a
useful tool in the prevention of alcohol-use disorders. Psychological
skills in general including assertiveness and social skills have been posed
as intervention for a variety of disorders with some empirical support.
+
+In connection with gender theory, "Tannen argues that men and women would
both benefit from learning to use the others' style. ... So, women would
benefit from assertiveness training just as men might benefit from
sensitivity training".
+
+==Criticism==
+Some authors stress that assertiveness is not always practiced in a
balanced way, especially by those new to the process: " problem with the
concept of assertiveness is that it is both complex and
situation-specific. ... Behaviors that are assertive in one circumstance
may not be so in another". More particularly, while "unassertiveness courts
one set of problems, over-assertiveness creates another." Assertiveness
manuals recognize that "many people, when trying out assertive behaviour
for the first time, find that they go too far and become aggressive."
+
+Also, in the late 1970s and early 1980s, in the heyday of assertiveness
training, sometimes so-called assertiveness training techniques were
distorted, and "people were told to do some pretty obnoxious things in the
name of assertiveness. Like blankly repeating some request over and over
until you got your way". Divorced from respect for the rights of others,
so-called assertiveness techniques could be psychological tools that might
be readily abused: The line between repeatedly demanding with sanctions
("broken record") versus coercive nagging, emotional blackmail, or
bullying, could be a fine one, and the caricature of assertiveness training
as "training in how to get your own way ... or how to become as aggressive
as the next person" was perpetuated.
+
+==References==
+==Further reading==
+* Alberti, Robert E. & Emmons, Michael L. "Your Perfect Right:
Assertiveness and Equality in Your Life and Relationships". 2001
+* Bower, S.A. & Bower, G.H. "Asserting Yourself: A Practical Guide for
Positive Change". 1991
+* Davidson, Jeff. "The Complete Idiot's Guide to Assertiveness". 1997
+* Dyer, Wayne W. "Pulling Your Own Strings". 1978
+* Lloyd, Sam R. "Developing Positive Assertiveness: Practical Techniques
for Personal Success". 2001
+* Paterson, Randy J. "The Assertiveness Workbook: How to Express Your
Ideas and Stand Up for Yourself at Work and in Relationships". 2000
+* Smith, M. J. "When I Say No, I Feel Guilty." 1975
+
+==External links==
+
+* Relationship Problems: Assertiveness
+* Assertiveness and Assertiveness Training
+* Assertiveness Training Modules
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
=======================================
--- /dev/null
+++ /trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Assimilation effect Mon Jun 11 05:34:01
2012
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+The assimilation effect is a frequently observed bias in evaluative
judgments towards the position of a context stimulus. When an assimilation
effect occurs, judgments and contextual information are correlated
positively, i.e. a positive context stimulus results in a positive
judgment, whereas a negative context stimulus results in a negative
judgment. Assimilation effects are different from contrast effects, where a
negative correlation between judgments and contextual information is
observed.
+
+==Factors determining Assimilation Effects==
+
+Assimilation effects are more likely when the context stimulus and the
target stimulus have characteristics that are quite close to each other. In
their priming experiments, Herr, Sherman and Fazio (1983) found
assimilation effects when subjects were primed with moderate context
stimuli. The more specific or extreme the context stimuli are in comparison
to the target stimulus, the more likely contrast effects are to occur.
+
+However, these are just likelihoods that can serve as indicators for the
occurrence of assimilation effects. Depending on how the individual
categorizes information, contrast effects can occur as well. A more
specific model to predict assimilation and contrast effects with
differences in categorizing information is the inclusion/exclusion model
developed by Norbert Schwarz and Herbert Bless.
+
+==The Inclusion/Exclusion Model==
+The inclusion/exclusion model of assimilation and contrast effects
explains the mechanism through which assimilation and contrast effects
occur. The model assumes that in feature-based evaluative judgments of a
target stimulus, people have to form two mental representations: A
representation of the target stimulus and one of a standard of comparison
to evaluate the target stimulus. Focusing on the dependence of the context,
the construal of these mental representations from accessible information
(i.e. information that comes to mind in that specific moment and draws
attention) results in either assimilation or contrast effects. When using
the accessible information for constructing the representation of the
target, an assimilation effect results, whereas accessible information that
is constructed in the mental representation of the standard of comparison
leads to contrast effects.
+
+By way of illustration, in their research on the perceived trustworthiness
of politicians, Schwarz & Bless either primed their subjects with
scandal-ridden politicians (e.g. Richard Nixon) or primed them not. When
subsequently asked for the evaluation of politicians’ trustworthiness in
general, subjects under the priming condition evaluated politicians in
general as less trustworthy than subjects did in the condition without
priming. This demonstrates the inclusion of scandal-ridden politicians in
the representation of the target stimulus and depicts an assimilation
effect. The accessible information of politicians’ scandals led to a less
favorable evaluation of politicians’ trustworthiness in general, or in
other words, was included in the representation of the target stimulus.
+
+In contrast, such inclusion after the priming did not occur when subjects
were subsequently asked for the trustworthiness of other specific
politicians. In this case the priming led to a more favorable evaluation of
the other politician's trustworthiness than under the condition without
priming. This demonstrates a contrast effect, because the accessible
information was excluded from the representation of the target stimulus
(e.g. Richard Nixon is not Newt Gingrich) and therefore constructed in the
mental representation of the standard of comparison.
+
+Consequently, the same accessible information can result in assimilation
or contrast effects, depending on how it is categorized.
+
+==Examples of Assimilation Effects==
+Assimilation effects arise in many fields of social cognition, for example
in the field of judgment processes or in social comparison.
+
+Whenever researchers conduct attitude surveys and design questionnaires,
they have to take judgment processes and the resulting assimilation effects
into account. Assimilation effects (as well as contrast effects) may arise
through the sequence of questions. Previously asked specific questions may
influence subsequent more general ones:
+
+Many researchers found assimilation effects when deliberately manipulating
the order of general and specific questions. When they first asked
participants how happy they were with their dating or how satisfied they
were with their relationship (a specific question that functions as a
moderate context stimulus) and subsequently asked the participants how
happy they were with their life in general (general question), they found
assimilation effects. The specific question of their happiness with dating
or satisfaction with their relationship made specific information
accessible, that was further included as representation of the subsequent
general question as target stimulus. Thus, by the time the participants
were happy with their dating or satisfied with their relationship, they
also reported being happier with their life in "general". Similarly, when
the participants were unhappy with their dating or dissatisfied with their
relationships, they indicated being as well unhappier with their life
in "general". This effect did not occur when asking the general question in
the first place.
+
+The term assimilation effect appears in the field of social comparison
research as well. Complementary to the previously stated definition, the
term describes the effect of a felt psychological closeness of social
surroundings that influence the current self-representation and
self-knowledge.
+
+==See also==
+*Norbert Schwarz#Categorization and Judgment
+
+== References ==
+
=======================================
--- /dev/null
+++ /trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Attention seeking Mon Jun 11 05:34:01
2012
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+Enjoying the attention of others is in socially acceptable. In some
instances, however, the need for attention can lead to difficulties. The
term attention seeking (or attention-seeking) is generally reserved for
such situations where excessive and "inappropriate attention seeking" is
seen.
+
+==Styles==
+The following styles of attention seeking have been identified:
+* Extroverted positive overt style – associated with narcissism, bragging
and boasting. May also include shocking exhibitionist behavior such as
streaking.
+* Extroverted positive subdued style – similar but more subtle such as
wearing designer clothes, wearing sexy clothes or dominating the
conversation.
+* Extroverted negative overt style – to gain pity and reassurance.
+* Extroverted negative subdued style – making a negative statement to the
world by, for example, dressing in an unusual style.
+
+==In different pathologies or contexts==
+* Attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder
+* Münchausen by Internet
+* Münchausen syndrome
+* Münchausen syndrome by proxy
+* Personality disorders – A sustained pattern of attention seeking in
adults is often associated with, in particular, histrionic personality
disorder – but it may instead be associated with narcissistic personality
disorder or borderline personality disorder. The expression drama queen is
associated with histrionic behavior.
+* Self-destructive behavior – It is a common misconception that
self-destructive behavior is inherently attention seeking, or at least that
attention is a primary motive. While this is undoubtedly true in some
cases, normally the motivation runs much deeper than that. Many
self-injurers are very self-conscious of their wounds and scars and feel
guilty about their behavior leading them to go to great lengths to conceal
their behavior from others.
+* Voluntary false confession
+
+==Tactical ignoring==
+
+Tactical ignoring, also known as planned ignoring, is a behavioral
management strategy used in response to challenging behavior that seeks to
receive attention or to gain a reaction from others. It is a commonly used
strategy when the person displaying the attention seeking behavior still
feels rewarded by a negative response.
+
+==See also==
+* Exaggeration
+* Victim playing
+* Trolling
+
+==References==
+==Further reading==
+* Gewirtz, Jacob L "Three determinants of attention-seeking in young
children" (1956)
+* Gewirtz, Jacob L "A factor analysis of some attention-seeking behaviors
of young children" Child Development (1956)
+* Harvey, Eric & Mellor, Nigel "Helping Parents Deal With Attention
Seeking Behaviour" (2009)
+* Leit, Lisa & Jacobvitz, Deborah & Hazen-Swann, Nancy "Conversational
Narcissism in Marriage: Narcissistic attention seeking behaviors in
face-to-face interactions: Implications for marital stability and partner
mental health" (2008)
+* Mellor, Nigel "Attention Seeking: A Practical Solution for the
Classroom" (1997)
+* Mellor, Nigel "The Good, the Bad and the Irritating: A Practical
Approach for Parents of Children who are Attention Seeking" (2000)
+* Mellor, Nigel "Attention Seeking: A Complete Guide for Teachers" (2008)
+* Smith-Martenz, Arden "Attention-seeking misbehaviors" (1990)
+
+==External links==
+* Hysteria, Drama Majors and Drama Queens
+* Attention-seeking personality disorders
+
+
+
=======================================
--- /dev/null
+++ /trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Attribution (psychology) Mon Jun 11
05:34:01 2012
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+
+
+Attribution is a concept in social psychology referring to how individuals
explain causes of behavior and events. Attribution theory is an umbrella
term for various theories that attempt to explain these processes. Fritz
Heider first proposed a theory of attribution "The Psychology of
Interpersonal Relations" (1958). It was further developed by others such as
Harold Kelley and Bernard Weiner.
+
+== Types ==
+=== Explanatory attribution ===
+People make explanatory attributions to understand the world and seek
reasons for a particular event. Explanatory attribution plays an important
role in understanding what is happening around us. For example, let’s say
Jacob’s car tire was punctured. Jacob will make attributions by reasoning
that it was the hole on the road that made the puncture. The tire puncture
might be due to Jacob’s bad driving habit but by making attributions to the
poor road condition, Jacob has successfully made sense of this unfortunate
event. Without the attributional explanations, Jacob will be very
embarrassed and discomforted to believe that he caused the puncture.
+
+=== Interpersonal attribution ===
+Sometimes, when your action or motives for the action are questioned, you
need to explain the reasons for your action. Interpersonal attributions
happen when the causes of the events involve two or more individuals. More
specifically, you will always want to present yourself in the most positive
light in interpersonal attributions. For example, let’s say Jaimie and her
boyfriend had a fight. When Jaimie explains her situation to her friends,
she will say she tried everything to avoid a fight but she will blame her
boyfriend that he nonetheless started a fight. This way, Jaimie is seen as
a peacemaker to her friends whereas her boyfriend is seen as the one who
started it all.
+
+== Theories ==
+===Common sense psychology===
+From the book "The Psychology of Interpersonal Relations(1958)", Fritz
Heider tried to explore the nature of interpersonal relationship, and
espoused the concept of what he called "common sense" or "naïve
psychology". In his theory, he believed that people observe, analyze, and
explain behaviors with explanations. Although people have different kinds
of explanations for the events of human behaviors, Heider found it is very
useful to group explanation into two categories; Internal (personal) and
external (situational) attributions. When an internal attribution is made,
the cause of the given behavior is assigned to the individual's
characteristics such as ability, personality, mood, efforts, attitudes, or
disposition. When an external attribution is made, the cause of the given
behavior is assigned to the situation in which the behavior was seen such
as the task, other people, or luck (that the individual producing the
behavior did so because of the surrounding environment or the social
situation). These two types lead to very different perceptions of the
individual engaging in a behavior.
+
+===Correspondent inference theory===
+Correspondent inferences state that people make inferences about a person
when his or her actions are freely chosen, are unexpected, and result in a
small number of desirable effects. According to Edward E. Jones and Keith
Davis’ Correspondent Inference Theory, people make correspondent inferences
by reviewing the context of behavior. It describes how people try to find
out individual’s personal characteristics from the behavioral evidence.
People make inferences on the basis of three factors; degree of choice,
expectedness of behavior, and effects of someone’s behaviors.
+
+===Covariation model of attribution===
+
+Co-variation principle states that people attribute behavior to the
factors that are present when a behavior occurs and absent when it does
not. Thus, the theory assumes that people make causal attributions in a
rational, logical fashion, and that they assign the cause of an action to
the factor that co-varies most closely with that action. Harold Kelley's
covariation model of Attribution looks to three main types of information
from which to make an attribution decision about an individual's behavior.
The first is consensus information, or information on how other people in
the same situation and with the same stimulus behave. The second is
distinctiveness information, or how the individual responds to different
stimuli. The third is consistency information, or how frequent the
individual's behavior can be observed with similar stimulus but varied
situations. From these three sources of information observers make
attribution decisions on the individual's behavior as either internal or
external.Kelly’s theory and the examples of prediction are represented in
the diagram.
+
+===Three dimensional model of attribution===
+Bernard Weiner proposed that individuals have initial affective responses
to the potential consequences of the intrinsic or extrinsic motives of the
actor, which in turn influence future behavior. That is, a person's own
perceptions or attributions determine the amount of effort the person will
engage in activities in the future. Weiner suggests that individuals exert
their attribution search and cognitively evaluate casual properties on the
behaviors they experience. When attributions lead to positive affect and
high expectancy of future success, such attributions should result in
greater willingness to approach to similar achievement tasks in the future
than those attributions that produce negative affect and low expectancy of
future success. Eventually, such affective and cognitive assessment
influences future behavior when individuals encounter similar situations.
+
+Weiner's achievement attribution has three categories:
+#stable theory (stable and unstable)
+#locus of control (internal and external)
+#control (controllable or uncontrollable)
+
+Stability influences individuals' expectancy about their future; control
is related with individuals' persistence on mission; causality influences
emotional responses to the outcome of task.
+
+== Bias and errors in attributions ==
+While people strive to find reasons for behaviors, they fall into many
traps of biases and errors. As Fritz Heider says, “our perceptions of
causality are often distorted by our needs and certain cognitive biases”.
The following are examples of attributional biases.
+
+===Fundamental attribution error===
+The fundamental attribution error describes the tendency to over-value
dispositional or personality-based explanations for behavior while
under-valuing situational explanations. The fundamental attribution error
is most visible when people explain the behavior of others. For example,
when a student fails to turn in a homework assignment, a teacher is too
ready to assume that the student was too lazy to finish the homework,
without sufficiently taking into account the situation that the student was
in.
+===Culture bias===
+People in individualist cultures, generally North American and Western
European societies, value individuals, personal goals, and independence.
People in collectivist cultures see individuals as members of groups such
as families, work units, and nations, and tend to value conformity and
interdependence, this culture is embraced in Asia, Latin America, and
Africa.
+
+Research shows that culture, either individualist or collectivist, affects
how people make attributions.
+
+People from individualist cultures are more inclined to make
fundamental-attribution error than people from collectivist cultures.
Individualist cultures tend to attribute a person’s behavior to his
internal factors whereas collectivist cultures tend to attribute a person’s
behavior to his external factors.
+
+Research suggests that individualist cultures engage in self-serving bias
more than do collectivist cultures, i.e. individualist cultures tend to
attribute success to internal factors and to attribute failure to external
factors. In contrast, collectivist cultures engage in the opposite of
self-serving bias i.e. self-effacing bias, which is: attributing success to
external factors and blaming failure on internal factors (the individual).
+
+===Spotlight effect error===
+The spotlight effect error is the tendency of an individual to
overestimate the extent to which others are paying attention to the
individual's appearance and behavior. That is, people believe that they are
in the “spotlight” and that everyone is paying attention to them, as when a
person drops a cup in a restaurant and gets embarrassed, believing that
everyone has seen it. “The Barry Manilow t-shirt experiment” demonstrates
the spotlight effect. Students got self-conscious when they were required
to wear a t-shirt with an unpopular picture to classes. The students
believed more than 50 percent of their classmates would notice their shirts
and judge them, when in fact fewer than 20 percent even noticed the t-shirt.
+
+===Actor/observer difference===
+People tend to attribute other people’s behaviors to their dispositional
factors while attributing own actions to situational factors. Basically,
even in the same situation, people’s attribution can differ depending on
their role(actor or observer). For example, when a person gets a low grade
on a test, he finds situational factors to justify the negative event such
as saying that the teacher asked a question that she never went over in
class. However, if other people get low grades on the test, he attributes
the results to their internal factors such as laziness and inattentiveness
in classes. The actor/observer bias is used less frequently with people one
knows well such as friends and family since one knows how his/her close
friends and family will behave in certain situation, leading him/her to
think more about the external factors rather than internal factors.
+
+===Dispositional attributions===
+Dispositional attribution is a tendency to attribute people’s behaviors to
their dispositions that is to their personality, character and ability.
+For example, when a normally nice waiter is being rude to his customer,
the customer will assume he has a bad temper. The customer, just by looking
at the attitude that the waiter is giving him, instantly decides that the
waiter is a bad person. The customer oversimplifies the situation by not
taking into account all the unfortunate events that might have happened to
the waiter which made him become rude at that moment. Therefore, the
customer made dispositional attribution by attributing the waiter’s
behavior directly to his personality rather than considering situational
factors that might have caused the whole “rudeness”.
+
+===Self-serving bias===
+Self serving bias is attributing dispositional and internal factors for
success and external, uncontrollable factor for failure. For example, if a
person gets promoted, it is because of his/her ability and competence
whereas if he/she does not get promoted, it is because his/her manager does
not like him/her ( external, uncontrollable factor). Originally,
researchers assumed that self-serving bias is strongly related to the fact
that people want to protect their self-esteem. However, alternative
information processing explanation came out. That is, when the outcomes
match people’s expectations, they make attributions to internal factors;
when the outcome does not match their expectations, they make external
attributions. People also use defensive attribution to avoid feelings of
vulnerability and to differentiate himself from a victim of a tragic
accident. An alternative version of the theory of the self-serving bias
states that the bias does not arise because people wish to protect their
private self-esteem, but to protect their self-image (a self-presentational
bias). Note well that this version of the theory can predict that people
attribute their successes to situational factors, for fear that others will
disapprove of them looking overly vain if they should attribute successes
to themselves.
+
+For example, people believe in just-world hypothesis that “good things
happen to good people and bad things happen to bad people” to avoid feeling
vulnerable. This also leads to blaming the victim even in a tragic
situation. When people hear someone died from a car accident, they reassure
that the accident will never happen to them by deciding that the driver was
drunk at the time of the accident. People automatically decide that it was
the driver’s fault drunk-driving and thus it will never happen to them.
Another example of defensive attribution is optimism bias in which people
believe positive events happen to them more than to the others and that
negative events happen to them less than to the others. Too much optimism
leads people to ignore some warnings and precautions given to them. For
example, smokers believe they are less likely than other smokers to get
lung cancer.
+
+===Defensive attribution hypothesis===
+The defensive attribution hypothesis (or defensive attribution bias) is a
social psychological term referring to a set of beliefs held by an
individual with the function of defending the individual from concern that
they will be the cause or victim of a mishap. Commonly, defensive
attributions are made when individuals witness or learns of a mishap
happening to another person. In these situations, attributions of
responsibility to the victim or harm-doer for the mishap will depend upon
the severity of the outcomes of the mishap and the level of personal and
situational similarity between the individual and victim. More
responsibility will be attributed to the harm-doer as the outcome becomes
more severe, and as personal or situational similarity decreases.
+
+== Application of attribution ==
+===Learned helplessness===
+Learned helplessness was first found in animals when psychologists Martin
Seligman and Steven F. Maier discovered that the classically conditioned
dogs that got electrical shocks made no attempt to escape the situation.
The dogs were placed in a box divided into two sections by a low barrier.
Since one side of the box was electrified and the other was not, the dogs
could easily avoid electrical shocks by hopping to the other side. However,
the dogs just stayed in the electrified side, helpless to change the
situation.
+ This learned helplessness also applies to human beings. People feel
helpless when they feel powerless to change their situation. This happens
when people attribute negative results to their internal, stable and global
factors leading them to think they have no control over their situation.
Making no attempt to avoid or better the situation will often exacerbate
the situations that people are faced and may lead them to clinical
depression and related mental illnesses.
+
+== Perceptual salience and attribution ==
+When people try to make attributions about another's behavior, their
information focuses on the individual. Their perception of that individual
is lacking most of the external factors which might affect the individual.
The gaps tend to be skipped over and the attribution is made based on the
perception information most salient. The most salient perceptual
information dominates a person's perception of the situation.
+
+For individuals making behavioral attributions about themselves, the
situation and external environment are entirely salient, but their own body
and behavior are less so. This leads to the tendency to make an external
attribution in regards to one's own behavior.
+
+== Criticism ==
+Attribution theory has been criticized as being mechanistic and
reductionist for assuming that people are rational, logical and systematic
thinkers. It turns out however that they are cognitive misers and motivated
tacticians as demonstrated by the Fundamental attribution error. It also
fails to address the social, cultural and historical factors that shape
attributions of cause. This has been addressed extensively by discourse
analysis, a branch of psychology that prefers to use qualitative methods
including the use of language to understand psychological phenomena. The
linguistic categorization theory for example demonstrates how language
influences our attribution style.
+
+== See also ==
+
+* Attributional bias
+* Correspondent inference theory
+* Naïve realism
+
+==References==
+==Further reading==
+* Gordon, L. M., & Graham, S. (2006). Attribution theory. "The
encyclopedia of human development." Thousand Oaks: Sage Publications, 1,
142–144.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
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+Attributional ambiguity is a social psychology attribution concept
describing the difficulty that a member of a stigmatized or commonly
stereotyped minority group may have in interpreting feedback from members
of dominant groups. According to this concept, members of groups that often
experience Social stigma find it challenging to determine whether feedback
from dominant groups is based upon their actual behavior or membership in a
stereotyped stigmatized group. This can cause stigmatized group members to
discredit feedback from dominant group members because of the belief that
stereotypes played a part in the overall decision. Positive feedback
received is sometimes considered to be given because of true deservingness
to those of a stigmatized group. The term was coined by Jennifer Crocker,
Brenda Major and their colleagues.
+
+==Implications==
+Attributional ambiguity can have unfortunate repercussions for members of
stigmatized groups. Members of groups that are ‘stereotype-vulnerable’ or
are often stereotyped are at greater risk of having less self worth through
the lens of attributional ambiguity. With this concept, when people of an
often stigmatized group receive feedback, they are unsure what the basis is
for that feedback and believe it could have been attributed to things other
than performance alone. Whether it is positive or negative feedback they
face uncertainty about how accurate that feedback was and thus feeling
uncertain about how to interpret the responses.
+
+ In the absence of true feedback one cannot totally rely on that
evaluation and thus cannot adjust their behavior or performance
accordingly. Attributional ambiguity can be applied in a very broad sense,
considering how often people seek feedback. In academics, athletics,
relationships, etc are all areas in which feedback can be pivotal. For
example, if it is known that a manager is very sensitive to his/her
subordinates’ feelings, and he/she gives positive feedback, it is unclear
if that feedback was true or simply an action of sensitivity.
+
+==Empirical support==
+In an experiment conducted by Jennifer Crocker, Brenda Major and
colleagues, women who were evaluated unfavorably by a blatantly prejudiced
evaluator experienced less negative affect than women who were rated
unfavorably by an unbiased evaluator. With African American participants,
it was found that when reviewed negatively African Americans were more
likely to attribute the evaluator's negativity to prejudice than were white
participants. Furthermore, African Americans were likely to attribute both
negative and positive reviews to prejudice if they could be seen by the
evaluator. Being invisible helped African Americans cope with negative
reviews, but also made them more likely to discredit positive reviews.
+
+The same concept can be applied not only to race, ethnicity, gender, etc.,
but appearance as well. To the extent to which one views his/herself as
attractive can impact how they perceive feedback. In a study by Major,
Carrington & Carnevale (1984) found that, as described above, the
attractive participants were less likely to believe positive feedback given
to them, believing that the observer had an ulterior motive. When the
observer could see the attractive participant, they doubted the true motive
behind their positive feedback. Unattractive participants were more likely
to believe positive feedback than were attractive participants. When an
ulterior motive is possible, it is easier to discount the feedback whether
it is positive or negative. (see also Lookism)
+
+C. L. Hoyt and colleagues examined attributional ambiguity in Latino
subjects as compared to white subjects. They found that when given a
negative review Latino subjects were more likely to attribute this
negativity to the prejudice of the examiner than white subjects. They also
found that when given a positive review, Latino subjects were more likely
to discredit the positivity of the reviewer and experience a lower sense of
well being than their white counter parts. This research suggests that
while attributional ambiguity can be used as a buffer to protect the self
from negative reviews and biased thoughts, it can also prevent stigmatized
groups from embracing reviews
+
+==See also==
+*Attribution (psychology)
+*Fundamental attribution error
+*Lookism
+*Minority (disambiguation)
+*Social Psychology
+*Social stigma
+*Ultimate attribution error
+
+==References==
+
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+
+
+The audience effect is the impact that a passive audience has on a subject
performing a task. It was first formally noted in various psychology
studies in the early 20th century. During some studies the presence of a
passive audience facilitated the better performance of a simple task; while
other studies show the presence of a passive audience inhibited the
performance of a more difficult task or one that wasn't well practiced,
possibly due to psychological pressure or stress.
+
+In 1965, Robert Zajonc proposed Drive theory as an explanation of
the "audience effect".
+
+In a study conducted by MIT, donation rates increase with the presence of
observers, and neuroimaging results revealed that activation in the ventral
striatum before the same choice (“to donate” or “not donate”) was
significantly effected by the presence of observers.
+
+==See also==
+* Audience theory
+* Social facilitation
+* Social inhibition
+* Social loafing
+
+== References ==
+
+
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+
+
+
+==Historical origins==
+Adorno, Frenkel-Brunswick, Levinson and Sanford (1950) compiled a large
body of research and theory (known as the Berkeley studies), which
attempted to characterize a personality type that described the
“potentially fascistic individual”. This personality type was labeled the
Authoritarian Personality in honor of earlier writings by Fromm that used
this term (Baars & Scheepers, 1993). Their research focused mainly on
prejudice within a psychoanalytic/psychosocial theoretical framework (i.e.
Freudian and Fromian). The main historical influence for this work was the
rise of Fascism in the 1930s, World War II, and the Holocaust. Hence, a
main component of this personality type is one who is susceptible to
anti-semitic ideology and anti-democratic political beliefs.
+
+==Original theory==
+Adorno, et al. (1950) viewed the authoritarian personality as having a
strict superego that controls a weak ego unable to cope with strong id
impulses. The resulting intrapsychic conflicts cause personal insecurities,
resulting in that person’s superego to adhere to externally imposed
conventional norms (conventionalism), and to the authorities who impose
these norms (authoritarian submission). The ego-defense mechanism of
projection occurs as indicated when that person avoids self-reference of
the anxiety producing id impulse, by displaying them onto “inferior”
minority groups in the given culture (projectivity), with associated
beliefs that are highly evaluative (power and toughness), and rigid
(stereotypy). Additionally, there is a cynical view of mankind and a need
for power and toughness resulting from the anxieties produced by perceived
lapses in society’s conventional norms (destructiveness and cynicism).
Other characteristics of this personality type are a general tendency to
focus upon those who violate conventional values and act harshly towards
them (authoritarian aggression), a general opposition to subjective or
imaginative tendencies (anti-intraception), a tendency to believe in mystic
determination (superstition), and finally, an exaggerated concern with
promiscuity.
+
+In regards to child development, the formation of the authoritarian type
occurs within the first few years of the person’s life, strongly shaped by
the parents and family structure. “Hierarchical, authoritarian,
exploitative” parent-child relationships may result in this personality
type (Adorno et al., 1950, pp. 482–484). Parents who have a need for
domination, and who dominate and threaten the child harshly, and demand
obedience to conventional behaviors with threats, foster the
characteristics of this personality. In addition, the parents have a
preoccupation with social status, and communicate this to the child in
terms of rigid and externalized rules. The child then suffers from
suppressed feelings of resentment and aggression towards the parents, who
are instead, idealized with reverence.
+
+Alfred Adler provided another perspective, linking the "will to power over
others" as a central neurotic trait, usually emerging as aggressive
over-compensation for felt and dreaded feelings of inferiority and
insignificance. According to this view, the authoritarian needs to maintain
control and prove superiority over others is rooted in a worldview
populated by enemies and empty of equality, empathy, and mutual benefit.
+
+==Early research==
+These researchers most noteworthy measurement for authoritarianism is the
“F-scale”, designed to tap a set of beliefs thought to be associated with
authoritarianism without the need for specific out-groups indicated.
Kirscht and Dillehay (1967) outlined several problems with the Berkley
studies, including response bias. Response bias results from the F scale
being uniformly worded in a confirming direction. Hence, if one tends to
respond in agreement with items, regardless of their content, one is rated
as an authoritarian. Several studies have shown that more variance of the F
scale can be explained by response bias than the content of the items
(Kirscht & Dillehay, 1967).
+
+Actual assessment of 16 Nazi criminals at Nuremberg trials (reported in
Zillmer, "et al.", 1995) conducted by clinicians using the Rorschach
inkblots, and in one study, the F scale for authoritarianism, found that
these ex-Nazis score high on three dimensions (anti-intraception,
superstition and stereotyping, and projectivity), but not all nine
dimensions as the theory predicted.
+
+One of the first applications of the authoritarian scales in academia was
by Stern and colleagues, in the early 1950s, at the University of Chicago
(as reported in Wiggins, 1980). The hypothesized prediction was that
“authoritarian“ students would have difficulty in the sciences and
humanities, and use of an attitudinal scale was a successful predictor.
+
+==Validity==
+Soon after the publication of "The Authoritarian Personality", the theory
became the subject of many criticisms. Theoretical problems involved the
psychoanalytic interpretation of personality, and methodological problems
focused on the inadequacies of the F-scale. Another criticism is that the
theory of the Berkeley group insinuates that authoritarianism exists only
on the right of the political spectrum. As a result, some have claimed that
the theory is corrupted by political bias. Kreml found that the
anti-authoritarian personality had the same personality characteristics as
the authoritarian personality.
+
+Wiggins provided an insightful explanation of how the authoritarian
construct is an example of the synthetic approach to personality
assessment. In short, in the synthetic approach, the assumption is that
those with authoritarian personality characteristics are assessed with
researcher’s intuitive model of what characteristics fit the criterion role
requirements of the predicted situation (support of Fascism). Hence, it is
not a completely empirical approach to prediction, but rather based on “arm
chair” situational analysis of the criteria, and intuited psychological
characteristics to be assessed that fit the situation. More recently, Jost,
Glaser, Kruglanski, and Sullloway (2003) have presented how the traditional
research in authoritarianism or conservatism has confounded the
psychological variables (e.g., personality characteristics) with the
political criteria (conservative attitudes). Hence the scales measuring
individual differences on authoritarianism often include the criteria
attitudinal statements of political ideologies.
+
+Although the authoritarian is a personality construct, Adorno et al.,
(1950) proposed that the social environment influenced the expression of
prejudice expressed, based upon the “climate of opinion” that exists at the
time. Hence, ideological beliefs created within the culture and other
social forces shape the prejudices of the given authoritarian individual.
+However, as noted by Taylor (1998), this hypothesized interaction of
society and the individual as lost to most of the subsequent research that
implemented the F scale in differential psychological studies. Given the
science of personality assessment, the variety of methods Adorno, "et al."
used are now unsupported, and might explain that lack of empirical studies
using the F scale or the other scales developed by Adorno "et al." in
subsequent research. An example of the social environment impact is
presented by Gibb (1969) in his critique of personality traits and
leadership, where a study by Katz, suggested that the social situation can
override personality differences. In the study, groups of black and white
students where formed, some mixed racial groups had students scoring high
authoritarian F scores, and in other mixed groups, low F score students.
Comparisons of high authoritarian white students to those not scoring
authoritarian indicated that the former student type were more cooperative
and less willing to endorse stereotypes towards blacks. Situational norms
against prejudicial perceptions might have influenced authoritarian
students to act less prejudicial in order to conform to the prescribed norm.
+
+After extensive questionnaire research and statistical analysis, Altemeyer
found in 1981 that only three of the original nine hypothesized components
of the model correlated together: authoritarian submission, authoritarian
aggression, and conventionalism. Almeyer added: "The reader familiar with
the matter knows that most these criticisms the "Authoritarian Personality"
are over 25 years old, and now they might be considered little more than
flaying a dead horse. Unfortunately the flaying is necessary, for the horse
is not dead, but still trotting around—in various introductory psychology
and developmental psychology textbooks, for example.
+
+==Current reinterpretations==
+Altemeyer (1998) who has conducted a series of studies on what is labeled
the Right Wing Authoritarianism (RWA), presents the most recent version of
this personality type. The focus of RWA research is political preferences
as measured through surveys, that suggest three tendencies as noted in
attitudinal clusters. These are: 1) submission to legitimated authorities;
2) aggression towards sanctioned targeted minority groups; and 3) adherence
to values and beliefs perceived as endorsed by followed leadership. McCrae
& Costa (1997) report that the big 5 dimension of openness to experience is
negatively correlated to RWA (r=-0.57) as measured by the NEO-PI-R Openness.
+
+More recently, Jost, Glaser, Kruglanski, and Sulloway (2003) have proposed
that Authoritarianism, RWA and other similar constructs of political
conservatism are a form of motivated social cognition. These researchers
propose that conservatism has similar characteristics as to
authoritarianism, with resistance to change, and justification for
inequality as the core components. In addition, conservative individuals
have needs to manage uncertainty and threat with both situational motives
(e.g., striving for security and dominance in social hierarchies) and
dispositional motives (e.g., terror management and self-esteem).
+Despite its methodological deficiencies, the theory of the authoritarian
personality has had a major influence on research in political,
personality, and social psychology. In Germany, authoritarianism has been
recently studied by Klaus Roghmann, Detlef Oesterreich, and Christel Hopf.
One of the most active researchers in the field today is the Dutch
psychologist J.D. Meloen.
+
+==See also==
+* Conformity
+* Tyranny of the majority
+* "The Fear of Freedom"
+* "Repressive Tolerance"
+* F-scale
+* Freudo-Marxism
+* Right-wing authoritarianism
+* Fascist (epithet)
+
+==References==
+==External links==
+*Classical Adlerian Quotes: Power Addiction
+*Professor Robert Altemeyer's The Authoritarians - An on-line book about
the corruption of Congress, the destruction of traditional conservatism by
authoritarianism, the un-democratic push of the agenda of the “Religious
Right” and their amoral authoritarian leaders, and the United States
standing at a crossroads as the 2008 federal election approaches.
+*John Dean Exposes The Authoritarians - The first in a five part series on
America's authoritarians based on John Dean's Conservatives Without
Conscience.
+*Authoritarianism and Polarization in American Politics by Marc
Hetherington and Jonathan Weiler Excerpt.
+*Bob Altermeyer and Jonathan Shockley: A Discussion on Authoritarianism on
WBAI
+
+
+
+
+
+
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+
+Authoritarianism is a form of social organization characterized by
submission to authority. It is usually opposed to individualism and
libertarianism. In politics, an authoritarian government is one in which
political authority is concentrated in a small group of politicians.
+
+==Characteristics==
+
+Authoritarianism is characterized by highly concentrated, and centralized
power maintained by political repression and the exclusion of potential
challengers. It uses political parties and mass organizations to mobilize
people around the goals of the regime.
+
+Authoritarianism emphasizes arbitrary law rather than the rule of law, it
often includes election rigging, political decisions being made by a select
group of officials behind closed doors, a bureaucracy that sometimes
operates independently of rules, which does not properly supervise elected
officials, and fails to serve the concerns of the constituencies they
purportedly serve. Authoritarianism also tends to embrace the informal and
unregulated exercise of political power, a leadership that
is "self-appointed and even if elected cannot be displaced by citizens'
free choice among competitors," the arbitrary deprivation of civil
liberties, and little tolerance for meaningful opposition;
+
+A range of social controls also attempt to stifle civil society, while
political stability is maintained by control over and support of the armed
forces, a bureaucracy staffed by the regime, and creation of allegiance
through various means of socialization and indoctrination.
+
+Authoritarian political systems may be weakened through "inadequate
performance to demands of the people." Vestal writes that the tendency to
respond to challenges to authoritarianism through tighter control instead
of adaptation is a significant weakness, and that this overly rigid
approach fails to "adapt to changes or to accommodate growing demands on
the part of the populace or even groups within the system." Because the
legitimacy of the state is dependent on performance, authoritarian states
that fail to adapt may collapse.
+
+Authoritarianism is marked by "indefinite political tenure" of the ruler
or ruling party (often in a single-party state) or other authority. The
transition from an authoritarian system to a more democratic form of
government is referred to as democratization.
+
+John Duckitt of the University of the Witwatersrand suggests a link
between authoritarianism and collectivism, asserting that both stand in
opposition to individualism.
+Duckitt writes that both authoritarianism and collectivism submerge
individual rights and goals to group goals, expectations and conformities.
+Others argue that collectivism, properly defined, has a basis of consensus
decision-making, the opposite of authoritarianism.
+
+==Authoritarianism and totalitarianism==
+Totalitarianism is an extreme version of authoritarianism.
Authoritarianism primarily differs from totalitarianism in that social and
economic institutions exist that are not under governmental control.
Building on the work of Yale political scientist Juan Linz, Paul C. Sondrol
of the University of Colorado at Colorado Springs has examined the
characteristics of authoritarian and totalitarian dictators and organized
them in a chart:
+
+Sondrol argues that while both authoritarianism and totalitarianism are
forms of autocracy, they differ in "key dichotomies":
+
+Thus, compared to totalitarian systems, authoritarian systems may also
leave a larger sphere for private life, lack a guiding ideology, tolerate
some pluralism in social organization, lack the power to mobilize the whole
population in pursuit of national goals, and exercise their power within
relatively predictable limits.
+
+==Authoritarianism and democracy==
+Authoritarianism and democracy are not fundamentally opposed to one
another, it is thus perfectly possible for democracies to possess strong
authoritarian elements, for both feature a form of submission to authority.
An illiberal democracy (or procedural democracy) is distinguished from
liberal democracy (or substantive democracy) in that illiberal democracies
lack the more democratic features of liberal democracies, such as the rule
of law, an independent judiciary, along with a further distinction that
liberal democracies have rarely made war with one another. More recent
research has extended the theory and finds that more democratic countries
tend to have few Militarized Interstate Disputes causing less battle deaths
with one another, and that democracies have few civil wars.
+
+* Poor democracies tend to have better education, longer life expectancy,
lower infant mortality, access to drinking water, and better health care
than poor dictatorships. This is not due to higher levels of foreign
assistance or spending a larger percentage of GDP on health and education.
Instead, the available resources are more likely to be managed better.
+
+* Studies suggest that several health indicators (life expectancy and
infant and maternal mortality) have a stronger and more significant
association with democracy than they have with GDP per capita, size of the
public sector, or income inequality.
+
+*A prominent economist, Amartya Sen, has theorized that no functioning
country labeled as having a liberal democracy has ever suffered a
large-scale famine. This includes democracies that have not been very
prosperous historically, like India, which had its last great famine in
1943 and many other large-scale famines before that in the late nineteenth
century, all under British rule. (However, some others ascribe the Bengal
famine of 1943 to the effects of World War II. The government of India had
been becoming progressively more democratic for years. Provincial
government had been entirely so since the Government of India Act of 1935.)
+
+* Refugee crises almost always occur in the least democratic countries.
Looking at the volume of refugee flows for the last twenty years, the first
eighty-seven cases occurred in most authoritarian countries.
+
+* Research shows that the democratic nations have much less democide or
murder by government. However it should be noted that those were also
moderately developed nations before applying liberal democratic policies.
Similarly, they have less genocide and politicide.
+
+* Research by the World Bank suggests that political institutions are
extremely important in determining the prevalence of corruption:
parliamentary systems, political stability, and freedom of the press are
all associated with lower corruption. Freedom of information legislation is
important for accountability and transparency. The Indian Right to
Information Act "has already engendered mass movements in the country that
is bringing the lethargic, often corrupt bureaucracy to its knees and
changing power equations completely."
+
+* Of the eighty worst financial catastrophes during the last four decades,
only five were in countries labeled as democracies. Similarly, those
labeled as "poor democracies" are half as likely as countries labeled as
non-democracies to experience a 10 percent decline in GDP per capita over
the course of a single year.
+
+* One study has concluded that terrorism is most common in nations with
intermediate political freedom. The nations with the least amount of
terrorism are the most and least democratic nations.
+
+==Authoritarian states==
+Any list of such states is bound to be controversial; certain indices have
striven to ascertain the openness or democratic quality of countries based
on a somewhat simplistic tick-box method, the notion of index itself being
economically oriented. Within the present world system, unsurprisingly
the "soft power" countries of major western power centers often come out at
the top of such lists, countries such as Sweden, Norway, etc.. on the other
hand, places like North Korea, Chad, Iran, Belarus, Zimbabwe and
Turkmenistan appear as strongly authoritarian. For a list see, for
example, "The Economist" magazine's democracy index, though this is a
economic-liberal magazine - but indexes compiled from other points of view
such as Amnesty International or Freedom House are available from time to
time. It is often the more wealthy countries that come out at the top of
such lists and the poorer ones that fall toward the end; whether this is a
cause or result of their political systems is open to debate.
+
+Another way of looking at the problem of trying to make a list of
authoritarian regimes is not to compare the apparent forms of government
(for example, whether direct election as in the Swiss Cantons or by
collegiate representation etc.) but, in making such a list, to compare the
balance of power between the political elite and the general populace. Such
an index asks questions as to whether or not a given government allows the
direct influence of its subjects in the decision making process, whether or
not it suppresses Freedom of Speech, imprisons them in Gulags or other such
prison systems or behaves in a belligerent manner towards more democratic
nations or allows poor work conditions to flourish or even allows forms of
slavery.
+
+The government of China is generally considered to be a modern
authoritarian government. China is ruled by one party only, known as the
Communist Party. Policies in China are created in high-level meetings, in
which the general population has no input into the choices that are made
for them. The government of China keeps watch over the Chinese internet
meticulously, looking for anything that may be considered politically
sensitive. They also block major social networking websites such as
Facebook and Twitter, as they are concerned that citizens may use these
sites to organize public demonstrations. Furthermore, some citizens who
have posted information on the Internet that is pro-democratic have been
harassed and are sometimes even imprisoned. Another measure that the
government of China has taken which many argue infringes on the rights of
its citizens is the enforcement of the one-child policy of 1979, which
limits each couple who are ethnic Han Chinese living in urban areas to one
child. While this was done for purposes of population control, it has led
to the killing or abandonment of many female babies (so that the couple may
instead have a son to carry on their family name). Also, there have been
multiple consequences for parents who have more than one child, including
fines, pressure to abort, and forced sterilization.
+
+The Vietnamese communist regime in Hanoi is also considered to be
authoritarian. Vietnam is ruled by the Vietnamese Communist Party, the only
legal political party in the country, whose rule is unbroken ever since
1946 in North Vietnam, and later extended to the former South Vietnam after
the North Vietnamese invasion in the Vietnam War. Policies and laws are all
made unilaterally by the Party, with the general public having no power in
the decision-making process. Any political opposition is prohibited, like
the Bloc 8406, Viet Tan and Viet Nam Quoc Dan Dang, and dissidents,
including the singer and composer Viet Khang are routinely arrested and
imprisoned, with the government frequently charging dissidents
for "subverting the State", "endangering State security" or attempting
to "overthrow the "People's" socialist government". Political protests in
Vietnam are usually quashed by police, most notably the protests on
supporting Vietnamese sovereignty of the Paracel Islands and Spratly
Islands in the summer of 2011 in the cities of Hanoi and Saigon, and
smaller protests on the Vietnamese regime's confiscation of land. The
Internet is heavily censored by the government, and sites that are
anti-communist, critical or opposing the government, or in support of the
former Republic of Vietnam being blocked by the government firewall.
Websites being blocked include Facebook. The Vietnamese regime used to run
an expansive system of gulags (referred to as "reeducation camps"), where
hundreds of thousands perished. Many prisoners in the "re-education camps"
were political dissidents, South Vietnamese politicians, officials and
soldiers, and "land owners" (which also included former business and
property owners).
+
+==Authoritarianism in history==
+
+Many different forms of authoritarianism have served as the norm in many
polities and in most periods from the dawn of recorded history. Tribal
chiefs and god-kings often gave way to despots and emperors, then to
enlightened monarchs and juntas. Even superficially democratic
constitutions or those claiming to be such can allow the concentration of
power or domination by strong-men or by small groups of political elites -
note the history of the Icelandic Althing.
+
+In contrast to the varying manifestations of authoritarianism, more
democratic forms of governance as a standard mode of political organization
became widespread only after the Industrial Revolution had established
modernity. Tyrants and oligarchs bracketed the flourishing of democracy in
ancient Athens; and kings and emperors preceded and followed
experimentation with democratic forms in the Roman Republic. In the 15th
century, Vlad Dracula is credited for being the first ruler of Wallachia
and Transylvania to rule by Authoritarianism.
+
+==See also==
+* Anti-authoritarianism
+* Authoritarian personality
+
+==References==
+==External links==
+*Not The End Of History? Democracy vs Authoritarianism Debated
+*Growth of Authoritarianism in America
+*Are we entering the age of the autocrat? Francis Fukuyama, "Washington
Post", August 24, 2008
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
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+
+Authority (from the Latin "auctoritas") is a right conferred by recognized
social position. Authority often refers to power vested in an individual or
organization by the state. Authority can also refer to recognized expertise
in an area of academic knowledge. An Authority (capitalized) refers to a
governing body upon which certain authority (with lower case "a") is
vested; for example, the Puerto Rico Electric Power Authority.
+
+==Authority in various settings==
+===Politics===
+In government, authority is the scope of an entity's legitimate power
(Cline n.d.) when acting on behalf of the government. This power is
conferred through officially recognized channels within the government, and
represents a portion of the government's overall power. For example, a
government might have the authority to execute criminals. The government
could then contain a jury authorized to determine if a citizen is a
criminal or a non-criminal; a judge authorized to sentence criminals to
execution; and an executioner authorized to kill criminals who have been
sentenced to execution. In contrast, a mob of citizens might have the power
to do all of the above things, but still lack the authority because the
actions would not be legitimate.
+
+Political authority can also be seen in situations that are typically
considered apolitical. (Agarwal n.d.) In truth bestowing authority is a
function of any social institution. A corporation for example, must hire
employees as a standard function of its existence. However, most of the
corporation's members are not authorized to hire employees. This authority
is passed down through the corporation to specific individuals without
government involvement. This same phenomenon can be found in religious
organizations, charities, fraternities, etc.
+
+===Academia===
+A person (or group) may be considered an "authority" on a subject matter
if their expertise is well established. This means that any statements the
person makes, with regard to their field of expertise, will have the burden
of proof in their favor. That is, if a professor of mathematics makes a
statement about numbers, it will be assumed to be true in the absence of
evidence to the contrary. This will also overrule any unsupported
objections by an individual without such expertise. Professional scholars
are common examples of this, but they are not the only examples. A
carpenter might be considered an authority on wood, for example.
+
+===Governmental agencies===
+Every state has a number of institutions which exercise authority based on
longstanding practices. Apart from this, every state sets up agencies which
are competent in dealing with one particular matter. All this is set up
within its charter. One example would be a port authority like the Port of
London. They are usually created by special legislation and are run by a
board of directors. Several agencies and institutions are created along the
same lines and they exercise authority in certain matters. They are usually
required to support themselves through property taxes or other forms of
collection or fees for services.
+
+==Controversy==
+In contemporary social science, the nature of authority is a matter of
debate. According to Michaels, in the Encyclopedia of Social Sciences,
authority is the capacity, innate or acquired for exercising ascendancy
over a group. Other scientists argue that authority is not a capacity but a
relationship. It is sanctioned power, institutionalized power.
+
+In political philosophy, the jurisdiction of political authority, the
location of sovereignty, the balancing of freedom and authority (cf. Cristi
2005), and the requirements of political obligations have been core
questions from Plato and Aristotle to the present. In many democratic
societies, there is an ongoing discussion regarding the legitimate extent
of governmental authority in general. In the United States, for instance,
there is a widespread belief that the political system as it was instituted
by the Founding Fathers should accord the populace as much freedom as
reasonable, and that government should limit its authority accordingly.
+
+==See also==
+
+* Authority (sociology)
+* Authority (management)
+* Anti-authoritarian
+* Appeal to authority
+* "Auctoritas"
+* Authoritarianism
+* Cognitive authority
+* Dominance (ethology)
+* Milgram experiment
+* Petty authority
+
+==References==
+
+* Giorgio Agamben, "State of Exception" (2005)
+* Hannah Arendt, "Between Past and Future" (New York, Viking, 1961) "The
Concept of Authority"
+* Józef Maria Bocheński, "?" (1974)
+* Renato Cristi, "Hegel on Freedom and Authority" (2005)
+* Stuart Lachs, "Means of Authorization: Establishing Hierarchy in
Ch'an/Zen Buddhism in America" (1999)
+* Rafael Domingo Osle, "Auctoritas" (1999)
+* Karl Popper, "On the Sources of Knowledge and of Ignorance" (1960)
+* Max Weber, "Economy and Society" (1922)
+* Austin Cline, "What is Authority? Differentiating Authority, Power, and
Legitimacy" (n.d.)
+* Ashish Agarwal, What is Authority? "Trace out the different types of
Authority" (n.d.)
+
+==External links==
+*
+* Qualitionary - Legal Definitions - Authority
+* Appeal to Authority Breakdown
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
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--- /dev/null
+++ /trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Authority (sociology) Mon Jun 11
05:34:01 2012
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+
+Authority is the legitimate or socially approved use of power. It is the
legitimate power which one person or a group holds over another. The
element of legitimacy is vital to the notion of authority and is the main
means by which authority is distinguished from the more general concept of
power. Power can be exerted by the use of force or violence. Authority, by
contrast, depends on the acceptance by subordinates of the right of those
above them to give them orders or directives.
+
+==Types of Authorities==
+Traditional Authority: Power legitimized by respect for long-established
cultural patterns.
+
+Charismatic Authority: Power legitimized by extraordinary personal
abilities that inspire devotion and obedience.
+
+Rational-Legal Authority: Also known as bureaucratic authority, is when
power is legitimized by legally enacted rules and regulations such as
governments.
+
+==Children and the three Authority Attributes==
+The three attributes of authority are status, specialist skills or
knowledge, and social position. These are particularly relevant to children
when they regard their parents and teachers. Research has shown that
children have a complex notion of what authority is. Children consider the
type of command, the characteristics of the authority figure, and the
social context when making authority conclusions (Laupa, 1991).
+
+Although children regard these three types of authority attributes, they
firstly assess the legitimacy of the authority figure in question using the
nature of the commands they give. For example, a teacher that does not
appear to have legitimate power from the child’s perspective (perhaps
because she cannot control the class well) will not be obeyed. Regarding
parenting, authoritative parents who are warm and high in behavioural
control but low in psychological control are more likely to be seen as
having legitimate authority by the child, and will believe themselves that
they have a duty to obey them and internalise their values (Darling,
Cumsille,& Martínez,2008).
+
+==Max Weber on authority==
+Max Weber, in his sociological and philosophical work, identified and
distinguished three types of legitimate domination ("Herrschaft" in German,
which generally means 'domination' or 'rule'), that have sometimes been
rendered in English translation as types of authority, because domination
is not seen as a political concept in the first place. Weber defined
domination (authority) as the chance of commands being obeyed by a
specifiable group of people. Legitimate authority is that which is
recognized as legitimate and justified by both the ruler and the ruled.
+
+Weber divided legitimate authority into three types:
+
+*The first type discussed by Weber is "Rational-legal authority". It is
that form of authority which depends for its legitimacy on formal rules and
established laws of the state, which are usually written down and are often
very complex. The power of the rational legal authority is mentioned in the
constitution. Modern societies depend on legal-rational authority.
Government officials are the best example of this form of authority, which
is prevalent all over the world.
+
+*The second type of authority is "Traditional authority", which derives
from long-established customs, habits and social structures. When power
passes from one generation to another, then it is known as traditional
authority. The right of hereditary monarchs to rule furnishes an obvious
example. The Tudor dynasty in England and the ruling families of Mewar, in
Rajasthan (India) are some examples of traditional authority.
+
+*The third form of authority is "Charismatic authority". Here, the
charisma of the individual or the leader plays an important role.
Charismatic authority is that authority which is derived from "the gift of
grace" or when the leader claims that his authority is derived from
a "higher power" (e.g. God or natural law or rights) or "inspiration", that
is superior to both the validity of traditional and rational-legal
authority and followers accept this and are willing to follow this higher
or inspired authority, in the place of the authority that they have
hitherto been following. Examples in this regard can be NT Rama Rao, a
matinee idol, who went on to become one of the most powerful Chief
Ministers of Andhra Pradesh.
+
+History has witnessed several social movements or revolutions, against a
system of traditional or legal-rational authority, which are usually
started by Charismatic authorities. Weber states that what distinguishes
authority, from coercion, force and power on the one hand and leadership,
persuasion and influence on the other hand, is legitimacy. Superiors, he
states, feel that they have a right to issue commands; subordinates
perceive an obligation to obey. Social scientists agree that authority is
but one of several resources available to incumbents in formal positions.
For example, a Head of State is dependent upon a similar nesting of
authority. His legitimacy must be acknowledged, not just by citizens, but
by those who control other valued resources: his immediate staff, his
cabinet, military leaders and in the long run, the administration and
political apparatus of the entire society.
+
+Authority can be created either expressly or by implication; (2) public
entities act publicly, using the same means to communicate the grant of
authority to their agents that they use to communicate this to third
parties; (3) apparent authority describes the situation when a principal
has placed restrictions on an agent that are not known to a third party;
(4) restrictions on government agents are accomplished in the open, through
laws and regulations; (5) everyone, including contractors, are supposed to
know the laws and regulations of our government; and thus (6) the concept
of "apparent authority" is often inapt when dealing with the government,
insofar as the only cognizable restrictions on the agent's authority are
deemed known to third parties, shattering any appearance of authority. (14)
+
+Recently the concept of authority has also been discussed as a guiding
principle in human–machine interaction design.
+
+
+==See also==
+* List of sociology topics
+* Sociology
+
+==References==
+==External links==
+*http://www.swarthmore.edu/SocSci/rbannis1/AmCult/H47%236.html
+*http://www.soci.canterbury.ac.nz/resources/glossary/authorit.shtml
+
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--- /dev/null
+++ /trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Authority problem Mon Jun 11 05:34:01
2012
@@ -0,0 +1,7 @@
+
+
+An authority problem is an interpersonal conflict in which a person
struggles in how to cope with someone who claims control over an aspect of
their lives. A few quintessential examples of such authority figures would
include police officers, teachers, parents, and employers.
+==See also==
+*Deviance (sociology)
+
+
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--- /dev/null
+++ /trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Autonoetic consciousness Mon Jun 11
05:34:01 2012
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+
+
+Autonoetic consciousness is the human ability to mentally place ourselves
in the past, in the future, or in counterfactual situations, and to analyze
our own thoughts.
+
+Our sense of self affects our behavior, in the present, past and future.
It relates to how we reflect on our own past behavior, how we feel about
it, and this in turn determines if we do it again .
+
+It is episodic memory that deals with self-awareness and memories of the
self . Inward thoughts which can project onto the future actions of the
individual . It was “proposed by Tulving for self-awareness, allowing the
rememberer to reflect on the contents of episodic memory” .
+
+== The self ==
+
+Autonoetic consciousness is important in our formation of our “self”
identity. What we have done in the past becomes a part of our “self” and
the ability to reflect on this influences our behavior in the now.
+
+In psychology, the self is often used for that set of attributes that a
person attaches to himself or herself most firmly, the attributes that the
person finds it difficult or impossible to imagine himself or herself
without . Identity is also used to describe this . A person’s gender is
part of their identity but their profession, for example, may not be .
+
+In philosophy, the self is the agent, the knower and the ultimate locus of
personal identity . This self, the identity of which is at the bottom of
every action, and involved in every bit of knowledge, is the self
philosophers worry about .
+
+A straightforward view of the self would be that the self is just the
person, and that a person is a physical system . There are two problems
with this view. First, the nature of freedom and consciousness has
convinced many philosophers that there is a fundamentally non-physical
aspect of persons . The second challenge stems from puzzling aspects of
self-knowledge, as the knowledge we have of ourselves seems very unlike the
knowledge we have of other objects in several ways .
+
+== The parietal cortex ==
+
+The parietal cortex is the active part of brain involved in autonoetic
consciousness. Damage to areas of the parietal cortex can lead to different
functioning errors, including changes in personality.
+
+The parietal lobes can be divided into two functional regions. One
involves sensation and perception, and the other is concerned with
integrating sensory input, primarily with the visual system (Neuroskills:
TBI Resource Guide). The first function integrates sensory information to
form a single perception (Neuroskills: TBI Resource Guide). The second
function constructs a spatial coordinate system to represent the world
around us (Neuroskills: TBI Resource Guide).
+
+Individuals with damage to the parietal lobes often show striking
deficits, such as abnormalities in body image and spatial relations
(Neuroskills: TBI Resource Guide).
+
+Damage to the left parietal lobe can result in what is called Gerstmann's
syndrome which includes right-left confusion, difficulty with writing, and
difficulty with mathematics (Neuroskills: TBI Resource Guide). It can also
produce disorders of language, and the inability to perceive objects
normally (Neuroskills: TBI Resource Guide).
+
+Damage to the right parietal lobe can result in neglecting part of the
body or space, which can impair many self-care skills such as dressing and
washing (Neuroskills: TBI Resource Guide). Right side damage can also cause
difficulty in making things, denial of deficits, and drawing ability
(Neuroskills: TBI Resource Guide).
+
+Bi-lateral damage can cause Bálint's syndrome, a visual attention and
motor syndrome (Neuroskills: TBI Resource Guide). This is characterized by
the inability to voluntarily control the gaze, inability to integrate
components of a visual scene, and the inability to accurately reach for an
object with visual guidance (Neuroskills: TBI Resource Guide).
+
+Left parietal-temporal lesions can affect verbal memory and the ability to
recall strings of digits (Neuroskills: TBI Resource Guide).
+
+The right parietal-temporal lobe is concerned with non-verbal memory
(Neuroskills: TBI Resource Guide). Right parietal-temporal lesions can
produce significant changes in personality (Neuroskills: TBI Resource
Guide).
+
+Lesions in the right parietal lobe influence personality, and this could
be because the parietal lobe has to do with our sense of self. Our sense of
self is strongly reflected in our personality.
+
+Some common tests for parietal lobe function are: Kimura Box Test
(apraxia) and the Two-Point Discrimination Test (somatosensory)
(Neuroskills: TBI Resource Guide).
+
+During episodic retrieval, functional imaging studies consistently show
differential activity in medial prefrontal and medial parietal cortices .
+
+With positron-emission tomography, it has been shown that the medial
regions are functionally connected and interact with lateral regions that
are activated according to the degree of self-reference .
+
+For example, in one study, during retrieval of previous judgments of
oneself, best friend, and the Danish Queen, activation increased in the
left lateral temporal cortex and decreased in the right inferior parietal
region with decreasing self-reference . The decrease in parietal cortex
activation may then prove it is a nodal structure in self representation,
functionally connected to both the right parietal and the medial prefrontal
cortices . There was a decrease in the efficiency of retrieval of previous
judgment of mental Self compared with retrieval of judgment of Other with
transcranial magnetic stimulation at a latency of 160 ms, confirming the
hypothesis that the medial parietal cortex in this network is essential for
episodic memory retrieval with self-representation .
+
+This network is strikingly similar to the network of the resting conscious
state, suggesting that self-monitoring is a core function in resting
consciousness .
+
+== Episodic memory and the self ==
+
+For a coherent and meaningful life, conscious self-representation is
mandatory . Autonoetic consciousness is thought to emerge by retrieval of
memory of personally experienced events (episodic memory) . Without the
ability to reflect on our past experiences, we would be stuck in a state of
constant awakening, without a past and therefore unable to prepare for the
future.
+
+Episodic memory is the memory we have for our past experiences, which
influence our now, and our future. This is different from procedural
memory, which is our memory for how to do things. Episodic memories
influence our thinking about ourselves, good and bad.
+
+Autobiographical memories can be retrieved from either the 1st person
perspective, in which individuals see the event through their own eyes, or
from the 3rd person perspective, in which individuals see themselves and
the event from the perspective of an external observer .
+
+A growing body of research suggests that the visual perspective from which
a memory is retrieved has important implications for a person's thoughts,
feelings, and goals, and is integrally related to a host of self-
evaluative processes .
+
+== Event related potentials ==
+
+ERPs can measure autonoetic consciousness scientifically. Event-related
brain potentials (ERPs) are a non-invasive method of measuring brain
activity during cognitive processing (Ullman, Michael). The transient
electric potential shifts (so-called ERP components) are time-locked to the
stimulus onset (e.g., the presentation of a word, a sound, or an image)
(Ullman, Michael). Each component reflects brain activation associated with
one or more mental operations (Ullman, Michael).
+
+In contrast to behavioral measures such as error rates and response times,
ERPs are characterized by simultaneous multi-dimensional online measures of
polarity (negative or positive potentials), amplitude, latency, and scalp
distribution (Ullman, Michael). Therefore, ERPs can be used to distinguish
and identify psychological and neural sub-processes involved in complex
cognitive, motor, or perceptual tasks (Ullman, Michael).
+
+Unlike fMRI, they provide extremely high time resolution, in the range of
one millisecond (Ullman, Michael).
+
+The methodological advantages of ERPs have resulted in an ever increasing
number of ERP studies in cognitive neuroscience, cognitive psychology,
psycholinguistics, neurolinguistics, neuropsychology and neurology (Ullman,
Michael). ERPs have also been used to identify patients who seem to
be "brain-dead" but in fact are not (Ullman, Michael).
+
+There is an event-related potential (ERP) experiment of human recognition
memory that explored the relation between conscious awareness and
electrophysiological activity of the brain . ERPs were recorded from
healthy adults while they made “remember” and “know” recognition judgments
about previously seen words , reflecting “Autonoetic” and “Noetic”
awareness, respectively . The ERP effects differed between the two kinds of
awareness while they were similar for “true” and “false” recognition .
+
+In a study of real-time noninvasive recordings of the brain's electrical
activity (event-related potentials, ERPs), there was a common neural
“signature” that is associated with self-referential processing regardless
of whether subjects are retrieving general knowledge (noetic awareness) or
re-experiencing past episodes (autonoetic awareness) .
+
+== Social anxiety disorder ==
+
+Social anxiety disorder is an example of how bad experiences can also lead
to our behaviors. It demonstrates how our thoughts influence our feelings
about ourselves and therefore our actions in society around us. It has to
do with a person’s self esteem, fear of failure, shame, fear of offending,
and fear of strangers.
+
+Cognitive models of social anxiety disorder (SAD) believe the social self
is a key psychological mechanism that maintains fear of negative evaluation
in social and performance situations . Consequently, a distorted self-view
is evident when recalling painful autobiographical social memories, as
reflected in linguistic expression, negative self-beliefs, and emotion and
avoidance .
+
+To test this hypothesis, 42 adults diagnosed with SAD and 27
non-psychiatric healthy controls composed autobiographical narratives of
distinct social anxiety related situations, generated negative
self-beliefs, and provided emotion and avoidance ratings .
+
+Although narratives were matched for initial emotional intensity and
present vividness, linguistic analyses demonstrated that, compared to the
control group, the SAD group employed more self-referential, anxiety, and
sensory words, and made fewer references to other people . Social anxiety
symptom severity, however, was associated with greater self-referential NSB
in SAD only .
+
+SAD reported greater current self- conscious emotions when recalling
autobiographical social situations, and greater active avoidance of similar
situations than did the control group . Autobiographical memory of social
situations in SAD may influence current and future thinking, emotion, and
behavioral avoidance .
+
+== References ==
+#
+#
+#
+#
+#
+
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+++ /trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Autoplastic adaptation Mon Jun 11
05:34:01 2012
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+Autoplastic adaptation (from the Greek word auto) is a form of adaptation
where the subject attempts to change itself when faced with a difficult
situation.
+
+The concept of autoplastic adaptation was developed by Sigmund Freud,
Sándor Ferenczi, and Franz Alexander. They proposed that when an individual
was presented with a stressful situation, he could react in one of two ways:
+* Autoplastic adaptation: The subject tries to change himself, i.e. the
internal environment.
+* Alloplastic adaptation: The subject tries to change the situation, i.e.
the external environment.
+
+==Autoplasticity, hysteria and evolution==
+
+'Hysterical individuals appear to be turned inward. Their symptoms,
instead of presenting actions directed outward (alloplastic activities),
are mere internal innervations (autoplastic activities)'.
+
+Freud, with 'his single-minded Lamarckianism', speculated that
behind 'Lamarck's idea of "need"' was the 'power of unconscious ideas over
one's own body, of which we see remnants in hysteria, in short, "the
omnipotence of thought"'.
+
+As a result, among his immediate followers, 'Insight into this regressive
nature of the phenomenon of conversion may be taken as a starting-point for
speculation about the archaic origin of the capacity for autoplastic
conversion...according to which evolution took place through the
autoplastic adaptation of the body to the demands of the environment'.
+
+==Cross-cultural autoplasticity==
+
+'Cross-cultural helpers have debated what has been called the
autoplastic/alloplastic dilemma: how much should clients be encouraged to
adapt to a given situation and how much...to change? Most Western helping
modalities have a strong autoplastic bias; clients are encouraged to
abandon traditional beliefs...to fit into a dominant society's mainstream'.
+
+The analytic relationship is sometimes seen in similar terms: 'the two
practitioners in treatment are engaged in an unending struggle between
changing the other and effecting internal change..."autoplastic"
and "alloplastic"'.
+
+==References==
+==External links==
+*"Psychiatry and the dilemmas of crime" by Seymour L. Halleck, page 64
+*"Mediated learning experience (MLE)" by Reuven Feuerstein, Pnina S.
Klein, Abraham J. Tannenbaum, page 14
+*"Ferenczi's Trauma Theory" by Jay B. Frankel
+*"Digital creativity" by Colin Beardon, Lone Malmborg, page 58
+*PsychResidentOnline.com: Psychodynamic Theory Notes
+*Psychology Glossary
+
+
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--- /dev/null
+++ /trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Availability, salience and vividness Mon
Jun 11 05:34:01 2012
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+Availability, salience and vividness are three terms which refer to very
similar things in social psychology but have slightly different meanings.
They may actually all refer to the same underlying concept, and they
positively influence one another, but they are each used consistently in
different theoretical contexts.
+
+:Availability refers to how likely or probable something appears, in
probability estimation.
+
+:Salience refers to the likelihood that something will appear causal, in
attribution theory.
+
+:Vividness refers to how easily recalled and convincing something is, in
persuasion.
+
+== References ==
+
+* Plous, S. (1993). "The psychology of judgment and decision making". New
York: McGraw-Hill.
+
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--- /dev/null
+++ /trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Basic hostility Mon Jun 11 05:34:01 2012
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+Basic hostility is a psychological concept first described by
psychoanalyst Karen Horney. It is an effect of "basic evi"l which is also
known as parental abuse. Horney described it as a bad attitude which
develops in the child as a result of basic evil, such as parental abuse.
The child is mistreated and becomes angry, but can do nothing as he is
dependent on the very persons who mistreat them.
+
+==The pattern of basic hostility==
+* The child wants to leave, but cannot. Although the child wants to avoid
the abuse, his parents are perpetrating it.
+* The child cannot move away or fight back against his parents because he
is dependent on them.
+* The child therefore redirects his feelings and expressions of hostility
toward people he does not depend on for support.
+
+According to Horney, some children find Basic Hostility to be an
aggressive coping strategy and continue using it to deal with life's
problems.
+
+==Sources==
+* Personality Theories page on Karen Horney
+* Women's Intellectual Contributions to the Study of Mind and Society:
Karen Horney
+
+
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--- /dev/null
+++ /trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Behavioral economics Mon Jun 11 05:34:01
2012
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+Behavioral economics and the related field, behavioral finance, study the
effects of social, cognitive and emotional factors on the economic
decisions of individuals and institutions and the consequences for market
prices, returns and the resource allocation. The fields are primarily
concerned with the bounds of rationality of economic agents. Behavioral
models typically integrate insights from psychology with neo-classical
economic theory. In so doing they cover a range of concepts, methods, and
fields.
+
+Behavioral analysts are not only concerned with the effects of market
decisions but also with public choice, which describes another source of
economic decisions with related biases towards promoting self-interest.
+==History==
+During the classical period, microeconomics was closely linked to
psychology. For example, Adam Smith wrote "The Theory of Moral Sentiments",
which proposed psychological explanations of individual behavior, including
concerns about fairness and justice, and Jeremy Bentham wrote extensively
on the psychological underpinnings of utility. However, during the
development of neo-classical economics economists sought to reshape the
discipline as a natural science, deducing economic behavior from
assumptions about the nature of economic agents. They developed the concept
of homo economicus, whose psychology was fundamentally rational. This led
to unintended and unforeseen errors.
+
+However, many important neo-classical economists employed more
sophisticated psychological explanations, including Francis Edgeworth,
Vilfredo Pareto and Irving Fisher. Economic psychology emerged in the 20th
century in the works of Gabriel Tarde, George Katona and Laszlo Garai.
Expected utility and discounted utility models began to gain acceptance,
generating testable hypotheses about decision making given uncertainty and
intertemporal consumption respectively. Observed and repeatable anomalies
eventually challenged those hypotheses, and further steps were taken by the
Nobel prizewinner Maurice Allais, for example in setting out the Allais
paradox, a decision problem he first presented in 1953 which contradicts
the expected utility hypothesis.
+In the 1960s cognitive psychology began to shed more light on the brain as
an information processing device (in contrast to behaviorist models).
Psychologists in this field, such as Ward Edwards, Amos Tversky and Daniel
Kahneman began to compare their cognitive models of decision-making under
risk and uncertainty to economic models of rational behavior. In
mathematical psychology, there is a longstanding interest in the
transitivity of preference and what kind of measurement scale utility
constitutes (Luce, 2000).
+
+===Prospect theory===
+In 1979, Kahneman and Tversky wrote "Prospect theory: An Analysis of
Decision Under Risk", an important paper that used cognitive psychology to
explain various divergences of economic decision making from neo-classical
theory. Prospect theory is an example of generalized expected utility
theory. Although not a conventional part of behavioral economics,
generalized expected utility theory is similarly motivated by concerns
about the descriptive inaccuracy of expected utility theory.
+
+In 1968 Nobel Laureate Gary Becker published "Crime and Punishment: An
Economic Approach", a seminal work that factored psychological elements
into economic decision making. Becker, however, maintained strict
consistency of preferences. Nobelist Herbert Simon developed the theory of
Bounded Rationality to explain how people "irrationally"
seek "satisfaction", instead of maximizing utility, as conventional
economics presumed. Maurice Allais produced "Allais Paradox", a crucial
challenge to expected utility.
+
+Psychological traits such as overconfidence, projection bias, and the
effects of limited attention are now part of the theory. Other developments
include a conference at the University of Chicago, a special behavioral
economics edition of the "Quarterly Journal of Economics" ('In Memory of
Amos Tversky') and Kahneman's 2002 Nobel for having "integrated insights
from psychological research into economic science, especially concerning
human judgment and decision-making under uncertainty".
+
+===Intertemporal choice===
+Behavioral economics has also been applied to intertemporal choice.
Intertemporal choice behavior is largely inconsistent, as exemplified by
George Ainslie's hyperbolic discounting (1975) which is one of the
prominently studied observations, further developed by David Laibson, Ted
O'Donoghue, and Matthew Rabin. Hyperbolic discounting describes the
tendency to discount outcomes in near future more than for outcomes in the
far future. This pattern of discounting is dynamically inconsistent (or
time-inconsistent), and therefore inconsistent with basic models of
rational choice, since the rate of discount between time "t" and "t+1" will
be low at time "t-1", when "t" is the near future, but high at time "t"
when "t" is the present and time "t+1" the near future.
+
+The pattern can actually be explained through models of subadditive
discounting which distinguishes the delay and interval of discounting:
people are less patient (per-time-unit) over shorter intervals regardless
of when they occur. Much of the recent work on intertemporal choice
indicates that discounting is a constructed preference. Discounting is
influenced greatly by expectations, framing, focus, thought listings, mood,
sign, glucose levels, and the scales used to describe what is discounted.
Some prominent researchers question whether discounting, the major
parameter of intertemporal choice, actually describes what people do when
they make choices with future consequences. Considering the variability of
discount rates, this may be the case.
+
+===Other areas of research===
+
+Other branches of behavioral economics enrich the model of the utility
function without implying inconsistency in preferences. Ernst Fehr, Armin
Falk, and Matthew Rabin studied "fairness", "inequity aversion",
and "reciprocal altruism", weakening the neoclassical assumption
of "perfect selfishness." This work is particularly applicable to wage
setting. Work on "intrinsic motivation" by Gneezy and Rustichini and
on "identity" by Akerlof and Kranton assumes agents derive utility from
adopting personal and social norms in addition to conditional expected
utility.
+
+"Conditional expected utility" is a form of reasoning where the individual
has an illusion of control, and calculates the probabilities of external
events and hence utility as a function of their own action, even when they
have no causal ability to affect those external events.
+
+Behavioral economics caught on among the general public, with the success
of books like Dan Ariely's "Predictably Irrational." Practitioners of the
discipline have studied quasi-public policy topics such as broadband
mapping.
+
+==Methodology==
+Behavioral economics and finance theories developed almost exclusively
from experimental observations and survey responses, although in more
recent times real world data have taken a more prominent position.
Functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) allows determination of which
brain areas are active during economic decision making. Experiments
simulating markets such as stock trading and auctions can isolate the
effect of a particular bias upon behavior. Such experiments can help narrow
the range of plausible explanations. Good experiments are
incentive-compatible, normally involving binding transactions and real
money.
+
+===Behavioral economics vs experimental economics===
+Note that behavioral economics is distinct from experimental economics,
which uses experimental methods to study economic questions. Not all
economics experiments are psychological. While many experimental economics
studies probe psychological aspects of decision making, other experiments
explore institutional features or serve as "beta testing" for new market
mechanisms. Not all behavioral economics uses experiments, either;
behavioral economists rely heavily on theory and on observational
studies "in the field."
+
+==Key observations==
+Three themes predominate in behavioral finance and economics:
+
+*Heuristics: People often make decisions based on approximate rules of
thumb, not strict logic. See also cognitive biases and bounded rationality.
+*Framing: The collection of anecdotes and stereotypes that make up the
mental emotional filters individuals rely on to understand and respond to
events.
+*Market inefficiencies: These include mis-pricings, non-rational decision
making, and return anomalies. Richard Thaler, in particular, has described
specific market anomalies from a behavioral perspective.
+
+Barberis, Shleifer, and Vishny and Daniel, Hirshleifer, and Subrahmanyam
(1998) built models based on extrapolation (seeing patterns in random
sequences) and overconfidence to explain security market under- and
overreactions, though their source continues to be debated. These models
assume that errors or biases are positively correlated across agents so
that they do not cancel out in aggregate. This would be the case if a large
fraction of agents look at the same signal (such as the advice of an
analyst) or have a common bias.
+
+More generally, cognitive biases may also have strong anomalous effects in
the aggregate if there is social contagion of ideas and emotions (causing
collective euphoria or fear) leading to phenomena such as herding and
groupthink. Behavioral finance and economics rests as much on social
psychology within large groups as on individual psychology. In some
behavioral models, a small deviant group can have substantial market-wide
effects (e.g. Fehr and Schmidt, 1999).
+
+==Topics==
+Models in behavioral economics typically address a particular market
anomaly and modify standard neo-classical models by describing decision
makers as using heuristics and subject to framing effects. In general,
economics continues to sit within the neoclassical framework, though the
standard assumption of rational behavior is often challenged.
+
+===Heuristics===
+
+* Prospect theory
+* Loss aversion
+* Disappointment
+* Status quo bias
+* Gambler's fallacy
+* Self-serving bias
+* Money illusion
+
+===Framing===
+
+* Cognitive framing
+* Mental accounting
+* Anchoring
+
+===Anomalies (economic behavior)===
+
+* Disposition effect
+* Endowment effect
+* Inequity aversion
+* Reciprocity
+* Intertemporal consumption
+* Present-biased preferences
+* Momentum investing
+* Greed and fear
+* Herd behavior
+* Sunk-cost fallacy
+
+===Anomalies (market prices and returns)===
+
+* Equity premium puzzle
+* Efficiency wage hypothesis
+* Price stickiness
+* Limits to arbitrage
+* Dividend puzzle
+* Fat tails
+* Calendar effect
+
+==Criticisms==
+Critics of behavioral economics typically stress the rationality of
economic agents. They contend that experimentally observed behavior has
limited application to market situations, as learning opportunities and
competition ensure at least a close approximation of rational behavior.
+
+Others note that cognitive theories, such as prospect theory, are models
of decision making, not generalized economic behavior, and are only
applicable to the sort of once-off decision problems presented to
experiment participants or survey respondents.
+
+Traditional economists are also skeptical of the experimental and
survey-based techniques which behavioral economics uses extensively.
Economists typically stress revealed preferences over stated preferences
(from surveys) in the determination of economic value. Experiments and
surveys are at risk of systemic biases, strategic behavior and lack of
incentive compatibility.
+
+Rabin (1998) dismisses these criticisms, claiming that consistent results
are typically obtained in multiple situations and geographies and can
produce good theoretical insight. Behavioral economists have also responded
to these criticisms by focusing on field studies rather than lab
experiments. Some economists see a fundamental schism between experimental
economics and behavioral economics, but prominent behavioral and
experimental economists tend to share techniques and approaches in
answering common questions. For example, behavioral economists are actively
investigating neuroeconomics, which is entirely experimental and cannot be
verified in the field.
+
+Other proponents of behavioral economics note that neoclassical models
often fail to predict outcomes in real world contexts. Behavioral insights
can influence neoclassical models. Behavioral economists note that these
revised models not only reach the same correct predictions as the
traditional models, but also correctly predict some outcomes where the
traditional models failed.
+
+==Behavioral finance==
+===Topics===
+The central issue in behavioral finance is explaining why market
participants make systematic errors. Such errors affect prices and returns,
creating market inefficiencies. It also investigates how other participants
arbitrage such market inefficiencies.
+
+Behavioral finance highlights inefficiencies such as under- or
over-reactions to information as causes of market trends (and in extreme
cases of bubbles and crashes). Such reactions have been attributed to
limited investor attention, overconfidence, overoptimism, mimicry (herding
instinct) and noise trading. Technical analysts consider behavioral
economics' academic cousin, behavioral finance, to be the theoretical basis
for technical analysis.
+
+Other key observations include the asymmetry between decisions to acquire
or keep resources, known as the "bird in the bush" paradox, and loss
aversion, the unwillingness to let go of a valued possession. Loss aversion
appears to manifest itself in investor behavior as a reluctance to sell
shares or other equity, if doing so would result in a nominal loss. It may
also help explain why housing prices rarely/slowly decline to market
clearing levels during periods of low demand.
+
+Benartzi and Thaler (1995), applying a version of prospect theory, claim
to have solved the equity premium puzzle, something conventional finance
models have been unable to do so far.
+Experimental finance applies the experimental method, e.g. creating an
artificial market by some kind of simulation software to study people's
decision-making process and behavior in financial markets.
+
+===Models===
+Some financial models used in money management and asset valuation
incorporate behavioral finance parameters, for example:
+
+* Thaler's model of price reactions to information, with two phases,
underreaction-adjustment-overreaction, creating a price trend
+:One characteristic of overreaction is that average returns following
announcements of good news is lower than following bad news. In other
words, overreaction occurs if the market reacts too strongly or for too
long to news, thus requiring adjustment in the opposite direction. As a
result, outperforming assets in one period are likely to underperform in
the following period.
+* The stock image coefficient
+
+===Criticisms===
+Critics such as Eugene Fama typically support the efficient-market
hypothesis. They contend that behavioral finance is more a collection of
anomalies than a true branch of finance and that these anomalies are either
quickly priced out of the market or explained by appealing to market
microstructure arguments. However, individual cognitive biases are distinct
from social biases; the former can be averaged out by the market, while the
other can create positive feedback loops that drive the market further and
further from a "fair price" equilibrium. Similarly, for an anomaly to
violate market efficiency, an investor must be able to trade against it and
earn abnormal profits; this is not the case for many anomalies.
+
+A specific example of this criticism appears in some explanations of the
equity premium puzzle. It is argued that the cause is entry barriers (both
practical and psychological) and that returns between stocks and bonds
should equalize as electronic resources open up the stock market to more
traders. In reply, others contend that most personal investment funds are
managed through superannuation funds, minimizing the effect of these
putative entry barriers. In addition, professional investors and fund
managers seem to hold more bonds than one would expect given return
differentials.
+
+===Quantitative===
+Quantitative behavioral finance uses mathematical and statistical
methodology to understand behavioral biases. In marketing research, a study
shows little evidence that escalating biases impact marketing decisions.
Leading contributors include Gunduz Caginalp (Editor of the Journal of
Behavioral Finance from 2001–2004) and collaborators including 2002
Nobelist Vernon Smith, David Porter, Don Balenovich, Vladimira Ilieva and
Ahmet Duran and Ray Sturm.
+
+The research can be grouped into the following areas:
+# Empirical studies that demonstrate significant deviations from classical
theories
+# Modeling using the concepts of behavioral effects together with the
non-classical assumption of the finiteness of assets
+# Forecasting based on these methods
+# Testing models against experimental asset markets
+
+==Behavioral game theory==
+Behavioral game theory is a subject that analyzes interactive strategic
decisions and behavior using the methods of game theory, experimental
economics, and experimental psychology. Experiments include testing
deviations from typical simplifications of economic theory such as the
independence axiom and neglect of altruism, fairness, and framing effects.
On the positive side, the method has been applied to interactive learning
• Teck H. Ho (2008). "Individual learning in games," "The New Palgrave
Dictionary of Economics", 2nd Edition. Abstract. </ref> and social
preferences. • Colin F. Camerer (2008). "behavioral game theory," "The
New Palgrave Dictionary of Economics", 2nd Edition. Abstract.</ref> As a
research program, the subject is a development of the last three decades.
+
+== Economic reasoning in non-human animals ==
+
+A handful of comparative psychologists at American universities have
attempted to demonstrate economic reasoning in non-human animals. Early
attempts along these lines focus on the behavior of rats and pigeons. These
studies draw on the tenets of behavioral psychology, where the main goal is
to discover analogs to human behavior in experimentally-tractable non-human
animals. They are also methodologically similar to the work of Ferster and
Skinner . Methodological similarities aside, early researchers in non-human
economics deviate from behaviorism in their terminology. Although such
studies are set up primarily in an operant conditioning chamber, using food
rewards for pecking/bar-pressing behavior, the researchers describe pecking
and bar pressing not in terms of reinforcement and stimulus-response
relationships, but instead in terms of work, demand, budget, and labor.
Recent studies have adopted a slightly different approach, taking a more
evolutionary perspective, comparing economic behavior of humans to a
species of non-human primate, the capuchin monkey.
+
+=== The animal as a human analog ===
+
+Many early studies of non-human economic reasoning were performed on rats
and pigeons in a operant conditioning chamber. These studies looked at
things like peck rate (in the case of the pigeon) and bar pressing rate (in
the case of the rat) given certain conditions of reward. Early researchers
claim, for example, that response pattern (pecking/bar pressing rate) is an
appropriate analog to human labor supply . Researchers in this field
advocate for the appropriateness of using animal economic behavior to
understand the elementary components of human economic behavior . In a
paper by Battalio, Green, and Kagel (1981, p 621), they write
+=== Labor supply ===
+
+The typical laboratory environment to study labor supply in pigeons is set
up as follows. Pigeons are first deprived of food. Since the animals are
hungry, food becomes highly desired. The pigeons are placed in an operant
conditioning chamber and through orienting and exploring the environment of
the chamber they discover that by pecking a small disk located on one side
of the chamber, food is delivered to them. In effect, pecking behavior
becomes reinforced, as it is associated with food. Before long, the pigeon
pecks at the disk (or stimulus) regularly.
+
+In this circumstance, The pigeon is said to "work" for the food by
pecking. The food, then, is thought of as the currency. The value of the
currency can be adjusted in a couple of different ways, including the
amount of food delivered, the rate of food delivery and the type of food
delivered (Some foods are more desirable than others).
+
+Economic behavior similar to that observed in humans is discovered when
the hungry pigeons stop working/work less when the reward is reduced.
Researchers argue that this is similar to labor supply behavior in humans.
That is like humans (who, even in need, will only work so much for a given
wage) the pigeons demonstrate decreases in pecking (work) when the reward
(value) is reduced .
+
+===Demand===
+
+In human economics, a typical demand curve is negative. This means that as
the price of a certain good increases, the amount that consumers are able
to purchase decreases. Researchers studying demand curves in non-human
animals such as rats observe that demand curves have negative slopes,
consistent with the slope of human demand curves.
+
+Researchers have studied demand in rats in a manner distinct from studying
labor supply in pigeons. Specifically, say we have experimental subjects,
rats, in an operant chamber and we require them to press a lever to receive
a reward. The reward can be either food (reward pellets), water, or a
commodity drink such as cherry cola. Unlike previous pigeon studies, where
the work analog was pecking and the monetary analog was reward, in the
studies on demand in rats, the monetary analog is bar pressing. Under these
circumstances, the researchers claim that changing the number of bar
presses required to obtain a commodity item is analogous to changing the
price of a commodity item in human economics .
+
+In effect, results of demand studies in non-human animals are that, as the
bar-pressing requirement (cost) increases, the animal presses the bar the
required number of times less often (payment).
+
+===Monkey trading behavior===
+Recent work on economic behavior in non-human animals has focused on
capuchin monkeys. Here the researchers seem less inclined toward the
behaviorist tradition of the laboratory animal-human behavior analog.
Instead, they attempt to adopt a more evolutionary perspective, positing
that economic reasoning might be basic, unlearned, and serve some adaptive
function.
+
+One recent study involves the introduction of a currency system into a
colony of captive capuchin monkeys. The currency is in the form of coins
and is redeemable for food and other purchasable items when exchanged with
a researcher. Under these conditions, the researchers studied three
features of monkey trading: demand, loss aversion, and risk aversion.
+
+In this study, monkeys are presented with an amount of money and are shown
a certain amount of food or other goods. The monkeys must take the money
and hand it to the experimenter in exchange for goods. In one condition of
the experiment, after the monkey has paid for the goods, it has the option
to take a sure amount of food now, or wait until the experimenter alters
the amount of food presented. In this circumstance, the experimenter can
either increase or decrease the amount of food given. Thus, this
experimental setup allows the researchers to look at the gambling behavior
of the animals. The experimenters can therefore ask the following
questions: Will the monkey take the sure amount of food? Will the monkey
“gamble” by waiting until the experimenter changes the amount of food
present? Does the decision of the animal depend on the circumstances?
Results indicate that the monkeys are risk-averse: They prefer to take the
initial amount of food than wait for the experimenter to change the amount
presented.
+
+The experimenters introduce several other manipulations, including
changing the allocated budget, changing the cost of certain items, changing
the items themselves. Specifically, the researchers found an increase in
item purchase and consumption when that item decreases in value, a result
consistent with those found in human economics.
+
+Taken together, the results of this study indicate that capuchin monkeys
are not only risk-averse, but are also sensitive to constructs such as
price, budget, and payoff expectation. According to the researchers, the
animals are not trained to behave in this way; these behaviors arise
naturally in the trading environment. As a result, these researchers argue
that basic economic behavior and reasoning might be unlearned, innate, and
subject to natural selection.
+
+==Key figures==
+===Economics===
+
+*Dan Ariely
+*Colin Camerer
+*Ernst Fehr
+*Daniel Kahneman
+*David Laibson
+*George Loewenstein
+*Sendhil Mullainathan
+*Drazen Prelec
+*Matthew Rabin
+*Herbert Simon
+*Paul Slovic
+*Vernon L. Smith
+*Larry Summers
+*Richard Thaler
+*Amos Tversky
+===Finance===
+
+*Malcolm Baker
+*Nicholas Barberis
+*Gunduz Caginalp
+*David Hirshleifer
+*Andrew Lo
+*Michael Mauboussin
+*Terrance Odean
+*Charles Plott
+*Hersh Shefrin
+*Robert Shiller
+*Andrei Shleifer
+*Richard Thaler
+==See also==
+
+* Adaptive market hypothesis
+* Behavioralism
+* Behavioral finance
+* Behavioral Operations Research
+* Cognitive bias
+* Cognitive psychology
+* Confirmation bias
+* Cultural economics
+* Culture change
+* Economic sociology
+* Emotional bias
+* Experimental economics
+* Experimental finance
+* Fuzzy-trace theory
+* Habit (psychology)
+* Hindsight bias
+* Important publications in behavioral finance(economics)
+* Journal of Behavioral Finance
+* List of cognitive biases
+* Methodological individualism
+* Neuroeconomics
+* Observational techniques
+* Praxeology
+* Rationality
+* Repugnancy costs
+* Socioeconomics
+* Socionomics
+
+==Notes==
+==References==
+*
+*
+* Diamond, Peter A., and Hannu Vartiainen, ed. (2007). "Behavioral
Economics and its Applications". Description and preview.
+*Garai Laszlo. Identity Economics – An Alternative Economic Psychology.
1990–2006.
+*
+*
+*Kuran, Timur (1995). "Private Truths, Public Lies: The Social
Consequences of Preference Falsification", Harvard University Press.
Description and chapter-preview links.
+* "The New Palgrave Dictionary of Economics" (2008), 2nd Edition. Abstract
links:
+: "Simon, Herbert A. (1916–2001)."
+: "Behavioral public economics."
+: "Behavioral finance."
+: "Rationality, bounded."
+* Abstract.
+* Plott, Charles R., and Vernon L. Smith, ed. (2008). "Handbook of
Experimental Economics Results", v. 1, Elsevier. Chapter-preview links.
+* Press +.
+* Schelling, Thomas C. (2006 "Micromotives and Macrobehavior", Norton.
[http://books.wwnorton.com/books/978-0-393-32946-9/ Description, preview.
+*
+* Thaler, Richard H., and Sendhil Mullainathan (2008). "Behavioral
Economics," "The Concise Encyclopedia of Economics", 2nd Edition. Liberty
Fund.
+
+==External links==
+* Behavioral Finance Initiative of the International Center for Finance at
the Yale School of Management
+* Overview of Behavioral Finance
+* Geary Behavioural Economics Blog, of the Geary Institute at University
College Dublin
+* Society for the Advancement of Behavioural Economics
+* Behavioral Economics: Past, Present, Future - Colin F. Camerer and
George Loewenstein
+* A History of Behavioural Finance / Economics in Published Research: 1944
- 1988
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
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+
+
+Belief is the psychological state in which an individual holds a
proposition or premise to be true.
+
+==Belief, knowledge and epistemology==
+The terms "belief" and "knowledge" are used differently in philosophy.
+
+Epistemology is the philosophical study of knowledge and belief. The
primary problem in epistemology is to understand exactly what is needed in
order for us to have true knowledge. In a notion derived from Plato's
dialogue "Theaetetus", philosophy has traditionally defined knowledge
as "justified true belief". The relationship between belief and knowledge
is that a belief is knowledge if the belief is "true", and if the believer
has a "justification" (reasonable and necessarily plausible
assertions/evidence/guidance) for believing it is true.
+
+A false belief is not considered to be knowledge, even if it is sincere. A
sincere believer in the flat earth theory does not "know" that the Earth is
flat. Later epistemologists, for instance Gettier (1963) and Goldman
(1967), have questioned the "justified true belief" definition.
+
+==Belief as a psychological theory==
+Mainstream psychology and related disciplines have traditionally treated
belief as if it were the simplest form of mental representation and
therefore one of the building blocks of conscious thought. Philosophers
have tended to be more abstract in their analysis, and much of the work
examining the viability of the belief concept stems from philosophical
analysis.
+
+The concept of belief presumes a subject (the believer) and an object of
belief (the proposition). So, like other propositional attitudes, belief
implies the existence of mental states and intentionality, both of which
are hotly debated topics in the philosophy of mind, whose foundations and
relation to brain states are still controversial.
+
+Beliefs are sometimes divided into "core beliefs" (that are actively
thought about) and "dispositional beliefs" (that may be ascribed to someone
who has not thought about the issue). For example, if asked "do you believe
tigers wear pink pajamas?" a person might answer that they do not, despite
the fact they may never have thought about this situation before.
+
+That a belief is a mental state has been seen by some as contentious.
While some have argued that beliefs are represented in the mind as
sentence-like constructs, others have gone as far as arguing that there is
no consistent or coherent mental representation that underlies our common
use of the belief concept and that it is therefore obsolete and should be
rejected.
+
+This has important implications for understanding the neuropsychology and
neuroscience of belief. If the concept of belief is incoherent, then any
attempt to find the underlying neural processes that support it will fail.
+
+Philosopher Lynne Rudder Baker has outlined four main contemporary
approaches to belief in her controversial book "Saving Belief":
+* "Our common-sense understanding of belief is correct" - Sometimes called
the "mental sentence theory", in this conception, beliefs exist as coherent
entities and the way we talk about them in everyday life is a valid basis
for scientific endeavour. Jerry Fodor is one of the principal defenders of
this point of view.
+* "Our common-sense understanding of belief may not be entirely correct,
but it is close enough to make some useful predictions" - This view argues
that we will eventually reject the idea of belief as we use it now, but
that there may be a correlation between what we take to be a belief when
someone says "I believe that snow is white" and how a future theory of
psychology will explain this behaviour. Most notably, philosopher Stephen
Stich has argued for this particular understanding of belief.
+* "Our common-sense understanding of belief is entirely wrong and will be
completely superseded by a radically different theory that will have no use
for the concept of belief as we know it" - Known as eliminativism, this
view, (most notably proposed by Paul and Patricia Churchland), argues that
the concept of belief is like obsolete theories of times past such as the
four humours theory of medicine, or the phlogiston theory of combustion. In
these cases science hasn't provided us with a more detailed account of
these theories, but completely rejected them as valid scientific concepts
to be replaced by entirely different accounts. The Churchlands argue that
our common-sense concept of belief is similar in that as we discover more
about neuroscience and the brain, the inevitable conclusion will be to
reject the belief hypothesis in its entirety.
+* "Our common-sense understanding of belief is entirely wrong; however,
treating people, animals, and even computers as if they had beliefs is
often a successful strategy" - The major proponents of this view, Daniel
Dennett and Lynne Rudder Baker, are both eliminativists in that they
believe that beliefs are not a scientifically valid concept, but they don't
go as far as rejecting the concept of belief as a predictive device.
Dennett gives the example of playing a computer at chess. While few people
would agree that the computer held beliefs, treating the computer as if it
did (e.g. that the computer believes that taking the opposition's queen
will give it a considerable advantage) is likely to be a successful and
predictive strategy. In this understanding of belief, named by Dennett "the
intentional stance", belief-based explanations of mind and behaviour are at
a different level of explanation and are not reducible to those based on
fundamental neuroscience, although both may be explanatory at their own
level.
+
+==How beliefs are formed==
+Psychologists study belief formation and the relationship between beliefs
and actions. Beliefs form in a variety of ways:
+* We tend to internalise the beliefs of the people around us during
childhood. Albert Einstein is often quoted as having said that "Common
sense is the collection of prejudices acquired by age eighteen." Political
beliefs depend most strongly on the political beliefs most common in the
community where we live. Most individuals believe the religion they were
taught in childhood.
+* People may adopt the beliefs of a charismatic leader, even if those
beliefs fly in the face of all previous beliefs, and produce actions that
are clearly not in their own self-interest. Is belief voluntary? Rational
individuals need to reconcile their direct reality with any said belief;
therefore, if belief is not present or possible, it reflects the fact that
contradictions were necessarily overcome using cognitive dissonance.
+* The primary thrust of the advertising industry is that repetition forms
beliefs, as do associations of beliefs with images of sex, love, and other
strong positive emotions.
+* Physical trauma, especially to the head, can radically alter a person's
beliefs.
+
+However, even educated people, well aware of the process by which beliefs
form, still strongly cling to their beliefs, and act on those beliefs even
against their own self-interest. In Anna Rowley's Leadership Theory, she
states "You want your beliefs to change. It's proof that you are keeping
your eyes open, living fully, and welcoming everything that the world and
people around you can teach you." This means that peoples' beliefs should
evolve as they gain new experiences.
+
+==Belief-in==
+To "believe in" someone or something is a distinct concept
from "believe-that". There are two types of belief-in:
+* Commendatory - an expression of confidence in a person or entity, as
in, "I believe in his abililty to do the job".
+* Existential claim - to claim belief in the existence of an entity or
phenomenon with the implied need to justify its claim to existence. It is
often used when the entity is not real, or its existence is in doubt. "He
believes in witches and ghosts" or "many children believe in fairies" are
typical examples.
+
+==Delusional beliefs==
+Delusions are defined as beliefs in psychiatric diagnostic criteria (for
example in the "Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders").
Psychiatrist and historian G.E. Berrios has challenged the view that
delusions are genuine beliefs and instead labels them as "empty speech
acts", where affected persons are motivated to express false or bizarre
belief statements due to an underlying psychological disturbance. However,
the majority of mental health professionals and researchers treat delusions
as if they were genuine beliefs.
+
+In Lewis Carroll's "Through the Looking-Glass" the White Queen says, "Why,
sometimes I've believed as many as six impossible things before breakfast."
This is often quoted in mockery of the common ability of people to
entertain beliefs contrary to fact.
+
+==Notes==
+==See also==
+
+
+==External links==
+* William Kingdon Clifford. Ethics of Belief Classic essay that belief by
its nature is not ethical, with counterpoint by "The Will to Believe" of
William James
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
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2012
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+
+
+The Ben Franklin effect is a psychological finding: A person who
has "done" someone a favor is more likely to do that person another favor
than they would be if they had "received" a favor from that person.
Similarly, one who harms another is more willing to harm them again than
the victim is to retaliate.
+
+==Recognition of effect by Franklin==
+In the words of Benjamin Franklin, who famously observed the effect and
for whom it is named, "He that has once done you a Kindness will be more
ready to do you another, than he whom you yourself have obliged."
+
+In his autobiography, Franklin explains how he dealt with the animosity of
a rival legislator when he served in the Pennsylvania legislature in the
18th Century
+
+==Effect as an example of cognitive dissonance==
+
+This perception of Franklin has been cited as an example within cognitive
dissonance theory, which says that people change their attitudes or
behavior to resolve tensions, or "dissonance", between their thoughts,
attitudes, and actions. In the case of the Ben Franklin effect, the
dissonance is between the subject's negative attitudes to the other person
and the knowledge that they did that person a favor.
+==See also==
+* Foot-in-the-door technique
+
+==Notes==
+==Further reading==
+*
+
+==Related information==
+
+
+
=======================================
--- /dev/null
+++ /trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Benevolent prejudice Mon Jun 11 05:34:01
2012
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+Benevolent prejudice is a superficially positive type of prejudice that is
expressed in terms of apparently positive beliefs and emotional responses.
Though this type of prejudice associates supposedly good things with
certain groups, it still has the result of keeping the group members in
inferior positions in society (Whitley, 2010). Benevolent prejudices can
help justify any hostile prejudices a person has toward a particular group
(Miller, 2001).
+
+== Application ==
+Most research on benevolent prejudice has been done on benevolent sexism
and stereotypical assumptions. This would entail positive gender roles,
like men being "strong" and "providers" and women being "fragile"
and "pure." Benevolent sexism, along with hostile sexism, is a sub-group of
Ambivalent sexism. There is also research indicating benevolent prejudice
as a part of Ageism. Benevolent beliefs can apply to any group and are as
detrimental as hostile prejudices. Examples of these types of prejudices
are that "all Asians are smart" and "all African Americans are athletic."
While we may view being smart and athletic as positive, these things do not
apply to every member of a particular group.
+
+== Study/Example ==
+In an experiment run by Judd, Park, Ryan, Brauer, and Kraus (1995),
perceptions of African Americans held by White Americans show that they
held hostile beliefs indicating that they viewed African Americans as
hostile, cliquish, irresponsible, and loud. However, the same White
American participants held benevolent beliefs that African Americans were
athletic, musical, religious, and had strong family ties. The study was
also done with African American participants who were asked to share their
beliefs about White Americans. The African Americans said that White
Americans were self-centered, greedy, stuffy/uptight, and sheltered from
the real world. However, the same African Americans held benevolent beliefs
that White Americans were intelligent, organized, independent, and
financially well-off (Judd, 1995).
+
+== See also ==
+* Ambivalent prejudice
+* Hostile prejudice
+* Ambivalent sexism
+* Women are wonderful
+* Racism
+* Prejudice
+* Stereotype
+
+== References ==
+
=======================================
--- /dev/null
+++ /trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Bilateral descent Mon Jun 11 05:34:01
2012
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+
+Bilateral descent is a system of family lineage in which the relatives on
the mother's side and father's side are equally important for emotional
ties or for transfer of property or wealth. It is a family arrangement
where descent and inheritance are passed equally through both parents.
Families who use this system trace descent through both parents
simultaneously and recognize multiple ancestors, but unlike with cognatic
descent it is not used to form descent groups.
+
+While bilateral descent is increasingly the norm in Western culture,
traditionally it is only found among relatively few groups in West Africa,
India, Australia, Melanesia and Polynesia. Anthropologists believe that a
tribal structure based on bilateral descent helps members live in extreme
environments because it allows individuals to rely on two sets of families
dispersed over a wide area.
+
+Under bilateral descent, every tribe member belongs to two clans, one
through the father (a patriclan) and another through the mother (a
matriclan). For example, among the Himba, clans are led by the eldest male
in the clan. Sons live with their father's clan and when daughters marry
they go to live with the clan of their husband. However inheritance of
wealth does not follow the patriclan but is determined by the matriclan
i.e. a son does not inherit his father's cattle but his maternal uncle's
instead.
+
+Javanese people, the largest ethnic group in Indonesia, also adopt a
bilateral kinship system .
+
+==References==
+==See also==
+
+* List of sociology topics
+* Sociology
+
+
+
=======================================
--- /dev/null
+++ /trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Black sheep Mon Jun 11 05:34:01 2012
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+
+
+In the English language, black sheep is an idiom used to describe an odd
or disreputable member of a group, especially within a family. The term has
typically been given negative implications, implying waywardness. It
derived from the atypical and unwanted presence of other black individuals
in flocks of white sheep.
+
+In psychology, the "black sheep effect" refers to the tendency of group
members to judge likeable ingroup members more positively and deviant
ingroup member more negatively than comparable outgroup members.
+
+== Idiomatic usage ==
+
+The term originated from the occasional black sheep which are born into a
flock of white sheep due to a genetic process of recessive traits. Black
wool was considered commercially undesirable because it could not be dyed.
In 18th and 19th century England, the black color of the sheep was seen as
the mark of the devil. In modern usage, the expression has lost some of its
negative connotations, though the term is usually given to the member of a
group who has certain characteristics or lack thereof deemed undesirable by
that group.
+
+The idiom is also found in other languages, e.g., French, Serbian,
Bulgarian, Hebrew, Portuguese, Bosnian, Greek, Turkish, Dutch, Afrikaans,
Swedish, Danish, Spanish, Czech, Slovak, Romanian and Polish. The same
concept is illustrated in some other languages by the phrase "white crow":
for example "belaya vorona" (белая ворона) in Russian and "kalag-e sefid"
(کلاغ سفید) in Persian. A variant form of black sheep, "the red sheep of
the family", was used by Jessica Mitford to describe herself, a communist
in a family of aristocratic fascists.
+
+=== Biological origin ===
+
+In sheep, a white fleece is not albinism but a dominant gene that actively
switches color production off, thus obscuring any other color that may be
present. As a result, a black fleece in most sheep is recessive, so if a
white ram and a white ewe are each heterozygous for black, in about 25% of
cases they will produce a black lamb. In fact in most white sheep breeds
only a few white sheep are heterozygous for black, so black lambs are
usually much rarer than this. Some breeds of sheep (such as the Hebridean,
Ouessant, Black Welsh Mountain and Karakul) are normally black.
+
+== Black sheep effect (Psychology) ==
+
+=== Overview ===
+
+In 1988, Marques, Yzerbyt and Leyens conducted an experiment where Belgian
students rated the following groups according to trait-descriptors (e.g.,
sociable, polite, violent, cold): unlikealbe Belgian students, unlikealbe
North African students, likealbe Belgian students, and likealbe North
African students. The results provided support that the favourability is
the highest for likeable ingroup members and the lowest for unlikeable
ingroup members, whereas the favourability of unlikeable and likeable
outgroup members is between the both former ones. These extreme judgements
of likeable and unlikeable (i.e., deviant) ingroup members, relatively to
comparable outgroup members is called “black sheep effect”. This effect has
been shown in various intergroup contexts and under a variety of
conditions, and in many experiments manipulating likeability and norm
deviance (e.g., Branscombe, Wann, Noel, & Coleman, 1993; Coull, Yzerbyt,
Castano, Paladino, & Leemans, 2001; Khan & Lambert, 1998; Pinto, Marques,
Levine, & Abrams, 2010).
+
+=== Explanations ===
+
+A prominent explanation of the black sheep effect derives from the social
identity approach (see social identity theory, Tajfel & Turner, 1979; and
self-categorization theory, Turner, Hogg, Oakes, Reicher, & Wetherell,
1987). Group members are motivated to sustain a positive and distinctice
social identity and, as a consequence, group members emphasize likeable
members and evaluate them more positve than outgroup members, bolstering
the positive image of their ingroup (see ingroup bias). Furthermore, the
positive social identity may be threatened by group members who deviate
from a relevant group norm. To protect the positive group image, ingroup
members derogate ingroup deviants more harshly than deviants of an outgroup
(Marques, Abrams, Páez, & Hogg, 2001).
+In addition, Eidelman and Biernat (2003) have shown that personal
identities are also threatened through deviant ingroup members. They argue
that devaluation of deviant members is an individual response
of "interpersonal" differentiation. Khan and Lambert (1998) suggest that
cognitive processes like assimilation and contrast, which may underline the
effect, should be examined.
+
+=== Limitations ===
+
+Even though there is widely support for the black sheep effect, the
opposite pattern has been found, for example, that White participants judge
unqualified Black targets more negative than comparable White targets
(e.g., Feldman, 1972; Linville & Jones, 1980). Consequentely, there are
several factors which influence the black sheep effect. For instance, the
higher the identification with the ingroup, and the higher the entitativity
of the ingroup, the more the black sheep effect emerges (e.g., Castano,
Paladino, Coull, & Yzerbyt, 2002; Lewis & Sherman, 2010). Even situational
factors explaining the deviance have an influence whether the black sheep
effect occurs (De Cremer & Vanbeselaere, 1999).
+
+== See also ==
+* Black swan theory
+* Glossary of sheep husbandry: see entry for "black wool".
+* Scapegoat
+* The Ugly Duckling
+
+== References ==
+== External links ==
+* Exploration of the etymology of the phrase "black sheep of the family"
+
+
+
+
+
=======================================
--- /dev/null
+++ /trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Blame Mon Jun 11 05:34:01 2012
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+
+Blame is the act of censuring, holding responsible, making negative
statements about an individual or group that their action or actions are
socially or morally irresponsible, the opposite of praise. When someone is
morally responsible for doing something wrong their action is blameworthy.
By contrast, when someone is morally responsible for doing something right,
we may say that his or her action is praiseworthy. There are other senses
of praise and blame that are not ethically relevant. One may praise
someone's good dress sense, and blame the weather for a crop failure.
+
+==Sociology and psychology==
+
+We constantly consciously and unconsciously make judgments about other
people. Our basis for judging others may be partly ingrained, negative and
rigid indicating some degree of grandiosity.
+
+Blaming is also a way of devaluing others. The end result is that the
blamer feels superior. Others are seen as less worthwhile making the
blamer "perfect". Off-loading blame means putting the other person down by
emphasizing his or her flaws.
+
+===Self-blame===
+Victims of manipulation and abuse frequently feel responsible for causing
negative feelings in the manipulator/abuser towards them and the resultant
anxiety in themselves. This self-blame often becomes a major feature of
victim status.
+
+The victim gets trapped into a self-image of victimization. The
psychological profile of victimization includes a pervasive sense of
helplessness, passivity, loss of control, pessimism, negative thinking,
strong feelings of guilt, shame, remorse, self-blame and depression. This
way of thinking can lead to hopelessness and despair.
+
+There are two main types of self-blame:
+* behavioral self-blame – undeserved blame based on actions. Victims who
experience behavioral self-blame feel that they should have done something
differently, and therefore feel at fault.
+* characterological self-blame – undeserved blame based on character.
Victims who experience characterological self-blame feel there is something
inherently wrong with them which has caused them to deserve to be assaulted.
+
+Behavioral self-blame is associated with feelings of guilt within the
victim. While the belief that one had control during the abuse (past
control) is associated with greater psychological distress, the belief that
one has more control during the recovery process (present control) is
associated with less distress, less withdrawal, and more cognitive
reprocessing.
+
+Counseling responses found helpful in reducing self-blame are supportive
responses, psychoeducational responses (learning about rape trauma syndrome
for example) and those responses addressing the issue of blame. A helpful
type of therapy for self-blame is cognitive restructuring or cognitive–
behavioral therapy. Cognitive reprocessing is the process of taking the
facts and forming a logical conclusion from them that is less influenced by
shame or guilt.
+
+===Victim blaming===
+
+Victim blaming is holding the victims of a crime, an accident, or any type
of abusive maltreatment to be entirely or partially responsible for the
unfortunate incident that has occurred in their life.
+
+===Blame shifting===
+
+Blaming others can lead to a "kick-the-dog effect" where individuals in a
hierarchy blame their immediate subordinate, and this propagates down the
hierarchy until the lowest rung (the "dog"). A 2009 experimental study has
shown that blaming can be contagious even for uninvolved onlookers.
+
+===As a propaganda technique===
+Blame is closely associated with labeling theory, in that when intentional
actors act out to continuously blame an individual for nonexistent
psychological traits, and for nonexistent variables, the actors aim to
induce irrational guilt at an unconscious level. It is a propaganda tactic,
to use repetitive blaming behaviors, innuendos, and hyperbole in order to
assign negative status to normative humans. When innocent people are blamed
fraudulently for nonexistent psychological states and nonexistent
behaviors, and there is no qualifying deviance for the blaming behaviors,
the intention is to create a negative valuation of innocent humans to
induce fear, by using fear mongering. Blaming in the form of demonization
has been used by governments for centuries to influence public perceptions
of various other governments, to induce feelings of nationalism in the
public. Blame can be utilized to objectify people, groups, and nations,
which can typically negatively influence the intended subjects of
propaganda, compromising their objectivity. Blame is utilized as a social
control technique.
+
+=== In organizations ===
+
+Some systems theorists and management consultants, such as Gerald
Weinberg, held that the flow of blame in an organization was itself one of
the most important indicators of that organization's robustness and
integrity. Blame flowing upwards in a hierarchy, he argued, proved that
superiors were willing to take responsibility for their orders to their
inferiors, and supplying them with the resources required to do their jobs.
But blame flowing downwards, from management to staff, or laterally between
professionals, were signs of organizational failure. In a blame culture,
problem-solving is replaced by blame-avoidance. Weinberg emphasizes that
blame coming from the top generates “fear, malaise, errors, accidents, and
passive-aggressive responses from the bottom”, with those at the bottom
feeling powerless and in lack of emotional safety.
+
+A "no-blame culture" has been widely considered as a means to increase
safety, in particular in areas where the consideration of possible human
error is important, for instance in hospitals and aviation. Together with
questions of accountability, this has also been subsumed under the concept
of creating a "Just culture".
+
+==See also==
+* Psychological projection
+* Praise
+* Scapegoating
+
+==References==
+==Further reading==
+* Douglas, T. Scapegoats: Transferring Blame (1995)
+* Wilcox, C.W. Scapegoat: Targeted for Blame (2009)
+
+==External links==
+
+* Blaming
+* New World Encyclopaedia – Praise and blame
+* Moral Responsibility (also on praise and blame), in the Stanford
Encyclopedia of Philosophy
+* Praise and Blame, in the Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy
+
+
+
=======================================
***Additional files exist in this changeset.***
Author: banoffi
Date: Mon Jun 11 05:34:01 2012
Log: first commit
http://code.google.com/p/flaxcode/source/detail?r=1332
Added:
/trunk/Clade
/trunk/Clade/LICENSE.txt
/trunk/Clade/README.txt
/trunk/Clade/classify.py
/trunk/Clade/data
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/'I' and the 'me'
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/6-3-5 Brainwriting
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Abnormality (behavior)
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Acculturation
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Achievement ideology
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Action assembly theory
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Actor–observer asymmetry
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Alloplastic adaptation
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Altruism
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Altruism in animals
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Ambiguity tolerance
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Ambivalent prejudice
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Analysis of subjective logics
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Anomie
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Anticipatory socialization
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Anticonformism
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/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Archetype
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Artificial demand
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Asch conformity experiments
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Ascribed status
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Assertiveness
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Assimilation effect
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Attention seeking
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Attribution (psychology)
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Attributional ambiguity
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/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Authoritarian personality
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/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Authority
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Authority (sociology)
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Authority problem
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Autonoetic consciousness
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Autoplastic adaptation
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Availability, salience and vividness
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Basic hostility
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Behavioral economics
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Belief
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Ben Franklin effect
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Benevolent prejudice
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Bilateral descent
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Black sheep
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Blame
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Body language
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/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Boris Parygin
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/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Bullying Awareness Week
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/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Collective consciousness
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Collective trauma
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Coming out
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Common coding theory
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Community cohesion
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Compassion fatigue
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Competitive altruism
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Complexity theory and organizations
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Compliance gaining
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Complimentary language and gender
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Computer simulation and organizational
studies
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/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Construal level theory
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/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Continuous partial attention
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/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Drive theory
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/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Empathy in media research
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Empathy-altruism
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Enterprise social networking
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/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Epistemological psychology
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/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/European Association of Social Psychology
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Evasion (ethics)
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Exaggeration
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Expectation states theory
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Externalization
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Eyewitness testimony
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Face (sociological concept)
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Fairness dilemmas
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/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Familiar stranger
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Family nexus
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/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Fear appeals
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/First they came…
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Forced Compliance Theory
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Four-sides model
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Frame analysis
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Free agent (business)
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Frustration–aggression hypothesis
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/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Gender role
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Generation Flux
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Glenn Harrold
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Greater Good Science Center
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Gregory M. Herek
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Group affective tone
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Group cohesiveness
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Group emotion
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Guanxi
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Guilt
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Guilt society
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Halo effect
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Handicapism
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Health belief model
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Helping behavior
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Henri Tajfel
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Hidden profiles
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Hofling hospital experiment
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Hoplology
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Human ecology
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Human ethology
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Human multitasking
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Hypercompetition
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Hypergamy
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Hysterical contagion
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Idee fixe (psychology)
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Identifiable victim effect
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Identity Formation, Agency, and Culture
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Identity formation
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Idée fixe (psychology)
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Idiosyncrasy credit
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Ilan Meyer
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Illusory superiority
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Impassibility
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Implicit Association Test
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Implicit personality theory
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Impression formation
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Impression management
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Indigenous psychology
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Indoctrination
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Industrial & Organizational Assessment
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Information integration theory
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Infrahumanisation
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Inoculation theory
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Insight
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Insufficient justification
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Interdependence Theory
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Interpersonal perception
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Introspection illusion
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Involuntary celibacy
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Jane Elliott
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Journal of Experimental Social Psychology
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Journal of Personality and Social Psychology
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Juvenile delinquency
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Keiko Holmes
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Kinesics
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Leadership
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Lewin's equation
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Liberation psychology
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Lie
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Limbic regulation
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Limbic resonance
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Limbic revision
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Linda Skitka
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Linderman effect
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Linguistic marketplace
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/List of philosophy categories
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/List of social psychologists
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/List of social psychology theories
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Locus of control
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Machiavellian intelligence
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Machiavellianism
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Maintenance actions
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Marginalization
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Mark Zanna
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Media panic
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Media systems dependency theory
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Megalomania
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Memory conformity
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Memory confusion protocol
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Michael Lamb (psychologist)
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Milgram experiment
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Mind-blindness
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Minimisation (psychology)
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Minority influence
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Misanthropy
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Misplaced loyalty
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Missionary Kids
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Mistrust
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Mnemic neglect
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Moral credential
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Moral disengagement
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Moral panic
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Moral psychology
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Mortality salience
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Motivated tactician
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Motor cognition
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Mutual engagement
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Nagging
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Narcissistic leadership
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/National psychology
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Natural authority
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Need for affiliation
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Negative capability
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Negative-state relief model
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Neuroculture
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Neuroeconomics
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/No soap radio
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Nominal identity
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Norm of reciprocity
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Normative social influence
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Normlessness
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Nuclear family
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Obedience (human behavior)
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Objectification
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Omnipotence
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Omnipresence
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Omniscience
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Online participation
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Organizational conflict
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Ostracism
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Outcast (person)
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Overton window
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Owatonna Art Education Project
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Paranoid social cognition
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Parasocial interaction
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Peer victimization
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Perception management
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Personal boundaries
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Personal distress
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Personal space
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Persuasion
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Physical attractiveness
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Physical attractiveness stereotype
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Pickup artist
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Pigeonholing
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Pluralistic ignorance
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Point of no return
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Political myth
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Portrayal of black people in comics
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Post-Individualism
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Pragmatics
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Praise
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Pratfall effect
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Preparedness (learning)
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Primetime: What Would You Do
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Production blocking
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Propaganda: The Formation of Men's Attitudes
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Prosocial behavior
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Prosperity consciousness
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Proteans (body language)
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Proxemics
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Psychoanalytic sociology
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Psychographic
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Psychological manipulation
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Psychosocial
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Public display of affection
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Rabin fairness
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Race, Evolution, and Behavior
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Radical compassion
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Rapport congruency
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Rational choice institutionalism
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Rationalization (making excuses)
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Reactance (psychology)
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Realistic conflict theory
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Reciprocity (social psychology)
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Reflected appraisal
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Religious identity
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Religious paranoia
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Reproductive value (social psychology)
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Resocialization
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Resource acquisition ability
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Right-wing authoritarianism
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Ringelmann effect
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Robert Josephs
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Role engulfment
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Role set
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Role theory
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Rotten kid theorem
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Sack tapping
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Safety in numbers
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Scapegoating
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Scarcity (social psychology)
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/School bullying
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Seduction community
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Self control
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Self-categorization theory
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Self-disclosure
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Self-evaluation maintenance theory
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Self-perception theory
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Self-serving bias
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Self-stereotyping
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Self-verification theory
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Semi-structured interview
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Semmelweis reflex
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Sense of community
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Seriality
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Sexualization
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Shame
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Shame society
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Shyness
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Significant other
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Sleeper effect
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Social Psychology Network
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Social balance theory
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Social behavior
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Social character
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Social cognition
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Social cognitive theory of morality
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Social cohesion
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Social connectedness
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Social cue
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Social defeat
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Social deprivation
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Social desirability bias
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Social dilemma
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Social disintegration
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Social effects of pornography
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Social facilitation
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Social group
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Social identity approach
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Social identity complexity
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Social identity model of deindividuation
effects
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Social identity theory
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Social impact theory
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Social inertia
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Social influence
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Social intelligence
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Social isolation
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Social judgment theory
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Social loafing
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Social network analysis
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Social neuroscience
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Social perception
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Social preferences
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Social proof
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Social psychology
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Social psychology (sociology)
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Social rejection
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Social representation
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Social salience
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Social support
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Social trap
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Social tuning
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Social undermining
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Social value orientations
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Socialization
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Societal psychology
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Society for Social Neuroscience
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Society of Experimental Social Psychology
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Socio-Analysis
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Socioemotional selectivity theory
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Sociolinguistics
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Sociology of the Internet
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Sociomapping
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Sociometer
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Sociometry
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Sociosexual Orientation Inventory
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Sociosexual orientation
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Sofalising
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Spatial empathy
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Spiral of silence
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Stanford duck syndrome
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Stanford prison experiment
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Stereotype
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Stockholm syndrome
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Structural ritualization theory
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Subpersonality
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Suggestion
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Superficial charm
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Suppression of dissent
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Sycophancy
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Symbolic behavior
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Sympathy
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/T-groups
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Teaching-family model
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Temptation
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Terror management theory
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/The Authoritarian Personality
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/The Experiment (2010 film)
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/The Imagined Contact Hypothesis
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/The Third Wave
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Third culture kid
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Thought suppression
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Time perception
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Toilet paper orientation
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Total institution
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Trait ascription bias
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Triangulation (psychology)
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Tribalism
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Trust (social sciences)
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Trust management (managerial science)
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Two-factor theory of emotion
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Ultimate attribution error
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Unmatched count
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Unrooted Childhoods
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/VALS
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Vested interest
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Victim blaming
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Victim playing
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Victimisation
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Victimology
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Vignette (psychology)
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Village idiot
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Weapons effect
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/When Prophecy Fails
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Workplace bullying
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Xenocentrism
/trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Yale Attitude Change Approach
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--- /dev/null
+++ /trunk/Clade/LICENSE.txt Mon Jun 11 05:34:01 2012
@@ -0,0 +1,13 @@
+Copyright 2012 Lemur Consulting Limited
+
+Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the "License");
+you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.
+You may obtain a copy of the License at
+
+ http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0
+
+Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software
+distributed under the License is distributed on an "AS IS" BASIS,
+WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied.
+See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
+limitations under the License.
=======================================
--- /dev/null
+++ /trunk/Clade/README.txt Mon Jun 11 05:34:01 2012
@@ -0,0 +1,183 @@
+==============
+Flax Clade PoC
+==============
+
+Flax Clade PoC is a proof-of-concept open source taxonomy management and
+document classification system, based on Apache Solr. In its current state
it
+should be considered pre-alpha. As open-source software you are welcome to
try,
+use, copy and modify Clade as you like. We would love to hear any
constructive
+suggestions you might have.
+
+- Tom Mortimer <t...@flax.co.uk>
+
+
+--------------------------------------
+Taxonomies and document classification
+--------------------------------------
+
+Clade taxonomies have a tree structure, with a single top-level category
(e.g.
+in the example data, "Social Psychology"). There is no distinction between
+parent and child nodes (except that the former has children) and the
hierachical
+structure of the taxonomy is completely orthogonal from the node data. The
+structure may be freely edited.
+
+Each node represents a category, which is represented by a set
of "keywords"
+(words or phrases) which should be present in a document belonging to that
+category. Not all the keywords have to be present - they are joined with
+Boolean OR rather than AND. A document may belong to multiple categories,
+which are ranked according to standard Solr (TF-IDF) scoring. It is
+also possible to exclude certain keywords from categories.
+
+Clade will also suggest keywords to add to a category, based on the
content of
+the documents already in the category. This feature is currently slow as it
+uses the standard Solr MoreLikeThis component to analyse a large number of
+documents. We plan to improve this for a future release by writing a custom
+Solr plugin.
+
+Documents are stored in a standard Solr index and are categorised
dynamically
+as taxonomy nodes are selected. As this is just a proof of concept, there
is
+currently no way of writing the categorisation results to the documents, or
+anywhere else.
+
+
+--------------------------
+Installation prerequisites
+--------------------------
+
+- Java 6 or 7
+
+- Python 2.6 or 2.7
+
+- Solr 3.6
+ http://www.apache.org/dyn/closer.cgi/lucene/solr/3.6.0
+ Other versions may also work, but we have not tested them with Clade.
+
+- Python modules
+ lxml: http://pypi.python.org/pypi/lxml/
+ httplib2: http://code.google.com/p/httplib2/downloads/list
+
+Download the latest versions from these sites and follow the installation
+instructions. The system has been developed on Linux and the following
instructions
+assume a Linux environment, but it would be relatively simple to translate
them
+to Windows command line syntax if necessary.
+
+
+------------
+Example data
+------------
+
+The Clade distribution includes an example taxonomy and documents derived
+from Wikipedia and on the topic of Social Psychology. The taxonomy is
+provided as a CSV file to illustrate how to import existing taxonomies.
+
+To import the taxonomy, run on the command line:
+
+ $ python classify.py import data/socpsy.csv
+
+This will create a Python data structure, and pickle it as data/tax.
+
+To import the documents, first copy the Clade Solr configuration files
into your
+Solr home, e.g.:
+
+ $ cp -f clade/solr-conf/* apache-solr-3.6.0/example/solr/conf
+
+Then [re]start Solr, e.g.:
+
+ $ cd apache-solr-3.6.0/example
+ $ java -jar start.jar &
+
+Now start the Stanford Named Entity Recognition server, which is used to
pull
+names, places etc. out of the source data:
+
+ $ cd stanford-ner-2011-09-14
+ $ ./server.sh &
+
+Finally, add the example documents (which are provided as plaintext files):
+
+ $ python classify.py textdir data/socpsy-pages
+
+This will output the name of each file as it is processed, and will take a
+few minutes to complete.
+
+
+--------------
+Running the UI
+--------------
+
+The Clade UI is implemented as a web application. To start it, run:
+
+ $ python server.py
+
+Then point a browser at
+
+ http://localhost:8080/
+
+
+-----------
+UI Controls
+-----------
+
+The Clade UI has two modes: Taxonomy and Document. It starts up in the
former.
+
+Taxonomy mode
+-------------
+
+The page is divided into two halves: the taxonomy tree on the left, and
+information about the current selected category on the right. Clade can
support
+multiple taxonomies, which can be selected from the drop-down in the upper
left.
+Selecting a taxonomy will load it into the tree view, where nodes can be
+expanded or collapsed, selected and manipulated.
+
+The taxonomy tree display has three small icons in the upper right. The +
+icon causes a new category to be added as a child of the currently selected
+node. The "pen" icon allows the current node name to be edited, and the X
+icon deletes the current node (with no warning!)
+
+Nodes and sub-trees may be dragged and dropped onto other nodes, allowing
the
+taxonomy structure to be rapidly edited.
+
+On the right: the currently selected category name is listed, along with
the
+number of documents which fit the category. Under this is two keyword
lists.
+
+The list on the left contains the keywords which are active for this
category.
+This list has icons to (from left to right):
+
+ - add a new keyword
+ - edit the selected keyword
+ - toggle the sense of the selected keyword from positive to negative
+ - delete the selected keyword
+
+Negative (NOT) keywords are displayed with a strikethrough. On the right,
there
+is a list of automatically-generated suggested keywords for this category.
To
+add one to the active keywords, select it and click the "left arrow" icon.
+
+Below the two keyword lists is a list of the documents which match the
current
+category, showing the document ID, the title, the current rank and the
previous
+rank (before changing the active keywords). To view a document, click the
title,
+which will switch the UI into document mode.
+
+To add a new taxonomy, make sure the taxonomy drop-down has no taxonomy
+selected, then click the Create button. Enter a name for the new taxonomy
+and click OK. You can then create the taxonomy by adding nodes to the root
+node. All changes will be immediately saved to the data/tax file.
+
+To rename the current taxonomy, click the Rename button, edit the name in
+the dialog box, and click OK.
+
+To delete the current taxonomy, click the Delete button and then OK in the
+confirm dialog.
+
+
+Document mode
+-------------
+
+Again, in document mode the page has a left section and a right section.
On the
+left is a list of taxonomy categories which match the document, ranked in
+decreasing score order. The document ID and full text are displayed on the
+right, together with a list of keywords from the selected category. The
document
+text is highlighted for matching keywords.
+
+To go back to the taxonomy display, click the Back button in the upper
right.
+Don't use your browser back button - it won't work, as the UI is
implemented
+in Javascript/AJAX.
+
=======================================
--- /dev/null
+++ /trunk/Clade/classify.py Mon Jun 11 05:34:01 2012
@@ -0,0 +1,207 @@
+#!/usr/bin/env python
+#-*- coding: utf-8 -*-
+
+"""
+Copyright 2012 Lemur Consulting Limited
+
+Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the "License");
+you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.
+You may obtain a copy of the License at
+
+ http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0
+
+Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software
+distributed under the License is distributed on an "AS IS" BASIS,
+WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied.
+See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
+limitations under the License.
+"""
+
+import os
+import re
+import cPickle
+import csv
+import time
+
+from lib import docx
+from lib import xmldoc
+from lib import taxonomy
+from lib import ner
+from lib import csv_unicode
+from lib import sunburnt
+import httplib2
+
+import settings
+
+csv.field_size_limit(1000000000)
+
+WORD_RE = re.compile(r'[\w\-\']+')
+RE_WORD_DELIM = re.compile(r'[\w\-\']+|[\.\,\:\;\!\?\"\(\)\[\]]')
+DELIMS = '.,:;!?"()[]'
+LINKWORDS = set(('and', 'of', 'the'))
+
+
+def process_dir(solr, dir):
+ """ Process the .docx files in dir, using the supplied taxonomies to
+ classify them, and storing the results in the xapian index.
+
+ """
+ def f(arg, dirname, names):
+ for name in names:
+ if name.lower().endswith('.docx'):
+ process_file(solr, os.path.join(dirname, name))
+
+ os.path.walk(dir, f, None)
+ solr.commit()
+
+def process_dir_xml(solr, dir):
+ """ Process the .xml files in dir, using the supplied taxonomies to
+ classify them, and storing the results in the xapian index.
+
+ """
+ def f(arg, dirname, names):
+ for name in names:
+ if name.lower().endswith('.xml'):
+ process_xml_file(solr, os.path.join(dirname, name))
+
+ os.path.walk(dir, f, None)
+ solr.commit()
+
+def process_dir_text(solr, dir):
+ """ Process the text files in dir, etc.
+ """
+ docidbase = int(time.time()) - 1262304000
+ for count, name in enumerate(os.listdir(dir)):
+ if name[0] != '.':
+ with open(os.path.join(dir, name)) as f:
+ text = f.read()
+ name = name.decode('utf8', 'ignore')
+ docid = '%s.%s' % (docidbase, count)
+ update_solr(solr, docid, name, text.decode('utf8'))
+
+ solr.commit()
+
+def process_file(solr, file):
+ _, _, text, title = docx.parse_docx(file)
+ filename = os.path.basename(file)
+ update_solr(solr, filename, title or filename, text)
+ solr.commit()
+
+def process_xml_file(solr, file):
+ _, _, text, title = xmldoc.parse_xml(file)
+ filename = os.path.basename(file)
+ update_solr(solr, filename, title or filename, text)
+ solr.commit()
+
+def process_csv(solr, path):
+ with open(path) as f:
+ for line in csv_unicode.UnicodeReader(f):
+ text = "%s\n\n%s" % (line[0], line[1])
+ update_solr(solr, line[2], line[6] or 'no title', text)
+ solr.commit()
+
+def update_solr(solr, unique_term, title, text):
+ print 'updating', unique_term, title
+ doc = { 'title': title, 'text': text, 'doc_id': unique_term }
+ doc['entity'] = tuple(set(x for x in iter_entity_terms(text)))
+ solr.add(doc)
+
+def iter_entity_terms(text):
+ for term in ner.get_entities(settings.ner_host, settings.ner_port,
text):
+ if len(term) < 50:
+ yield unicode(term, "utf-8")
+
+def iter_text_terms(text):
+ phrase = []
+ not1st = False
+
+ for word in RE_WORD_DELIM.findall(text):
+ if word in DELIMS:
+ if (len(phrase) > 1 and len(phrase) < 6 and
+ phrase[0] not in LINKWORDS and
+ phrase[-1] not in LINKWORDS):
+ yield ' '.join(phrase)
+ phrase = []
+ else:
+ if word[0].isalnum():
+ w = word.lower()
+ if w not in settings.stopwords:
+ yield w
+
+ if not1st:
+ if word[0].isupper():
+ phrase.append(word.lower())
+ elif phrase and word.lower() in LINKWORDS:
+ phrase.append(word.lower())
+ else:
+ if (len(phrase) > 1 and len(phrase) < 6 and
+ phrase[0] not in LINKWORDS and
+ phrase[-1] not in LINKWORDS):
+ yield ' '.join(phrase)
+ phrase = []
+
+ not1st = (word not in '.?!')
+
+def get_doctext(solr, did):
+ """ Return the text for a document ID.
+
+ """
+ return solr.query(doc_id=did).execute()[0]["text"]
+
+
+if __name__ == '__main__':
+ import sys
+ import cPickle
+
+ # FIXME - help message
+
+ if sys.argv[1] == 'import':
+ with open(settings.taxonomy_path, 'w') as f:
+ taxes = [taxonomy.parse_csv_file(x) for x in sys.argv[2:]]
+ cPickle.dump(taxes, f)
+ print 'imported', len(taxes), 'taxonomies'
+ else:
+ with open(settings.taxonomy_path) as f:
+ taxes = cPickle.load(f)
+
+ h = httplib2.Http(cache=settings.http_cache)
+ _solr = sunburnt.SolrInterface(settings.solr_url,
http_connection=h)
+
+ if sys.argv[1] == 'export':
+ with open(sys.argv[2], 'w') as f:
+ taxonomy.write_xml_file(f, taxes)
+
+ elif sys.argv[1] == 'lscat':
+ tax = taxonomy.term_for_path(taxes, sys.argv[2])
+ if tax:
+ print 'tax:', tax
+ for doc in taxonomy.get_docs_for_category(_solr, tax):
+ print doc
+ else:
+ print 'no matching taxonomy'
+
+ elif sys.argv[1] == 'classify':
+ with open(sys.argv[2], 'w') as f:
+ taxonomy.write_classification(_solr, f, taxes)
+
+ elif sys.argv[1] == 'doctext':
+ print get_doctext(_solr, int(sys.argv[2]))
+
+ elif sys.argv[1] == 'suggest':
+ for term in taxonomy.suggest_keywords(_solr, sys.argv[2:], [],
7):
+ print term
+
+ elif sys.argv[1] == 'docdir':
+ process_dir(_solr, sys.argv[2])
+
+ elif sys.argv[1] == 'xmldocdir':
+ process_dir_xml(_solr, sys.argv[2])
+
+ elif sys.argv[1] == 'docfile':
+ process_file(_solr, sys.argv[2])
+
+ elif sys.argv[1] == 'csvfile':
+ process_csv(_solr, sys.argv[2])
+
+ elif sys.argv[1] == 'textdir':
+ process_dir_text(_solr, sys.argv[2])
=======================================
--- /dev/null
+++ /trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/'I' and the 'me' Mon Jun 11 05:34:01 2012
@@ -0,0 +1,34 @@
+The 'I' and the 'me' are terms central to the social philosophy of George
Herbert Mead, one of the key influences on the development of the branch of
sociology called symbolic-interactionism. The terms refer to the psychology
of the individual, where in Mead's understanding, the "me" is the
socialized aspect of the person, the "I"is the active aspect of the person.
+
+One might usefully 'compare Mead's "I" and "me", respectively, with
Sartre's "choice" and "the situation". But Mead himself matched up the "me"
with Freud's "censor", and the "I" with his "ego"; and this is
psychologically apt'.
+
+==Characteristics==
+
+The "Me" is what is learned in interaction with others and (more
generally) with the environment: other people's attitudes, once
internalized in the self, constitute the "Me". This includes both knowledge
about that environment (including society), but "also" about who the person
is: their "sense of self". "What the individual is for himself is not
something that he invented. It is what his significant others have come
to ...treat him as being." This is because people learns to see who they
are (man or woman, old or young, etc.) by observing the responses of others
themselves or their actions. If others respond to a person as (for
instance) a woman, the person develops a sense of herself indeed as a woman.
+
+At the same time, 'the "Me" disciplines the "I" by holding it back from
breaking the law of the community'. It is thus very close to the way in a
man Freud's 'ego-censor, the conscience...arose from the critical influence
of his parents (conveyed to him by the medium of the voice), to whom were
added, as time went on, those who trained and taught him and the
innumerable and indefinable host of all the other people in his environment
- his fellow-men - and public opinion'. It is 'the attitude of the other in
one's own organism, as controlling the thing that he is going to do'.
+
+By contrast, 'the "I" is the response of the individual to the attitude of
the community'. The "I" acts creatively, though within the context of
the "me". Mead notes that "It is only after we have acted that we know what
we have done...what we have said." People, he argues, are not automations.
They do not blindly follow rules. They "construct" a response on the basis
of what they have learned, the "me". Mead highlighted accordingly those
values that attach particularly to the "I" rather than to
the "me", "...which cannot be calculated and which involve a reconstruction
of the society, and so of the 'me' which belongs to that society." Taken
together, the "I" and the "me" form the person or the self in Mead's social
philosophy.
+
+==Fusion==
+
+Mead explored what he called 'the fusion of the "I" and the "me" in the
attitudes of religion, patriotism, and team work', noting what he called
the "peculiar sense of exaltation" that belongs to them. He also considered
that 'the idea of the fusion of the "I" and the "me" gives a very adequate
explanation of this exaltation...in the aesthetic experience'.
+
+In everyday life, however, 'a complete fusion of the "I" and the "me" may
not be a good thing...it is a dynamic sort of balance between the "I" and
the "me" that is required'.
+
+==Conventionality==
+
+When there is a predominance of the "me" in the personality, 'we speak of
a person as a conventional individual; his ideas are exactly the same as
those of his neighbours; he is hardly more than a "me" under the
circumstances' - "...the shallow, brittle, conformist kind of
personality..." that is ""all persona", with its excessive concern
for "what people think"." The alternative—and in many ways Mead's ideal—was
the person who has a definite personality, who replies to the organized
attitude in a way that makes a significant difference. With such a person,
the "I" is the most important phase of the experience.
+
+==Dissociation==
+
+Mead recognised that it is normal for an individual to have 'all sorts of
selves answering to all sorts of different social reactions', but also that
it was possible for 'a tendency to break up the personality' to
appear: 'Two separate "me's" and "I's", two different selves, result...the
phenomenon of dissociation of personality'.
+
+==Literary examples==
+
+Walt Whitman 'marks off the impulsive "I", the natural, existential aspect
of the self, from critical sanction. It is the cultured self, the "me", in
Mead's terms, that needs re-mediation'.
+
+== See also ==
+== References ==
+
+
=======================================
--- /dev/null
+++ /trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/6-3-5 Brainwriting Mon Jun 11 05:34:01
2012
@@ -0,0 +1,10 @@
+6-3-5 Brainwriting (also known as the 6-3-5 Method, or Method 635) is a
group creativity technique used in marketing, advertising, design, writing
and product development originally developed by Professor Bernd Rohrbach in
1968.
+
+Based on the concept of Brainstorming, the aim of 6-3-5 Brainwriting is to
generate 108 new ideas in half an hour. In a similar way to brainstorming,
it is not the quality of ideas that matters but the quantity.
+
+The technique involves 6 participants who sit in a group and are
supervised by a moderator. Each participant thinks up 3 ideas every 5
minutes. Participants are encouraged to draw on others' ideas for
inspiration, thus stimulating the creative process. After 6 rounds in 30
minutes the group has thought up a total of 108 ideas.
+
+==References==
+This method is also known collective notebook method,
+
+
=======================================
--- /dev/null
+++ /trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Abnormality (behavior) Mon Jun 11
05:34:01 2012
@@ -0,0 +1,40 @@
+
+
+Abnormality, in the vivid sense of something deviating from the normal or
differing from the typical (such as an aberration), is a subjectively
defined behavioral characteristic, assigned to those with rare or
dysfunctional conditions. Defining who is normal or abnormal is a
contentious issue in abnormal psychology.
+
+==Several conventional criteria==
+*One criterion for "abnormality" that may appear to apply in the case of
abnormal behavior is statistical infrequency. This has an obvious flaw —
the extremely intelligent, are just as abnormal as their opposites.
Therefore, individual abnormal behaviors are considered to be statistically
unusual as well as undesirable. The presence of some form of abnormal
behavior is not unusual. About one quarter of people in the United States,
for example, are believed to meet criteria for a mental disorder in any
given year 1. Mental disorders, by definition, involve unusual or
statistically abnormal behaviors.
+*A more discerning criterion is distress. A person who is displaying a
great deal of depression, anxiety, unhappiness, etc. would be thought of as
exhibiting abnormal behavior because their own behavior distresses them.
Unfortunately, many people are not aware of their own mental state, and
while they may benefit from help, they feel no compulsion to receive it.
+*Another criterion is morality. This presents many difficulties, because
it would be impossible to agree on a single set of morals for the purposes
of diagnosis.
+*One criterion commonly referenced is maladaptivity. If a person is
behaving in ways counter-productive to their own well-being, it is
considered maladaptive. Although more tenable than the above criteria, it
does have some shortcomings. For example, moral behavior including dissent
and abstinence may be considered maladaptive to some.
+*Another criterion that has been suggested is that abnormal behavior
violates the standards of society. When people do not follow the
conventional social and moral rules of their society, the behavior is
considered abnormal. However, the magnitude of the violation and how
commonly it is violated by others must be taken into consideration.
+*Another element of abnormality is that abnormal behavior will cause
social discomfort to those who witness such behavior.
+*The standard criteria in psychology and psychiatry is that of mental
illness or mental disorder. Determination of abnormality is based upon
medical diagnosis. This is often criticized for removing control from
the 'patient', and being easily manipulated by political or social goals.
+
+*Statistical Infrequency: In this definition of abnormality behaviors
which are seen as statistically rare are said to be abnormal. For instance,
one may say that an individual of above or below average IQ is abnormal.
This definition, however, fails to recognize the desirability of the
particular incidence. This definition also implies that the presence of
abnormal behavior in people should be rare or statistically unusual, which
is not the case. Instead, any specific abnormal behavior may be unusual,
but it is not unusual for people to exhibit some form of prolonged abnormal
behavior at some point in their lives 1.
+
+*Deviation from Social Norms defines the departure or deviation of an
individual, from society's unwritten rules (norms). For example if one was
to witness a man jumping around, nude, on the streets, the man would be
perceived as abnormal, as he has broken society's norms about wearing
clothing, not to mention one's self dignity. There are also a number of
criteria for one to examine before reaching a judgment as to whether
someone has deviated from society's norms. The first of these criterion
being "culture"; what may be seen as normal in one culture, may be seen as
abnormal in another. The second criterion being the "situation & context"
one is placed in; for example, going to the toilet is a normal human act,
but going in the middle of a supermarket would be seen as highly abnormal,
i.e., defecating or urinating in public is illegal as a misdemeanor act of
indecent public conduct. The third criterion is "age"; a child at the age
of three could get away with taking off its clothing in public, but not a
man at the age of twenty. The fourth criterion is gender: a male responding
with behavior normally reacted to as female, and vice versa, is retaliated
against, not just corrected. The fifth criterion is historical context;
standards of normal behavior change in some societies, sometimes very
rapidly.
+
+*FF: The Failure to Function Adequately definition of abnormality defines
whether or not a behavior is abnormal if it is counter-productive to the
individual. The main problem with this definition however is that
psychologists cannot agree on the boundaries that define what
is 'functioning' and what is 'adequately', as some behaviors that can
cause 'failure to function' are not seen as bad i.e. firemen risking their
lives to save people in a blazing fire.
+
+*DIM: Deviation from Ideal Mental health defines abnormality by
determining if the behavior the individual is displaying is affecting their
mental well-being. As with the Failure to Function definition, the
boundaries that stipulate what 'ideal mental health' is are not properly
defined, and the bigger problem with the definition is that all individuals
will at some point in their life deviate from ideal mental health, but it
does not mean they are abnormal; i.e., someone who has lost a relative will
be distressed, but would not be defined as abnormal for showing that
particular behaviour. On the contrary, there are some indications that some
people require assistance to grieve properly 2
+
+A common approach to defining abnormality is a Multi-Criteria approach,
where all definitions of abnormality are used to determine whether an
individuals behavior is abnormal. For example, if an individual is engaging
in a particular behavior that is preventing them from 'functioning', breaks
a social norm and is statistically infrequent, then psychologists would be
prepared to define this individual's behavior as abnormal. A good example
of an abnormal behavior assessed by a multi-criteria approach is
depression: it is commonly seen as a deviation from ideal mental stability,
it often stops the individual from 'functioning' a normal life, and,
although it is a relatively common mental disorder, it is still
statistically infrequent; most people will not experience significant major
depressive disorder in their lifetime 3.
+
+==References==
+
+1NIMH factsheet on frequency of mental disorders.
+2Article on complicated grief.
+3Article on results of the National Comorbidity Study
+
+==See also==
+*Deviance
+*Eccentricity (behavior)
+*Norm (sociology)
+*Normalization (sociology)
+*Psychopathy
+*Social alienation
+
+
+
+
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+Acculturation explains the process of cultural and psychological change
that results following meeting between cultures. The effects of
acculturation can be seen at multiple levels in both interacting cultures.
At the group level, acculturation often results in changes to culture,
customs, and social institutions. Noticeable group level effects of
acculturation often include changes in food, clothing, and language. At the
individual level, differences in the way individuals acculturate have been
shown to be associated not just with changes in daily behavior, but with
numerous measures of psychological and physical well-being. As
enculturation is used to describe the process of first-culture learning,
acculturation can be thought of as second-culture learning.
+
+The concept of acculturation has been studied scientifically since 1918.
As it has been approached at different times from the fields of psychology,
anthropology, and sociology, numerous theories and definitions have emerged
to describe elements of the acculturative process. Despite definitions and
evidence that acculturation entails a two-way process of change, research
and theory have primarily focused on the adjustments and adaptations made
by minorities such as immigrants, refugees, and indigenous peoples in
response to their contact with the dominant majority. Contemporary research
has primarily focused on different strategies of acculturation and how
variations in acculturation affect how well individuals adapt to their
society.
+
+==Historical approaches==
+The earliest recorded thoughts towards acculturation can be found in
Sumerian inscriptions from 2370 B.C. These inscriptions laid out rules for
commerce and interaction with foreigners designed to limit acculturation
and protect traditional cultural practices. Plato also said that
acculturation should be avoided as he thought it would lead to social
disorder. Accordingly, he proposed that no one should travel abroad until
they are at least 40 years of age, and that travellers should be restricted
to the ports of cities to minimize contact with native citizens.
Nevertheless, the history of Western civilization, and in particular the
histories of Europe and the United States, are largely defined by patterns
of acculturation.
+
+J.W. Powell is credited with coining the word "acculturation" in 1880,
defining it as "the psychological changes induced by cross-cultural
imitation." The first psychological theory of acculturation was proposed in
W.I. Thomas and Florian Znaniecki's 1918 study, "The Polish Peasant in
Europe and America." From studying Polish immigrants in Chicago, they
illustrated three forms of acculturation corresponding to three personality
types: Bohemian (adopting the host culture and abandoning their culture of
origin), Philistine (failing to adopt the host culture but preserving their
culture of origin), and Creative-Type (able to adapt to the host culture
while preserving their culture of origin). In 1936, Redfield, Linton, &
Herskovits provided the first widely used definition of acculturation
as "those phenomena which result when groups of individuals having
different cultures come into continuous first-hand contact, with subsequent
changes in the original cultural patterns of either or both groups…under
this definition acculturation is to be distinguished from…assimilation,
which is at times a phase of acculturation Since then scholars in different
disciplines have developed more than 100 different theories of
acculturation.
+
+==Conceptual Models of Acculturation==
+Although numerous models of acculturation exist, the most complete models
take into consideration the changes occurring at the group and individual
levels of both interacting groups. To understand acculturation at the group
level, one must first look at the nature of both cultures before coming
into contact with one another. A useful approach is Eric Kramer's (1988
1992, 1997a, 2003, 2011, 2012) theory of Dimensional Accrual and
Dissociation.
+
+Kramer's theory of Dimensional Accrual and Dissociation (DAD) utilizes
concepts from several scholars, most notably Jean Gebser and Lewis Mumford,
to synthesize an explanation of widely observed cultural expressions and
differences along a Neo-Kantian manifold of spatial and temporal variance
similar to the work of Edmund Husserl, Maurice Merleau-Ponty, J. T. Faser,
Sigfried Giedion, James Gibson, Maurice Grosser, Edmund Carpenter, Edward
T. Hall, Walter Ong, James Carey, Robert Levine, and others but with many
updates and additions. Most importantly, Kramer's DAD theory emphasizes how
various cultures communicate in generalized terms from idolic to symbolic
to signalic communication styles that helps explain intercultural
differences that influence intercultural and inter-ethnic relations as well
as acculturation processes. The DAD theory stresses however that
dimensional accrual is simply an additive process of dimensions. It does
not presuppose a linear metaphysic nor the ethnocentric concept
of "progress" which is presumed in some theories of acculturation claiming
for example, that intercultural adaptation moves in an "upward-forward"
manner toward the singular and final goal of total assimilation (Gudykunst
and Kim, 2003, pp. 381–382) Gudykunst and Kim (2003) define intercultural
adaptation as an "upward-forward" progress of "acculturation that brings
about change in strangers in the direction of assimilation, the highest
degree of adaptation theoretically conceivable. It is the process by which
strangers resocialized into a new culture so as to attain an increasing
functional fitness... complete adaptation is a lifetime goal." (Gudykunst
and Kim, 2003, p. 360).
+
+Because no utopian goal or final solution to intercultural
misunderstanding or "miscommunication" (as Gudykunst and Kim, 2003, put it
p. 361) is postulated by the DAD theory such as an "upward-forward
progress" in human development toward total assimilation, the DAD theory
cannot be used to measure movement toward final desired and postulated
outcomes based on value judgments. Dimensional Accrual and Dissociation
does not posit and advance a particular type of ideal person or society.
Rather, it is a social scientific theory, not a proposed method of social
engineering. Gudykunst and Kim (2003) make it a point to postulate a
utopian or ideal type person they confusingly call an "intercultural
person" or a "universal person" with "transcultural identity" (pp. 383–
384). They argue that this new ideal type of person and society can and
should be engineered by all means available including using the mass media
and primary schools to manufacture them "by design" (pp. 389, 395). Though
they never cite them, Gudykunst and Kim's intercultural adaptation theory
is not dissimilar to the Victorian Era ideology promoted in England for the
betterment of that empire at home and abroad by Herbert Spencer, Francis
Galton, and Karl Pearson. Interestingly, Pearson saw fit to change the
spelling of his own name from Carl to Karl later in life. In fact Spencer's
use of the concepts adaptation, evolution, and progress are very similar to
how they are used by Gudykunst and Kim (2003) in their theory of
Intercultural Adaptation and their ideal-type person the "Intercultural
person" who presumably, if such a person existed, would live in a world
beyond the "emotional defilements" (p. 385) and distinctions of culture;
entirely "above the hidden forces of culture" (385).
+
+Since natural selection is too slow, Gudykunst and Kim (2003) argue
forcefully that creating conditions on a mass scale to inculcate this new,
more developed and better kind of person is not only moral but will be
a "special privilege" (p. 389) for those so "trained" (p. 359). If primary
enculturation as a child is missed then they argue that the same social
institutions should be used for the "resocialization and acculturation"
(p. 359) of unfit persons by means of the disintegration and reintegration
of their psyches in line with the "conformity pressure" of the dominant
mainstream culture. In this way they may achieve a higher level
of "evolution" (p 384), "competence" (p. 364), "operational ability"
(p. 363), "functional fit" (pp. 372, 382), and "productivity" (pp. 363,
380). This will assure the smooth running of the mainstream culture.
According to Gudykunst and Kim (2003), any resistance to conformity or any
lack of enthusiasm for disintegrating and unlearning one's original self on
the part of the immigrant suggests that they are "mentally ill" (pp. 365,
373), "hostile" and irrationally "aggressive" (pp. 368–372), weak (p. 369),
lacking "self-control" (p. 369), and "maturity" (pp. 377,
381), "self-deceived," "unrealistic," deluded (pp. 369, 379-382), and
simply "maladjusted" and failing to "perceive the world and himself
correctly" (pp. 372–373).
+
+The key to achieving perfect functional fit and communication, according
to Gudykunst and Kim (2003) is for the immigrant to "unlearn"
and "deculturize" (pp. 360, 379-382) themselves and avoid "ethnic
communication activities" (p. 368). According to Gudykunst and Kim (2003),
unfortunately some people have personalities that are inherently less
amenable to such deculturization and training and they tend to
be "unrealistic," "functionally unfit," and "aggressive" (pp. 368–372).
Presumably, since Gudykunst and Kim (2003) define these negative traits
as "personality predispositions" (p. 368) or "adaptive predisposition"
(p. 370) they could, just as Galton and Pearson proposed, be bred out of
the human population through comparison of group statistical means and
selective reproduction. While logic may lead this way, current morality
does not. Gudykunst and Kim (2003) go more for forced compliance via public
education as they argue that the new kind of better person and world they
promote can be created by "programming" peoples' minds (p. 358) through
intense socialization so that the cultural patterns they (Gudykunst and
Kim) evaluate as good are "etched into our nervous systems and become part
of our personalities and behavior" (p. 376).
+
+Differently, Kramer's DAD theory (Kramer, 1992, 1997a, 2003, 2011, 2012.)
is based on the observation that different cultures manifest predominantly
different modes of communicating; idolic or symbolic or signalic, which are
merely different relative to each other. No one mode of communication is
inherently and universally superior to the others. No final solution to
intercultural conflict is suggested by Kramer. Instead he puts forth three
integrated theories, Dimensional Accrual and Dissociation, Cultural Fusion
Theory (Kramer, 1997a, 2000a, 2011, 2012) and Cultural Churning Theory
(Kramer, 1997a, 2003, 2011, 2012) on what he calls "panevolutionary"
systems principles whereby all elements of a system, including minority
elements, directly or indirectly influence each others' future trajectories
in a broader ecological process. This is more in line with chaos theory.
Each modality (idolic, symbolic, and signalic) has its own strengths and
weaknesses depending on circumstance. As dissociation increases from idolic
to symbolic to signalic communication, emotional investment and
identification decreases and symbols become increasingly arbitrary.
+
+For instance, according to Kramer's DAD theory (1992, 1997a, 2003, 2011,
2012) a statue of a god in an idolic community literally is god and if you
steal it you will be in big trouble. Many millions of people in India
believe that "statues of" the god Ganesh drink milk and people in Taiwan
buy airplane seat tickets for the "statue of" the goddess Matsu to visit
her mainland Chinese home. To take such a statue/god from its temple is
more than a theft, it is blasphemy perhaps worthy of death. One-dimensional
idolic perception and communication involves identity and being identical.
Idolic reality involves strong emotional identification. A holy relic does
not simply symbolize the sacred, it is sacred and if lost or destroyed it
cannot be replicated. It can be replaced by another relic but if lost or
destroyed it is gone. Idolic things and places, such as the Temple Mount or
the Dome of the Rock in Jerusalem are not arbitrary. They are not merely
real-estate. They cannot be moved because the land itself is sacred and so
it is very difficult if not impossible to compromise, to negotiate away
commitments for to do so is to violate peoples' very identities as devout
Muslims and Jews. If you lose your lucky rabbit's foot or magic power
crystal you've literally lost your luck or power. By contrast the symbolic
two dimensional nature of a crucifix purchased for a church means that if
you steal it you have not literally stolen God but it is still a more
emotional theft than say a speaker system for that faith community. A
two-dimensional symbol involves ambiguity in the form of both literal and
figural meaning. Finally, if you choose to communicate in a
three-dimensional signalic modality, for instance in x's and o's rather
than p's and q's, few if any will care because everything in the signalic
modality is arbitrary. The circumstantial nature of the relative
communicative competence and effectiveness of one style over another can be
exemplified by coaching. It may be more advantageous given the goal of
winning for an athletic coach to be highly idolic and emotional in a
half-time speech even equating the stadium with "our house," this season
as "our time," and the number previously worn by a deceased teammate
as "his presence on the field" when worn by another player, but it is more
advantageous to be less emotional and more dissociated and signalic when
discussing the x's and o's of strategy and tactics days in advance of a
game. This is why it is not advisable for an otherwise very sober and
analytic surgeon to perform emergency surgery on his own family member but
it is advisable and appropriate for the same father or spouse to become
emotionally involved and overtly cheer for the same family member during a
sporting event or musical performance.
+
+The kind of flexibility that would enable a person to not care too much
about differing lifestyles and to deculturize and acculturize with ease
would constitute a sort of perfect postmodern non-identity. Despite
whatever value judgments one might have about it, pride in one's community,
one's ethnic group membership, one's nation and the like, are forms of
prejudice. A fundamental premise in hermeneutics and semiotics, which
Kramer's DAD theory accepts as true is that identity depends on difference.
So too do meaning, communication, and learning. If everyone assimilates
into a monoculture that would mean that identity, meaning, and
communication would cease to be (Kramer, 1992, 1997a, 2003). Regardless of
how one may judge it, the fact is that the stronger one's sense of
identity, the more likely one is to care about it, to see themselves as
different—the more meaningful it (personal concept) is and the world one
inhabits. The important point here is that the more a person manifests
self-esteem and self-efficacy the more outgoing and resilient they will be
in a foreign environment. In other words, it is not necessarily the case
that the more confident a person is the more flexible they will be. Quite
the contrary. Pride is a form of prejudice. The more dissociated a person
is, the more things become arbitrary and the less they care about them. For
instance, according to Kramer's DAD theory, religious identity for a
predominantly idolic person, is not perceived by them as arbitrary, not
even questionable. By comparison, a predominantly symbolic person may be
able to convert from one religious faith to another but such a change in
identity has very profound emotional consequences. For a signalic person
where everything is arbitrary, changing churches is like shopping. It is a
matter of personal choice and convenience, a matter of membership. In fact
one may choose to not belong to a religious community entirely without much
concern. But for an idolic person religious identity is not at all an issue
of membership or choice. It is inherent to who one is. So acculturation
varies from one person to another depending on what worldview they manifest.
+
+A pure postmodern nihilist, if one exists, is not likely to fight for
anything. This may be good or it may be bad depending on your own beliefs
and value system. But regardless of the goodness or badness of such a
status, according to the observations that led to the development of the
DAD theory, there are few if any real total nihilists in this world. Pure
nihilism is a sort of fantasy that is not very useful for explaining actual
conditions in multicultural and intercultural circumstances where
acculturation and assimilation are salient. Additionally and ironically,
nihilism itself is a school of thought, an "ism" which is a particular
perspective. As Hans-Georg Gadamer in his book "Truth and Method" (1960
Ger./1984 Eng.), argues a person without a perspective, a prejudice, could
not understand or make sense of anything because understanding is always
already from a point-of-view which both enables interpretation and limits
it at the same time. Francis Bacon agrees and enumerates such structural
enabling and blinding elements of perception/interpretation in the form of
his four idols (tribe which involves species limitations such as the
innately human abilities to see, hear, taste..., the idol of the theater
which involves dogmas and ideologies, the idol of the cave which involves
my personal limitations such as my education, my IQ, my eyesight..., and
the idol of the market place which involves how others I associate with
influence my thinking and perception). Hence Gadamer's claim that naive
objectivity postulates knowledge without a fallible knower, that such a
philosophy constitutes an irrational prejudice against prejudice. It is
irrational because it is hopelessly idealistic suggesting the possibility
of what Marurice Merleau-Ponty called "immaculate perception."
+
+Bottom line, prejudice is not only inescapable but it is a necessary
condition for understanding or sense-making as we know it. This is why
acculturation, according to Kramer's DAD theory, is a mode of learning, of
integrating new information, and this process of integration is always in
terms understandable to the learner. The fallibility of the human condition
and cultural prejudice may seem "sad" or "bad" but the DAD theory is not
promoting value judgments but instead offers an attempted explanation of
what is the case. Perspectivism in epistemological terms is unavoidable.
Just as I cannot go to the gym and lose weight for you so too I cannot
learn for you. You must learn for yourself. You must make the knowledge
your own. How an individual acculturates is a very individual and personal
process. A predominantly idolic person will integrate into a social milieu
differently than a symbolic or signalic person. A Sub-Saharian tribesman
will integrate into urban Los Angeles differently than a student from
Paris. A good example of differential integration and acculturation based
on the immigrant manifesting one communicative modality and worldview while
their host culture manifests a different one is to be found in Anne
Fadiman's (1997) book "The Spirit Catches You and You Fall Down" about a
Laotian girl who has immigrated to Merced, California and who falls ill.
How her parents interpret her illness is very different from how her
doctors interpret her illness. The conflicts and miscommunications that are
illustrated in this study can best be explained by applying Kramer's theory
of Dimensional Accural and Dissociation. As a social scientist our job is
to offer an explanation of why things are as they are—to understand and
predict. It is inadequate to say that such problems of intercultural
communication can be solved by simply eliminating cultural difference
altogether; by one side totally erasing themselves and conforming to the
other side's way of thinking, feeling, and behaving. This simply does not
and cannot happen. Even if they wish, a person cannot willfully unlearn
themselves or change their racial phenotype. Another good example that
illustrates differential modes of acculturation is found in the 2008
documentary "Split Horn" (directed by Taggart Siegel) about a Hmong Shaman
living in Appleton Wisconsin. Also recommended is Sabine Kuegler's (1980)
book "Child of the Jungle: The True Story of a Girl Caught Between Two
Worlds" about a "German" girl who grew up in the Fayu tribe in West Papua
with her missionary parents and what happened to her when she "returned" to
Europe at age 17.
+
+Taking into consideration the nature of the contact, one must look at how
acculturation results in changes to the culture of both groups. Kramer
(2009) refers to such change as co-evolution. Kramer (2010) also addresses
what he calls the qualities of entrance vectors which addresses the nature
of contact. Interaction potential is one aspect of entrance vector.
Interaction potential deals with the immigrant, migrant, or refugee after
already settling into a host cultural milieu. It involves how receptive a
host culture is to the newcomer, how easy is it for the newcomer to
interact with and get to know indigenous folks, and vice versa. Of course
language is a big part of this and it greatly impacts acculturation.
Regarding entrance vectors, there are essential differences between forced
immigration due to war and famine constituting refugee status and selective
immigration for commercial and professional desires. Entrance vector
involves forced versus voluntary immigration as well as host community
receptivity. A surge of thousands of unwanted and reluctant refugees across
a border may actually prompt a reactionary backlash from a neighboring
nation while, by contrast, corporations may seek out skilled workers in
other countries and attempt to lure them with financial benefits to
relocate. Why a person immigrates is just as important as the receptivity
of her host cultural destination (Kramer, 2000c, 2009, 2011). Unrealistic
expectations on one or both "sides" can lead to increased conflict, and/or
a more profound sense of culture shock, disappointment, and depression.
Examples can include when relatively wealthy people retire to other
countries where the locals may expect an unrealistic boost to their economy
or when a corporation relocates bringing with it unforeseen problems such
as a foreign management style or pollution. Unforeseen variance in presumed
appropriateness of inequality among people (power distance), or age or
gender appropriate decorum are common sources of unrealistic expectations
(see work on expectancy violation theory).
+
+Such differences in motivation, expectation, and perceived sense of agency
have profound consequences for the acculturation process. At the individual
level, elements of both the original cultures from which immigrants hail
and the cultures to which they migrate must be taken into consideration
when considering an individual's psychological acculturation. Psychological
acculturation concerns the behavioral shifts and experienced thoughts,
feelings, and stress associated with cultural change. Differences in
psychological acculturation then affect how well individuals adapt to their
new cultural environment, leading to both psychological and sociocultural
outcomes such as experiencing low self-esteem or acquiring a new language.
+
+===Fourfold Models===
+Meta-analyses of research on acculturation have shown pronounced
disagreement in the categorization of different strategies of
acculturation. However, the majority of these models have divided the ways
in which individuals approach acculturation into four categories.
+
+The fourfold model categorizes acculturation strategies along two
dimensions. The first dimension concerns the retention or rejection of an
individual's minority or native culture (i.e. "Is it considered to be of
value to maintain one's identity and characteristics?"). The second
dimension concerns the adoption or rejection of the dominant group or host
culture (i.e. "Is it considered to be of value to maintain relationships
with the larger society?") From this, four acculturation strategies emerge.
+
+#Assimilation – Assimilation occurs when individuals reject their minority
culture and adopt the cultural norms of the dominant or host culture.
+#Separation – Separation occurs when individuals reject the dominant or
host culture in favor of preserving their culture of origin. Separation is
often facilitated by immigration to ethnic enclaves.
+#Integration – Integration occurs when individuals are able to adopt the
cultural norms of the dominant or host culture while maintaining their
culture of origin. Integration leads to, and is often synonymous with
biculturalism.
+#Marginalization – Marginalization occurs when individuals reject both
their culture of origin and the dominant host culture.
+
+===Predictors of Acculturation Strategies===
+The fourfold models used to describe the attitudes of immigrant groups
parallel models used to describe the expectations of the larger society of
how groups should acculturate. In a melting pot society, in which a
harmonious and homogenous culture is promoted, assimilation is the endorsed
acculturation strategy. In segregationist society, in which humans are
separated into racial groups in daily life, a separation acculturation
strategy is endorsed. In a multiculturalist society, in which multiple
cultures are accepted and appreciated, individuals are encouraged to adopt
an integrationist approach to acculturation. In societies where cultural
exclusion is promoted, individuals often adopt marginalization strategies
of acculturation.
+
+Attitudes of the larger society towards acculturation, and thus the range
of acculturation strategies available, have not been consistent over time.
For example, for most of American history, policies and attitudes have been
based around established ethnic hierarchies with an expectation of one-way
assimilation for European immigrants. Although the notion of cultural
pluralism has existed since the early 20th century, the recognition and
promotion of multiculturalism did not come to prominence in America until
the 1980s. Separatism can still be seen today in autonomous religious
communities such as the Amish and the Hutterites. Immediate environment
also impacts the availability and advantage of different acculturation
strategies. As individuals immigrate to unequal segments of society,
immigrants to areas low on economic and ethnic hierarchies may find efforts
to assimilate leading to limited social mobility and membership to a
disadvantaged community.
+
+It should also be noted that most individuals show variation in both their
ideal and chosen acculturation strategies across different domains of their
lives. For example, among immigrants, it is often easier and more desired
to acculturate to their host society's attitudes towards politics and
government, than it is to acculturate to new attitudes about religion,
principles, and values.
+
+==Outcomes of Acculturation==
+===Individual health===
+A great deal of public health research has used the degree to which
individuals adopt the cultural norms of the dominant host culture as a
predictor of numerous health outcomes, primarily among immigrant groups.
Acculturation is thought to impact health by impacting levels of stress,
access to health resources, and attitudes towards health. Among U.S.
Latinos, higher levels of adoption of the American host culture has been
associated with negative effects on health behaviors and outcomes, but
positive effects on health care use and access. The effects of
acculturation on physical health is thought to be a major factor in the
Immigrant Paradox, the finding that first generation immigrants tend to
have better health outcomes than members of the host culture, and that
these differences decrease over generations.
+
+One prominent explanation for the negative health behaviors and outcomes
(e.g. substance use, low birth weight) associated with the acculturation
process is the acculturative stress theory. Acculturative stress refers to
the psychological, somatic, and social difficulties that may accompany
acculturation processes, often manifesting in anxiety, depression and other
forms of mental and physical maladaptation. Stress caused by acculturation
has been documented in phenomenological research on the acculturation of
adolescent female Mexican immigrants. This research has shown that
acculturation is a "fatiguing experience requiring a constant stream of
bodily energy", an "individual and familial endeavor", and
involves "enduring loneliness caused by seemingly insurmountable language
barriers". However, the same individuals also report "finding relief and
protection in relationships" and "feeling worse and then feeling better
about oneself with increased competencies" during the acculturative process.
+
+===Culture===
+In situations of continuous contact, cultures have exchanged and blended
foods, music, dances, clothing, tools, and technologies. Cultural exchange
can either occur naturally through extended contact, or deliberately though
cultural appropriation or cultural imperialism.
+
+Cultural appropriation is the adoption of some specific elements of one
culture by a different cultural group. It can include the introduction of
forms of dress or personal adornment, music and art, religion, language, or
behavior. These elements are typically imported into the existing culture,
and may have wildly different meanings or lack the subtleties of their
original cultural context. Because of this, cultural appropriation is
sometimes viewed negatively, and has been called "cultural theft."
+
+Cultural imperialism is the practice of promoting the culture or language
of one nation in another, usually occurring in situations in which
assimilation is the dominant strategy of acculturation. Cultural
imperialism can take the form of an active, formal policy or a general
attitude regarding cultural superiority.
+
+===Language===
+The transactional nature of acculturation is particularly notable in the
evolution of languages. In some instances, acculturation results in the
adoption of another country's language, which is then modified over time to
become a new, distinct, language. For example, Hanzi, the written language
of Chinese language, has been adapted and modified by other nearby
cultures, including: Japan (as Kanji), Korea (as Hanja), and Vietnam (as
Chữ-nôm). Another common effect of acculturation on language is the
formation of pidgin languages. Pidgin is a mixed language that has
developed to help communication between members of different cultures in
contact, usually occurring in situations of trade or colonialism. For
example, Pidgin English is a simplified form of English mixed with some of
the language of another culture. Eric Kramer (2009) introduced the concepts
of co- and pan-evolution to help explain acculturation and interculturual
communication.
+
+==Controversies and debate==
+===Definitions===
+Some anthropologists make a semantic distinction between group and
individual levels of acculturation. In these instances, the
term "transculturation" is used to define individual foreign-origin
acculturation, and occurs on a smaller scale with less visible impact.
Scholars making this distinction use the term "acculturation" only to
address large-scale cultural transactions.
+
+===Recommended Models of Acculturation===
+From the vast catalog of theories on acculturation, many different
prescriptions have emerged for the most adaptive form of acculturation.
When asking individuals about their preferred acculturation strategy, there
is an almost universal preference for integration and dislike of
marginalization. In general, most research seems to indicate that the
integrationist model of acculturation will lead to the most favorable
psychosocial outcomes A meta-analysis of the acculturation literature,
however, found these results to be unclear. Recognizing that acculturation
was measured inconsistently among these studies, a later meta-analysis of
40 studies showed that integration was indeed found to have a "significant,
weak and positive relationship with psychological and sociocultural
adjustment". Factors such as how different the two interacting cultures
are, and how easily individuals can integrate these two cultures
(bicultural identity integration) may partially explain why general
statements about approaches to acculturation are not sufficient in
predicting successful adaptation.
+
+Surprisingly, given the work of scholars over the decades such as W.E.B
Dubois (\\The Souls of Black Folk, 1903), and Milton Gordon, Robert Park,
Daniel Patrick Moynihan, Nathan Glazer, and many others in the 1960s and
1970s, and J. W. Berry's work in the 1980s and 1990s there are still some
theories that posit a fixed and dominant "mainstream culture" toward which
the newcomer must conform by means of acculturation (Gudykunst and Kim,
2003). A good example of such a contemporary theory is Intercultural
Adaptation Theory by William Gudykunst and Young Yun Kim (2003). They argue
that an immigrant or migrant, what they call "stranger," manifests mental
illness, immaturity, incompetence, and unsuccessful integration until and
unless they are willing and able to "deculturize," and "unlearn" themselves
(Gudykunst and Kim, 2003). Gudykunst and Kim (2003) argue that
acculturation involves the disintegration and reintegration of the
individual immigrant's psyche so that the immigrant will "evolve" or
increasingly act, think, and feel (behavioral, cognitive, and affective
conformity) just as an indigenous local does (pp. 364, 367). According to
Gudykunst and Kim's theory of Intercultural Adaptation, it is not enough
that when in Rome do as the Romans do but they argue that to be
functionally fit one must think and have the same emotions as Romans.
Failure to do so means, according to Gudykunst and Kim (2003), that the
newcomer is irrationally hostile, immature, mentally ill, maladjusted, and
unrealistic (pp. 367–374). They argue that acculturation is a single
variable so that the newcomer becomes acculturated only to the extent that
she "deculturizes" and "unlearns" herself with equal but opposite measure.
But what if one cannot change color or gender preference or really does not
want to change their language or religion? (Kramer, 2003, 1997b,).
Furthermore, Gudykunst and Kim (2003) postulate that the individual psyche
is like a full container so that every time the immigrant learns something
new she must forget something old. To aid in their version of assimilation,
which they equate with integration, both of which they equate with simple
conformity (p. 373), Gudykunst and Kim (2003) logically argue therefore
that the newcomer should refrain from any contact with their primary
culture including avoiding media content from the home country, association
with groups from the home culture, speaking one's original language,
practicing in one's home faith, and so forth (Gudykunst and Kim, 2003,
pp. 365, 366).
+
+As noted, in the field of intercultural communication, Gudykunst and Kim
(2003, p. 360) have for two decades (through publications from 1984, 1992,
1997, 2003) consistently equated six concepts with each other; adaptation,
integration, acculturation, evolution, conformity (see for instance 2003,
p. 373), and assimilation. They equate these psychological processes
with "upward-forward progress" toward a general "positivity" (p. 369),
greater emotional maturity (p. 377, 381, 384), greater integration
(pp. 381, 383), emancipation from ethnocentrism (p. 376, 382), increased
cognitive complexity (versus being simple-minded, p. 383),
enhanced "clarity" (p. 383), psychic growth/evolution (pp. 376, 380-382,
384), more developed and balanced perception (p. 383), greater mental
health (p. 365, 372-376), greater functional/communicative competence
(p. 361, 369, 372), being more realistic—conforming to "appropriate"
patterns of feeling, thinking, and behaving: "the accepted modes of
experience" ("external objective circumstance", pp. 363, 369, 378, 380),
being more emotionally stable/balanced (p. 383),
overcoming "self-deception" and delusion (p. 380), and other positive
sounding value judgments (Gudykunst and Kim, 2003, pp. 357–390). They
encourage the newcomer to be "plastic" (p. 380) and to fit or conform to
whatever dominating social structure they find themselves in or be regarded
as immature, insane, incompetent communicators, cynical, irrationally
aggressive, devolved, muddled and simple-minded, and so forth. Gudykunst
and Kim (2003) see no value in social change brought about by newcomers, or
in people trying to expand things such as civil liberties in the face of
unfair and unjust social conditions. For them the mainstream with its
appropriate patterns of communication and coercive pressure to conform is
simply a matter of numeric majority (p. 360). Of course this defies the
general social scientific concept of majority power whereby often it is
numerical minorities who rule numerical majorities. In order to help the
newcomer become more mentally healthy, realistic, competent, and fit or
appropriate in their emotional reactions and thoughts Gudykunst and Kim
(2003) encourage the newcomer to "minimize maintenance of their original
cultural habits" (p. 360) by severing relations with their ethnic
relational network and abandoning involvements with their own ethnic
institutions such as their original language, churches, synagogues, mosques
and "ethnic media" (pp. 365–373).
+
+Because Gudykunst and Kim (2003) see cognitive and emotional growth as a
zero-sum process they believe that maintaining contact with one's ethnic
group, institutions, and even media ("ethnic communication activities"
p. 368), will "discourage strangers' development of host communication
competence" (p. 372) and evolutionary transformation of their psyche toward
greater "psychological health and functional fitness" (p. 372, 376).
According to Gudykunst and Kim (2003) the way to being functionally fit
is "to undergo a fundamental psychic transformation" and the way
upward-forward is to "abandon our identification with the cultural patterns
that have symbolized who we are and what we are" (p. 377). According to
Gudykunst and Kim (2003) the newcomers ways are "ethnocentric" while the
host societies ways are realistic and appropriate (p. 363, 369, 378, 380).
The immigrant should "reassess" her "ethnocentric ways" (Gudykunst and Kim,
p. 376). Finally and curiously, while the immigrant is strongly encouraged
to assimilate into the mainstream "appropriate" (p. 363) ways of feeling,
thinking, and behaving, the ultimate solution to intercultural
misunderstanding and conflict, according to Gudykunst and Kim (2003) is
to "rise above the hidden forces of culture" altogether and look at all
cultures "objectively" (Gudykunst and Kim, 2003, p. 385). This they equate
with the Buddhist notion of nirvana. But if hermeneutic theory argues
anything, it is that one cannot escape the perspectival nature of
perception, that, as Ludwig Landgrebe used to say, even God has a
particular and unique way of seeing reality even if it is from all points
simultaneously. Indeed only one being could possibly, inconceivably,
manifest such a perspective.
+
+By contrast, Kramer's (2011, 2010, 2000a,) theory of Cultural Fusion
maintains a clear conceptual separation between assimilation, adaptation,
and integration. Only assimilation involves conformity to a pre-existing
form. Kramer's (2000a, 2000b, 2000c, 2003, 2009, 2011) theory of Cultural
Fusion also postulates that as learning occurs cognitive complexity and
growth increase. In other words, there is no need to unlearn something in
order to learn something new. Learning is not a zero-sum game. So as the
newcomer learns the ways of their adopted homeland they add new
repertoires, new ways of cooking, working, dressing, seeking entertainment,
playing, and so forth. The newcomer does not have to unlearn something old
to learn something new. According to Cultural Fusion theory the individual
and also the community is enriched as difference accrues. In accordance
with hermeneutic theory, Kramer's theory of Cultural Fusion (2011, 2009,
2000b) argues that the old is not lost but is presumed and is necessary for
integrating the new and as new information accrues the individual and the
community is enriched. For example, as new cuisines enter a community,
community members have more choices of restaurants thus enriching their
dining experiences. As new foods become available, like putting colors
side-by-side creates complementarity, old standards take on new meaning.
Also as the individual learns more about spices they can be more innovative
and enjoy more tastes. Borrowing from the hermeneutic theory of fusion of
horizons developed by Hans-Georg Gadamer, Kramer's theory of Cultural
Fusion suggest that as a newcomer enters a community there is mutual
adjustment or Co-Evolution (Kramer, 2009), not merely cultural coersion for
the newcomer to assimilate.
+
+When a process is defined as "natural" the rhetoric suggests that it is
inevitable, normal, good, and futile to question or resist. However,
assimilation, especially forced assimilation, has been shown to be none of
these things. Leon Festinger (1956) and Festinger and James Carlsmith
(1959/2008) already demonstrated a quarter century before Gudykunst and Kim
first published their theory (and this has been replicated many times since
in psychology and sociology) that "forced compliance" does not make people
happy, more peaceful, or enjoy greater "psychic equilibrium." Festinger
(1957) and Festinger and Carlsmith (1959/2008) demonstrated that there are
negative cognitive consequences to forced compliance. And prior to this
work Herbert Kelman (1953) had already discovered that there is no linear
correlation between rewards and change in opinion. A person may be
compelled to change his or her attitude toward a state of affairs through
either reward or punishment or a combination of the two, but it has been
known for some time now that neither works very well in compelling a person
to alter his or her opinion. Even forcing a person to rehearse the desired
narrative or behavior does not achieve much "self-convincing." Rather,
forced compliance can often lead to overt resistance to change. And
compliance gaining is greatly complicated by cultural differences (K.
Miller-Loessi & J. N. Parker, 2003; W. Griswold, 1994; J. Bruner,
1990/2010), gender differences (West & Fenstermaker, 1993; Fausto-Sterling,
1993; Ridgeway, 1993; Sprague & Zimmerman, 1993; Tuana, 1993; Haraway,
1991; Collins, 1991) disability (Cahill & Eggleston, 1994), perceptions of
race and ethnicity (Miall, Ramsbothom, & Woodhouse, 2005; Rawls, 2000;
Devine and Elliot, 1995; Stryker & Burke, 2000; Paul, 1998; Devine, 1996;
Hunt, Jackson, Powell, & Steelman, 2000; Sherif, 1956/2008), comparative
concepts of identity (Hogg, 2003; Stryker, Owens, and White, 2000; Gergen,
1991/2010; Snyder, 1980/2008), comparative concepts of family (Naples,
2001; Ferree, 1990; see the resource Journal of Comparative Family
Studies), body aesthetics (Crandall, et al., 2001/2008; Cowley, 1996/2008),
concepts of masculinity (Duneier, 1992; Anderson, 1990/2010), and so forth.
Already in 1963, Nathan Glazer and Donald Moynihan observed that while some
immigrant groups assimilate others retain aspects of their native culture.
For instance, one may change one's religious affiliation and convert but
even such a conversion for the deeply faithful is not a simple process
of "church membership." Religion is an essential aspect of core identity.
This has been demonstrated time and again (Croucher, 2008; Croucher and
Cronin-Mills, 2011; Rokeach, 1968; Becker, 1973; Campbell, 1988).
+
+According to Kramer (2000a, 2000b, 2000c, 2003, 2009), the presence of
minorities constitutes an organic aspect of social system and as a newcomer
enters a community both the individual and the community are changed. Such
system-wide dynamics Kramer calls "cultural churning" (Kramer, 2003, 2009,
2012). Co-evolutionary relationships can be diffuse, as among all plants
and insects, specific as between two cells in an organism or just two
species, symbiotic or competitive (both being reciprocal), symmetrical or
asymmetrical, and so forth (Kramer, 2000a, 2000c, 2009, 2012). Co-evolution
was already recognized by Darwin in "On the Origin of Species" (1859) as
was the obvious trait of altruism (co-operation) in "The Descent of Man"
(Darwin, 1871). Those who borrow terms such as "evolution" and "adaptation"
need to be aware of what they mean. Adaptation does not mean assimilation
or conformity. And evolution is almost always within a system so that it is
really co-evolution or pan-evolution whereby all parts directly or
indirectly, symmetrically or asymmetrically, symbiotically or competitively
influence each other. Neither evolution nor adaptation means conformity to
an already successful or dominant form such as "mainstream culture" or a
simple majority. Rather as Darwin was amazed by the diversity of life he
found on his voyage, evolution means innovation. It means endless trial of
deviant forms, some of which prove successful and endure. One must remember
that even the value-laden concept of progress requires deviance. The
most "competent" and "successful" people are innovators in all things from
the arts and sciences to industry and engineering. Patents and copyrights
are for the new. This is the proper application of systems ecological
nomenclature to the process of acculturation.
+
+According to Kramer (2000c, 2003) it is impossible to willfully unlearn
one's self and that even if it were possible it would not aid in the
newcomer's adjustment process for the newcomer needs to integrate new
information, making sense of new experiences in accord with their
pre-understanding. An example of fusion, whereby the individual presumes
and relies on pre-understandings to integrate new circumstances is driving
a bicycle or automobile in a foreign environment. While people in England
drive on the other side of the road from people in the United States, the
English immigrant to the U.S. can adjust her driving practices while
relying on her previous understanding of the rules of staying in one's
lane, signaling before turning, leaving proper distance between moving
cars, and other aspects of driving. The same pertains to many jobs. If she
had to relearn all aspects of driving, her adjustment process would be much
harder and take much more time. And as Thomas Sowell (1994) demonstrates,
typically the most successful newcomers are ones who bring some new and
different skills such as violin making, stone cutting, hard rock mining,
and the like to their adopted communities. Those who find themselves to be
redundant with skills already prevalent have a harder time. Evolution
proceeds not through conformity and redundancy but through new emergent
forms. As all business people know, it is easier to create a new niche than
it is to go head-to-head with a firm already well established in the market
place. And if one must go head-to-head, one must find some way to do things
differently to find an identity; either have higher quality and/or lower
prices, faster delivery and/or optionalization, etc. than the competition.
Simply cloning the competition that is already established is not
effective. Fusion of horizons also does not mean "unlearning" or
disintegrating one's self and reintegrating as identical to a local. Fusion
is an explanation of integration, and integration unlike assimilation means
that the identities of individuals endure so that differences, which
constitute meaning and identity, can integrate. Without difference there
can be no integration. Integration ceases once total assimilation occurs.
Gudykunst and Kim (2003) mistakenly use several terms interchangeably
including; integration, adaptation, assimilation, evolution, and so forth.
When difference is eliminated, meaning also vanishes as meaning and
identity are dependent on not being identical with the other—difference.
According to Gudykunst and Kim, total assimilation, what they call "the
process of adaptation," is the ultimate goal and failure to do so makes the
newcomer "inappropriate" in their thinking, feeling, and "functional
operation." Gudykunst and Kim (2003) simply state that failure to conform
is a failure of the newcomer to be "fit to live in the company of others"
(p. 358).
+
+===Typological Approach===
+Several theorists have stated that the fourfold models of acculturation
are too simplistic to have predictive validity. Some common criticisms of
such models include the fact that individuals don't often fall neatly into
any of the four categories, and that there is very little evidence for the
applied existence of the marginalization acculturation strategy. In
addition, the bi-directionality of acculturation means that whenever two
groups are engaged in cultural exchange, there are in fact 16 permutations
of acculturation strategies possible (e.g. an integrationist individual
within an assimilationist host culture). The Interactive Acculturation
Model represents one proposed alternative to the typological approach by
attempting to explain the acculturation process within a framework of state
policies and the dynamic interplay of host community and immigrant
acculturation orientations.
+
+==See also==
+*Biculturalism
+*Cultural assimilation
+*Enculturation
+*Intercultural competence
+*Language shift
+*Marginalization
+*Melting pot
+*Multiculturalism
+*Pidgin
+*Racial segregation
+*Westernization
+
+==References==
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
=======================================
--- /dev/null
+++ /trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Achievement ideology Mon Jun 11 05:34:01
2012
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+
+Achievement Ideology is the belief that one reaches a socially perceived
definition of success through hard work and education. In this view,
factors such as gender, race/ethnicity, economic background, social
networks, or neighborhoods/geography are secondary to hard work and
education or are altogether irrelevant in the pursuit of success.
+
+==Contemporary analysis of achievement ideology==
+In 2002, Sandra L. Barnes, offered that people who believe in the American
achievement ideology most likely blame underachievement on attitudinal or
moral differences among individuals. For those who disagree with the
achievement ideology, this difference in attitude is most likely the result
of an oppositional response to negative institutional and structural
forces. In her study, Barnes found that those who most benefit from
achievement ideology (white males in higher class neighborhoods, for
example) are most likely to espouse the achievement ideology. For example,
African Americans are more likely than whites to believe that race is an
ascribed trait that helps some achieve success more easily than others, and
those with higher incomes are more likely to claim that having a strong
social network is an unimportant factor for success. All respondent groups,
however, believe that education and hard work are most important for
success, proving that achievement ideology is alive and well. Ultimately,
Barnes argues that success is best reached when one has an
achievement-oriented attitude coupled with the actual ability to accomplish
one’s goals. While most people might have the proper attitude, structural
factors can keep them from achieving.
+
+Donna Y. Ford sought to discover the differences in ideologies between
male and female and gifted and nongifted African American students. Ford
describes four theories on achievement ideology…
+
+===Need Achievement theory===
+Social scientists who advocate this theory believe that one’s achievement
is a product of the motivation to succeed times the motivation to avoid
failure. This means that individuals weigh their expectancy of success with
the value they place on that success, or, how well an individual thinks
s/he can do and how much doing well actually matters.
+
+===Test Anxiety theory===
+As with need achievement theory, social scientists who support test
anxiety theory look to how a student evaluates her/his ability to succeed.
Students who are preoccupied with the outcome of their performance, who
fear failure or humiliation if they do not perform well, might not perform
well because this anxiety stifles their performance.
+
+===Social Learning theory===
+In this theory, students are socialized from an early age and hold
different expectations or values based on their own experience or social
situation. According to this theory, students who are raised in an
atmosphere of underachievement, who often see previous generations and
family members not succeed, will most likely internalize these values and
perceive their own success as unlikely.
+
+===Attribution theory===
+This theory explains a lack of motivation in students as a result of the
students’ belief in achievement ideology. When a student attributes her/his
own failure to a lack of ability, they consequently are less likely to
expect to do well. If a student fully believes in the achievement ideology,
failure can only be a result of lack of ability or lack of effort.
+
+Ford claims that, while these four theories may explain underachievement
in some students, they only focus on students’ lack of motivation to
achieve and do not consider a student’s failure despite her/his desire to
achieve. She describes this as the “paradox of underachievement,” a
discrepancy between a student’s ideology and their actual achievement
(i.e., when students do not do well in school despite their support of the
achievement ideology). In her study, the majority of both gifted and
nongifted African American students claimed that school is “very
important.” The majority of male and female African American students alike
responded that school was important or very important. If this is true that
most students are, in fact, motivated and view school as important for
success, a student’s failure must be explained by some other variable—most
likely ascribed variables like race/ethnicity, gender, and so on.
+
+==Effects of achievement ideology in the workplace==
+Belief in the American achievement ideology causes employers to look to an
individual’s educational success as the key factor in hiring potential
employees because achievement ideology perpetuates the notion that those
who have succeeded educationally are the most hard working. In "Education
and Jobs", Ivar Berg writes, “The increase in educational requirements for
middle-level jobs…may thus be taking place at some cost to a society that
has historically prided itself on its mobility opportunities.” This process
causes America’s education system to act more like a “licensing agency”
rather than promoting education for education’s sake. This, in turn, causes
many employees to be overqualified for their jobs.
+
+When jobs gradually require higher and higher educational attainment as a
prerequisite, the effort put into achieving these prerequisites (or, the
effort put into school) does not equal the needed effort or skill at one’s
job. Thus, workers’ endorsement of achievement ideology decreases each year
that s/he remains in a particular job for which s/he is overqualified. In
other words, employees begin to see the effort they put forth in school as
unnecessary.
+
+==Reasons for endorsing or rejecting achievement ideology==
+Jay MacLeod studied two groups of boys who live in a low-income
neighborhood for his book, "Ain’t No Makin' It". The “Hallway Hangers,” a
group a mostly white boys, did not endorse the American achievement
ideology. MacLeod found that this was a result of several factors. The
Hallway Hangers' parents wanted the best for their children and for them to
do well but feared encouraging high aspirations because they did not want
to set them up for failure and disappointment.
+
+Therefore, not only do students from low income backgrounds see
underachievement as they grow up, but parents might also be affected by an
environment of underachievement and exacerbate this for their children. The
Hallway Hangers and their parents go against the achievement ideology
because they do not see success in the future through hard work despite the
environment of underachievement. Also, to accept the achievement ideology
would be to say that their parents who have not “succeeded” are lazy or
unintelligent.
+
+The “Brothers” are a group of minority boys who live in the same housing
project as the Hallway Hangers. They, however, do endorse the American
achievement ideology. The Brothers see the racial situation in America as
vastly improved since the situation of previous generations. This causes
them to believe that each generation has worked harder and harder, and, if
they do the same, they will be able to do well in school and succeed in the
workforce. The Brothers have also lived in the housing project for far less
time than the Hallway Hangers whose families have lived there for up to
three generations. Many also moved to the housing project from far worse
situations such as impoverished countries and even lower income
neighborhoods. This causes the Brothers to think that they are upwardly
mobile.
+
+==See also==
+* Protestant work ethic
+
+==References==
+
+
=======================================
--- /dev/null
+++ /trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Action assembly theory Mon Jun 11
05:34:01 2012
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+
+Action assembly theory is a communication theory that emphasizes
psychological and social influences on human action. The goal is to examine
and describe the links between the cognition and behavior – how an
individual's thoughts get transformed into action. It was developed by John
Greene.
+
+== Definition ==
+
+Action assembly theory describes the production of behavior in two
essential processes:
+* the retrieval of procedural elements from long term memory, and
+* the organization of these elements to form an output representation of
action to be taken.
+* Action Assembly Theory (AAT) seeks to explain message behavior (both
verbal and nonverbal). AAT is a communication theory that emphasizes
psychological and social influences on human action. The goal is to examine
and describe the links between the cognition and behavior-how an
individuals thoughts get transformed into action. According to the
psychology wiki, AAT describes the production of behavior in two essential
processes: the retrieval of procedural elements from long term memory, and
the organization of these elements to form an output representation of
action to be taken. For example, assembly is considered a top-to-bottom
process that begins with more general strategy and goes to a more specific
idea about communicating the specific message.
+
+== Retrieval of procedural elements ==
+
+The idea of procedural record is at the center of action assembly. These
records contain information about action, outcomes, and situations. These
records are locked in the individual’s memory where it remembers past
behaviors for the future.
+
+A procedural record is at the center of action assembly. It is a personal
nugget of truth about past behavior stockpiled for future use, part of an
individual's memory system in which information about how to execute
various behaviors is stored. Procedural records contain information about
action, outcomes, and situations; for example, traveling at excessive speed
(action) in a zone that specifies low speed limit (situation)can result in
the issuance of a ticket (outcome).
+
+Procedural records have different levels of strength. Some are mere
scratches that barely leave a trace in the mind, while others are well-worn
into long-term memory.
+
+A central aspect of the action assembly theory is specifying the processes
that link procedural records to behavioral representations. The activation
process is the process used to select particular procedural records. For
example, if a parent disciplined a child for stealing, all procedural
records relevant to this goal and situation would be activated. In turn, if
a common disciplinary tactic was to take away toys and play items, a
procedural record of that would be activated quickly.
+
+== Organization of procedural elements ==
+
+It is also important to consider the process of assembly, which organizes
records into a behavioral representation. For example, assembly is
considered a top-down process that begins with general strategy and goes to
more specific ideas about communicating the specific message.
+
+Action assembly theory has been useful for topics such as speech onset
latency and hesitations during speaking. These concepts are assumed to be
indicators of cognitive processing. Another use is the study of planning –
individuals who plan more effectively are more fluent than those do not,
because planning reduces the cognitive load at the time of message
production.
+
+When an interaction situation has multiple goals, the theory finds
increased demands on an individual's information processing capacity.
Assembly of goals may be difficult because a specific goals may be
incompatible with behaviors associated with the other goals. In turn,
multiple goal messages involve more speech hesitations and latencies. The
utilization of Action Assembly theory can provide a clear opportunity to
plan or assemble goals more careful to mitigate the effect.
+
+== Use of AAT==
+
+When an interaction situation has multiple goals, the theory finds
increased demands on an individual’s information processing capacity.
Assembly of goals may be difficult because a specific goal may be
incompatible with behaviors associated with each other goals. In turn,
multiple goal messages involve more speech hesitation. The utilization of
AAT can provide a clear opportunity to plan or assemble goals more careful
to ease the effect.
+
+==Further reading==
+
+* Athay, M., & Darley, J.M. (1981). Toward an interaction-centered theory
of personality. In N. Cantor & J.F. Kihlstrom (Eds.), "Personality,
cognition, and social interaction" (pp. 281–308). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence
Erlbaum.
+* Coulmas, F. (1981). Introduction: Conversational routine. In F. Coulmas
(Ed.). "Conversational routine: Explorations in standardized communication
situations and prepatterned speech" (pp. 1–17). The Hague: Mouton.
+* Greene, J. (1984). A cognitive approach to human communication theory:
An action assembly theory. "Communication Monographs", 51, 289–306.
+* Greene, J. (1989). The stability of non-verbal behavior: An action
production approach to cross- situation consistency and
discriminativeness. "Journal of Language and Social Psychology", 8, 193–200.
+* Greene, J. (1984). Evaluating cognitive explanations of communication
phenomena. "Quarterly Journal of Speech", 70, 241–254.
+* Miller, K. (2005). "Communication theories, perspectives, processes, and
contexts". New York, NY: McGraw Hill.
+* Norman, D.A. (1980). Twelve issues for cognitive science. "Cognitive
Science, 4," 1–32.
+* Schmidt, R.A. (1975). A schema theory of discrete motor skill
learning. "Psychological Review, 82," 225–260.
+
+==References==
+
=======================================
--- /dev/null
+++ /trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Actor–observer asymmetry Mon Jun 11
05:34:01 2012
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+The actor-observer asymmetry touches on the fundamental questions of how
people gain access to their own and other people's minds and whether those
modes of access are distinct.
+
+The term specifically refers to a difference in the way people explain
their own behavior (when they are in the "actor" role) in contrast to the
way they explain other people's behavior (when they are in the "observer"
role). This asymmetry has been studied primarily within the field of social
psychology and particularly in the area known as
+"attribution" or "attribution theory." Considerations of actor-observer
differences can be found in other disciplines as well, such as philosophy
(e.g., privileged access, incorrigibility), management studies, artificial
intelligence, semiotics, anthropology, and political science (see Malle,
Knobe, & Nelson, 2007, for relevant references).
+
+The specific hypothesis of an actor-observer asymmetry in attribution
(explanations of behavior) was originally proposed by Jones and Nisbett
(1971), when they claimed that "actors tend to attribute the causes of
their behavior to stimuli inherent in the situation, while observers tend
to attribute behavior to stable dispositions of the actor” (p. 93).
Supported by initial evidence, the hypothesis was long held as firmly
established, describing a robust and pervasive phenomenon of social
cognition.
+
+However, a meta-analysis of all the published tests of the hypothesis
between 1971 and 2004 (Malle, 2006) yielded a stunning finding: there was
no actor-observer asymmetry of the sort Jones and Nisbett (1971) had
proposed. Malle (2006) interpreted this result not so much as proof that
actors and observers explained behavior exactly the same way but as
evidence that the original hypothesis was fundamentally flawed in the way
it framed people's explanations of behavior—namely, as attributions to
either stable dispositions or to the situation. Against the background of a
different theory of explanation, Malle, Knobe, and Nelson (2007) tested an
alternative set of three actor-observer asymmetries and found consistent
support for all of them. Thus, the actor-observer asymmetry does not exist
in one theoretical formulation (traditional attribution theory) but does
exist in the new alternative theoretical formulation. Malle (2011) argues
that this favors the alternative theoretical formulation, but current
textbooks have not yet fully addressed this theoretical challenge.
+
+==Background and initial formulation==
+The background to this hypothesis was social psychology's increasing
interest in the 1960s in the cognitive mechanisms by which people make
sense of their own and other people's behavior. This interest was
instigated by Fritz Heider's (1958) book, "The Psychology of Interpersonal
Relations", and the research in its wake has become known as "attribution
research" or "attribution theory."
+
+The specific hypothesis of an "actor–observer asymmetry" was first
proposed by social psychologists Jones and Nisbett in 1971. Jones and
Nisbett hypothesized that these two roles produce asymmetric explanations.
“Actors tend to attribute the causes of their behavior to stimuli inherent
in the situation, while observers tend to attribute behavior to stable
dispositions of the actor” (Jones & Nisbett, 1971, p. 93). According to
this hypothesis, a student who studies hard for an exam is likely to
explain her own (the "actor"'s) intensive studying by referring to the
upcoming difficult exam whereas other people (the "observers") are likely
to explain her studying by referring to her dispositions such as being
hardworking or ambitious.
+
+==Early evidence and reception==
+Soon after the publication of the actor-observer hypothesis, numerous
research studies tested its validity, most notably the first such test by
Nisbett, Caputo, Legant, and Marecek (1973). The authors found initial
evidence for the hypothesis, and so did Storms (1973), who also examined
one possible explanation of the hypothesis: that actors explain their
behaviors by reference to the situation because they attend to the
situation (not to their own behaviors) whereas observers explain the
actor's behavior by reference to the actor's dispositions because they
attend to the actor's behavior (not to the situation). Based largely on
this initial supporting evidence, the confidence in the hypothesis became
uniformly high. The asymmetry was described as “robust and quite general”
(Jones, 1976, p. 304), “firmly established” (Watson, 1982, p. 698), and “an
entrenched part of scientific psychology” (Robins, Spranca, & Mendelsohn,
1996, p. 376). Likewise, evidence for the asymmetry was considered to
be "plentiful” (Fiske & Taylor, 1991, p. 73) and “pervasive” (Aronson,
2002, p. 168).
+
+==Recent evidence==
+Over 100 studies have been published since 1971 in which the hypothesis
was put to further tests (often in the context of testing another
hypothesis about causal attributions). Malle (2006) examined this entire
literature in a meta-analysis, which is a robust way of identifying
consistent patterns of evidence regarding a given hypothesis across a broad
set of studies. The result of this analysis was stunning: across 170
individual tests, the asymmetry practically did not exist. (The average
effect sizes, computed in several accepted ways, ranged from d = -0.016 to
d = 0.095; corrected for publication bias, the average effect size was 0.)
Under circumscribed conditions, it could sometimes be found, but under
other conditions, the opposite was found. The conclusion was that the
widely held assumption of an actor-observer asymmetry in attribution was
false.
+
+==Theoretical reformulation==
+The result of the meta-analysis implied that, across the board, actors and
observers explain behaviors the same way. But all the tests of the classic
hypothesis presupposed that people explain behavior by referring
to "dispositional" vs. "situational" causes. This assumption turned out to
be incorrect for the class of behavioral events that people explain most
frequently in real life (Malle & Knobe, 1997): intentional behaviors (e.g.,
buying a new car, making a mean comment). People explain unintentional
behaviors in ways that the traditional disposition-situation framework can
capture, but they explain intentional behaviors by using very different
concepts (Buss, 1989; Heider, 1958). A recent empirical theory of how
people explain behavior was proposed and tested by Malle (1999, 2004),
centering on the postulate that intentional behaviors are typically
explained by reasons—the mental states (typically beliefs and desires) in
light of which and on the grounds of which the agent decided to act (a
postulate long discussed in the philosophy of action). But people who
explain intentional behavior have several choices to make, and the theory
identifies the psychological antecedents and consequences of these choices:
(a) giving either reason explanations or "causal history of reason (CHR)
explanations" (which refer to background factors such as culture,
personality, or context—causal factors that brought about the agent's
reasons but were not themselves reasons to act); (b) giving either desire
reasons or belief reasons; and (c) linguistically marking a belief reason
with its mental state verb (e.g., "She thought that..."; "He assumes
that..."). Empirical studies have so far supported this theoretical
framework (for a review see Malle, 2011).
+
+Within this framework, the actor-observer asymmetry was then reformulated
as in fact consisting of three asymmetries: that actors offer more reason
explanations (relative to CHR explanations) than observers do; that actors
offer more belief reasons (relative to desire reasons) than observers do;
and that actors use fewer belief reason markers than observers do (Malle,
1999). Malle, Knobe, and Nelson (2007) tested these asymmetries across 9
studies and found consistent support for them. In the same studies they
also tested the classic person/disposition vs. situation hypothesis and
consistently found no support for it.
+
+Thus, people do seem to explain their own actions differently from how
they explain other people's actions. But these differences do not lie in a
predominance of using "dispositional" vs. "situational" causes. Only when
people's explanations are separated into theoretically meaningful
distinctions (e.g., reasons vs. causal history of reason explanations) do
the differences emerge.
+
+===Implications===
+The choices of different explanations for intentional behavior (reasons,
belief reasons, etc.) indicate particular psychological functions. Reasons,
for example, appear to reflect (among other things) psychological
closeness. People increase reason explanations (relative to CHR
explanations) when they explain their own rather than another person's
behavior (Malle et al., 2007), when they portray another person in a
positive light (Malle et al., 2007), and when they explain behaviors of
nonhuman agents for whom they have ownership and affection (e.g., a pet
fish; Kiesler, Lee, & Kramer, 2006). Conversely, people use fewer reasons
and more CHR explanations when explaining behaviors of collectives or
aggregate groups (O'Laughlin & Malle, 2002). Actor-observer asymmetries can
therefore be seen as part of a broader continuum of psychological distance
people have to various kinds of minds (their own, others', groups',
animals' etc.).
+
+==Related but distinct concepts==
+===Actor-observer "bias"===
+Instead of speaking of a hypothesis of an actor-observer asymmetry, some
textbooks and research articles speak of an "actor-observer bias" (within
the framework of dispositional vs. situation causes). The term "bias" is
typically used to imply that one of the explainers—either the actor or the
observer—is biased or incorrect in their explanations. But which one—the
actor or the observer—is supposed to be incorrect is not clear from the
literature. On the one hand, Ross's (1977) hypothesis of a "fundamental
attribution error" suggests that observers are incorrect, because they show
a general tendency to overemphasize dispositional explanations and
underemphasize situational ones. On the other hand, Nisbett and Wilson
(1975) argued that actors don't really know the true causes of their
actions and often merely invent plausible explanations. Jones and Nisbett
(1971) themselves did not commit to calling the hypothesized actor-observer
asymmetry a bias or an error. Similarly, recent theoretical positions
consider asymmetries not a bias but rather the result of multiple cognitive
and motivational differences that fundamentally exist between actors and
observers (Malle et al., 2007; Robins et al., 1996).
+
+===Self-serving bias===
+The actor-observer asymmetry is often confused with the hypothesis of a
self-serving bias in attribution — the claim that people choose
explanations in a strategic way so as to make themselves appear in a more
positive light. The important difference between the two hypotheses is that
the assumed actor-observer asymmetry is expected to hold for all events and
behaviors (whether they are positive or negative) and require a specific
comparison between actor explanations and observer explanations. The
self-serving bias is often formulated as a complete reversal in actors' and
observers' explanation tendencies as a function of positive vs. negative
events. In traditional attribution terms, this means that for positive
events (e.g., getting an A on an exam), actors will select explanations
that refer to their own dispositions (e.g., "I am smart") whereas observers
will select explanations that refer to the actor's situation (e.g., "The
test was easy"); however, for negative events (e.g., receiving an F on the
exam), actors will select explanations that refer to the situation
(e.g., "The test was impossibly hard") whereas observers will select
explanations that refer to the actor's dispositions (e.g., "She is not
smart enough").
+
+==See also==
+
+* Attribution (psychology)
+* Fundamental attribution error
+* List of cognitive biases
+* Self-serving bias
+
+==References==
+* Aronson, E. (2002). "The social animal." (8th ed.) New York, NY: Wiley.
+* Buss, A. R. (1978). Causes and reasons in attribution theory: A
conceptual critique. "Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 36,"
1311–1321.
+* Fiske, S. T., & Taylor, S. E. (1991). "Social cognition" (2nd ed.). New
York: McGraw-Hill.
+* Heider, F. (1958). "The psychology of interpersonal relations." New
York: Wiley.
+* Jones, E. E., & Nisbett, R. E. (1971). "The actor and the observer:
Divergent perceptions of the causes of behavior." New York: General
Learning Press.
+* Jones, E. E. (1976). How do people perceive the causes of
behavior? "American Scientist, 64," 300–305.
+* Kiesler S., Lee, S. L., & Kramer, A. D. I. (2006). Relationship effects
in psychological explanations of nonhuman behavior. "Anthrozoos, 19,"
335-352.
+* Malle, B. F. (1999). How people explain behavior: A new theoretical
framework. "Personality and Social Psychology Review, 3," 23–48.
+* Malle, B. F. (2004). "How the mind explains behavior: Folk explanations,
meaning, and social interaction." Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
+* Malle, B. F. (2006). The actor-observer asymmetry in causal attribution:
A (surprising) meta-analysis. "Psychological Bulletin, 132," 895-919.
+* Malle, B. F. (2011). Time to give up the dogmas of attribution: An
alternative theory of behavior explanation. In J. M. Olson and M. P. Zanna
(eds.), "Advances of Experimental Social Psychology" (Vol. 44, pp.
297-352). Burlington: Academic Press.
+* Malle, B. F., & Knobe, J. (1997). Which behaviors do people explain? A
basic actor-observer asymmetry. "Journal of Personality and Social
Psychology, 72," 288-304.
+* Malle, B. F., Knobe, J., & Nelson, S. (2007). Actor-observer asymmetries
in explanations of behavior: New answers to an old question. "Journal of
Personality and Social Psychology, 93," 491-514.
+* Nisbett, R. E., Caputo, C., Legant, P., & Marecek, J. (1973). Behavior
as seen by the actor and as seen by the observer. "Journal of Personality
and Social Psychology, 27," 154 –164.
+* Robins, R. W., Spranca, M. D., & Mendelsohn, G. A. (1996). The actor–
observer effect revisited: Effects of individual differences and repeated
social interactions on actor and observer attributions. "Journal of
Personality and Social Psychology, 71," 375–389.
+* Ross, L. D. (1977). The intuitive psychologist and his shortcomings:
Distortions in the attribution process. "Advances in Experimental Social
Psychology, 10," 173–220.
+* Storms, M. D. (1973). Videotape and the attribution process: Reversing
actors’ and observers’ points of view. "Journal of Personality and Social
Psychology, 27," 165–175.
+* Watson, D. (1982). The actor and the observer: How are their perceptions
of causality divergent? "Psychological Bulletin, 92," 682–700.
+
+
=======================================
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+++ /trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Alloplastic adaptation Mon Jun 11
05:34:01 2012
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+Alloplastic adaptation (from the Greek word allos) is a form of adaptation
where the subject attempts to change the environment when faced with a
difficult situation. Criminality, mental illness, and activism can all be
classified as categories of alloplastic adaptation.
+
+The concept of alloplastic adaptation was developed by Sigmund Freud,
Sándor Ferenczi, and Franz Alexander. They proposed that when an individual
was presented with a stressful situation, he could react in one of two ways:
+* Autoplastic adaptation: The subject tries to change himself, i.e. the
internal environment.
+* Alloplastic adaptation: The subject tries to change the situation, i.e.
the external environment.
+
+==Origins and development==
+
+'These terms are possibly due to Ferenczi, who used them in a paper
on "The Phenomenon of Hysterical Materialization" (1919,24). But he there
appears to attribute them to Freud' (who may have used them previously in
private correspondence or conversation). Ferenczi linked 'the
purely "autoplastic" tricks of the hysteric...the bodily performances
of "artists" and actors'.
+
+Freud's only public use of the terms was in his paper "The Loss of Reality
in Neurosis and Psychosis" (1924), where he points out that 'expedient,
normal behaviour leads to work being carried out on the external world; it
does not stop, as in psychosis, at effecting internal changes. It is no
longer "autoplastic" but "alloplastic" '.
+
+A few years later, in his paper on "The Neurotic Character" (1930),
Alexander described 'a type of neurosis in which...the patient's entire
life consists of actions not adapted to reality but rather aimed at
relieving unconscious tensions'. Alexander considered that 'neurotic
characters of this type are more easily accessible to psychoanalysis than
patients with symptom neuroses... to the fact that in the latter the
patient has regresssed from alloplasticity to autoplasticity; after
successful analysis he must pluck up courage to take action in real life'.
+
+Otto Fenichel however took issue with Alexander on this point, maintaining
that 'The pseudo-alloplastic attitude of the neurotic character cannot be
changed into a healthy alloplastic one except by first being transformed,
for a time, into a neurotic autoplastic attitude, which can then be treated
like an ordinary symptom neurosis'.
+
+==Human evolution==
+
+Alloplasticity has also been used to describe humanity's
cultural "evolution". Man's 'evolution by culture...is through alloplastic
experiment with objects outside his own body...Unlike autoplastic
experiments, alloplastic ones are both replicable and reversible'.
+
+In particular, 'advanced technological societies...are generally
characterized by "alloplastic" relations with the environment, involving
the manipulation of the environment itself'.
+
+==References==
+==External links==
+*[http://books.google.com/books?id=ycaSZ8z3kWwC&pg=PA221&lpg=PA221&dq=%22Alloplastic+adaptation%22&source=bl&ots=jV8IFXGHnN&sig=TQIcgv4s6U6cQ3eSj-jrDS1ZHTs&hl=en&ei=NnvES8ylB9GIkAW05oCmDg&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=7&ved=0CCMQ6AEwBg#v=onepage&q=%22Alloplastic%20adaptation%22&f=false]
+*[http://www.prenhall.com/cjcentral/crimtoday4e/glossary/a.html]
+*[http://books.google.com/books?id=xuits3fQYbQC&pg=PA55&lpg=PA55&dq=%22Alloplastic+adaptation%22&source=bl&ots=uQ0IyP0a31&sig=NEKoLTq5fRmFY8ziRZNX91Eyp9c&hl=en&ei=NnvES8ylB9GIkAW05oCmDg&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=10&ved=0CCwQ6AEwCQ#v=onepage&q=%22Alloplastic%20adaptation%22&f=false]
+
+
=======================================
--- /dev/null
+++ /trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Altruism Mon Jun 11 05:34:01 2012
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+
+
+Altruism is a concern for the welfare of others. It is a traditional
virtue in many cultures, and a core aspect of various religious traditions,
though the concept of 'others' toward whom concern should be directed can
vary among cultures and religions. Altruism is the opposite of selfishness.
+
+Altruism can be distinguished from feelings of duty and loyalty. Altruism
is a motivation to provide something of value to a party who must be anyone
but the self, while duty focuses on a moral obligation towards a specific
individual (for example, a god, a king), or collective (for example, a
government). Pure altruism consists of sacrificing something for someone
other than the self (e.g. sacrificing time, energy or possessions) with no
expectation of any compensation or benefits, either direct, or indirect
(for instance from recognition of the giving).
+
+The term "altruism" may also refer to an ethical doctrine that claims that
individuals are morally obliged to benefit others. Used in this sense, it
is the opposite of egoism.
+
+==The notion of altruism==
+The concept has a long history in philosophical and ethical thought. The
term was originally coined in the 19th century by the founding sociologist
and philosopher of science, Auguste Comte, and has become a major topic for
psychologists (especially evolutionary psychology researchers),
evolutionary biologists, and ethologists. While ideas about altruism from
one field can have an impact on the other fields, the different methods and
focuses of these fields lead to different perspectives on altruism. In
simple terms altruism is caring about the welfare of other people and
acting to help them.
+
+==Scientific viewpoints==
+===Anthropology===
+Marcel Mauss's book "The Gift" contains a passage: "Note on alms". This
note describes the evolution of the notion of alms (and by extension of
altruism) from the notion of sacrifice.
+
+Alms are the fruits of a moral notion of the gift and of fortune on the
one hand,
+and of a notion of sacrifice, on the other. Generosity is an obligation,
because Nemesis
+avenges the poor and the gods for the superabundance of happiness and
wealth
+of certain people who should rid themselves of it. This is the ancient
morality of the
+gift, which has become a principle of justice. The gods and the spirits
accept that
+the share of wealth and happiness that has been offered to them and had
been
+hitherto destroyed in useless sacrifices should serve the poor and
children.
+
+* Compare Altruism (ethics) – perception of altruism as self-sacrifice.
+* Compare explanation of alms in various scriptures.
+
+===Evolutionary explanations===
+
+In the science of ethology (the study of animal behaviour), and more
generally in the study of social evolution, altruism refers to behaviour by
an individual that increases the fitness of another individual while
decreasing the fitness of the actor. Researchers on altruistic behaviours
among animals have been ideologically opposed to the sociological social
Darwinist concept of the "survival of the fittest", under the name
of "survival of the nicest"—not to be confused with the biological concept
of Darwin's theory of evolution. Insistence on such cooperative behaviors
between animals was first exposed by the Russian zoologist and anarchist
Peter Kropotkin in his 1902 book, "".
+
+Theories of apparently altruistic behavior were accelerated by the need to
produce theories compatible with evolutionary origins. Two related strands
of research on altruism have emerged out of traditional evolutionary
analyses, and from game theory respectively.
+
+Some of the proposed mechanisms are:
+* Reciprocal altruism
+* Selective investment theory – a theoretical proposal for the evolution
of long-term, high-cost altruism
+* Sexual selection, in particular, the handicap principle
+* Reciprocity
+** Direct reciprocity (repeated encounters)
+** Indirect reciprocity (for example, reputation)
+** Strong reciprocity
+** Pseudo-reciprocity
+*Kin selection
+*Group selection
+
+The study of altruism was the initial impetus behind George R. Price's
development of the Price equation, which is a mathematical equation used to
study genetic evolution. An interesting example of altruism is found in the
cellular slime moulds, such as "Dictyostelium mucoroides". These protists
live as individual amoebae until starved, at which point they aggregate and
form a multicellular fruiting body in which some cells sacrifice themselves
to promote the survival of other cells in the fruiting body. Social
behavior and altruism share many similarities to the interactions between
the many parts (cells, genes) of an organism, but are distinguished by the
ability of each individual to reproduce indefinitely without an absolute
requirement for its neighbors.
+
+===Neurobiology===
+Jorge Moll and Jordan Grafman, neuroscientists at the National Institutes
of Health and LABS-D'Or Hospital Network (J.M.) provided the first evidence
for the neural bases of altruistic giving in normal healthy volunteers,
using functional magnetic resonance imaging. In their research, published
in the Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences USA in October,
2006, they showed that both pure monetary rewards and charitable donations
activated the mesolimbic reward pathway, a primitive part of the brain that
usually lights up in response to food and sex. However, when volunteers
generously placed the interests of others before their own by making
charitable donations, another brain circuit was selectively activated: the
subgenual cortex/septal region. These structures are intimately related to
social attachment and bonding in other species. Altruism, the experiment
suggested, was not a superior moral faculty that suppresses basic selfish
urges but rather was basic to the brain, hard-wired and pleasurable.
+
+Another experiment funded by the National Institutes of Health and
conducted in 2007 at the Duke University in Durham, North Carolina suggests
a different view, "that altruistic behavior may originate from how people
view the world rather than how they act in it". In the study published in
the February 2007 print issue of Nature Neuroscience, researchers have
found a part of the brain that behaves differently for altruistic and
selfish people.
+
+The researchers invited 45 volunteers to play a computer game and also to
watch the computer play the game. In some rounds, the game resulted in the
volunteers winning money for themselves, and in others it resulted in money
being donated to a charity of the volunteer's choice. During these
activities, the researchers took functional magnetic resonance imaging
(fMRI) scans of the participants' brains and were "surprised by the
results". Although they "were expecting to see activity in the brain's
reward centers", based on the idea that "people perform altruistic acts
because they feel good about it", what they found was that "another part of
the brain was also involved, and it was quite sensitive to the difference
between doing something for personal gain and doing it for someone else's
gain". That part of the brain is called the posterior superior temporal
cortex (pSTC).
+
+In the next stage, the scientists asked the participants some questions
about type and frequency of their altruistic or helping behaviours. They
then analysed the responses to generate an estimate of a person's tendency
to act altruistically and compared each person's level of altruism against
their fMRI brain scan. The results showed that pSTC activity rose in
proportion to a person's self-reported level of altruism. According to the
researchers, the results suggest that altruistic behavior may originate
from how people view the world rather than how they act in it. "We believe
that the ability to perceive other people's actions as meaningful is
critical for altruism", said lead study investigator Dharol Tankersley.
+
+===Psychology===
+
+The International Encyclopedia of the Social Sciences
defines "psychological altruism" as "a motivational state with the goal of
increasing another’s welfare". Psychological altruism is contrasted
with "psychological egoism", which refers to the motivation to increase
one’s own welfare.
+
+There has been some debate on whether or not humans are truly capable of
psychological altruism. Some definitions specify a self-sacrificial nature
to altruism and a lack of external rewards for altruistic behaviors.
However, because altruism ultimately benefits the self in many cases, the
selflessness of altruistic acts is brought to question. The social exchange
theory postulates that altruism only exists when benefits outweigh costs.
Daniel Batson is a psychologist who examined this question and argues
against the social exchange theory. He identified four major motives for
altruism: altruism to ultimately benefit the self (egoism), to ultimately
benefit the other person (altruism), to benefit a group (collectivism), or
to uphold a moral principle (principlism). Altruism that ultimately serves
selfish gains is thus differentiated from selfless altruism, but the
general conclusion has been that empathy-induced altruism can be genuinely
selfless. The "empathy-altruism hypothesis" basically states that
psychological altruism does exist and is evoked by the empathic desire to
help someone who is suffering. Feelings of empathic concern are contrasted
with feelings of personal distress, which compel people to reduce their own
unpleasant emotions. People with empathic concern help others in distress
even when exposure to the situation could be easily avoided, whereas those
lacking in empathic concern avoid helping unless it is difficult or
impossible to avoid exposure to another's suffering. Helping behavior is
seen in humans at about two years old, when a toddler is capable of
understanding subtle emotional cues.
+
+In psychological research on altruism, studies often observe altruism as
demonstrated through prosocial behaviors such as helping, comforting,
sharing, cooperation, philanthropy, and community service. Research has
found that people are most likely to help if they recognize that a person
is in need and feel personal responsibility for reducing the person's
distress. Research also suggests that the number of bystanders witnessing
distress or suffering affects the likelihood of helping (the "Bystander
effect"). Greater numbers of bystanders decrease individual feelings of
responsibility. However, a witness with a high level of empathic concern is
likely to assume personal responsibility entirely regardless of the number
of bystanders.
+
+Many studies have observed the effects of volunteerism (as a form of
altruism) on happiness and health and have consistently found a strong
connection between volunteerism and current and future health and
well-being. In a study of older adults, those who volunteered were
significantly higher on life satisfaction and will to live, and
significantly lower in depression, anxiety, and somatization. Volunteerism
and helping behavior have not only been shown to improve mental health, but
physical health and longevity as well. One study examined the physical
health of mothers who volunteered over a 30-year period and found that 52%
of those who did not belong to a volunteer organization experienced a major
illness while only 36% of those who did volunteer experienced one. A study
on adults ages 55+ found that during the four-year study period, people who
volunteered for two or more organizations had a 63% lower likelihood of
dying. After controlling for prior health status, it was determined that
volunteerism accounted for a 44% reduction in mortality. Merely being aware
of kindness in oneself and others is also associated with greater
well-being. A study that asked participants to count each act of kindness
they performed for one week significantly enhanced their subjective
happiness.
+It is important to note that, while research supports the idea that
altruistic acts bring about happiness, it has also been found to work in
the opposite direction—that happier people are also kinder. The
relationship between altruistic behavior and happiness is bidirectional.
Studies have found that generosity increases linearly from sad to happy
affective states. Studies have also been careful to note that feeling
over-taxed by the needs of others has conversely negative effects on health
and happiness . For example, one study on volunteerism found that feeling
overwhelmed by others' demands had an even stronger negative effect on
mental health than helping had a positive one (although positive effects
were still significant). Additionally, while generous acts make people feel
good about themselves, it is also important for people to appreciate the
kindness they receive from others. Studies suggest that gratitude goes
hand-in-hand with kindness and is also very important for our well-being. A
study on the relationship happiness to various character strengths showed
that “a conscious focus on gratitude led to reductions in negative affect
and increases in optimistic appraisals, positive affect, offering emotional
support, sleep quality, and well-being.”
+
+===Sociology===
+"Sociologists have long been concerned with how to build the good society"
("Altruism, Morality, and Social Solidarity". American Sociological
Association.). The structure of our societies and how individuals come to
exhibit charitable, philanthropic, and other pro-social, altruistic actions
for the common good is a largely researched topic within the field. The
American Sociology Association (ASA) acknowledges Public sociology
saying, "The intrinsic scientific, policy, and public relevance of this
field of investigation in helping to construct 'good societies' is
unquestionable" ("Altruism, Morality, and Social Solidarity". ASA). This
type of sociology seeks contributions that aid grassroots and theoretical
understandings of what motivates altruism and how it is organized, and
promotes an altruistic focus in order to benefit the world and people it
studies. How altruism is framed, organized, carried out, and what motivates
it at the group level is an area of focus that sociologists seek to
investigate in order to contribute back to the groups it studies and "build
the good society".
+
+See also: Public sociology
+
+==Religious viewpoints==
+
+Most, if not all, of the world's religions promote altruism as a very
important moral value. Buddhism, Christianity, Hinduism, Islam, Jainism,
Judaism and Sikhism, etc., place particular emphasis on altruistic morality.
+
+===Buddhism===
+Altruism figures prominently in Buddhism. Love and compassion are
components of all forms of Buddhism, and both are focused on all beings
equally: the wish that all beings be happy (love) and the wish that all
beings be free from suffering (compassion). "Many illnesses can be cured by
the one medicine of love and compassion. These qualities are the ultimate
source of human happiness, and the need for them lies at the very core of
our being" (Dalai Lama).
+
+Since "all beings" includes the individual, love and compassion in
Buddhism are outside the opposition between self and other. It is even said
that the very distinction between self and other is part of the root cause
of our suffering. In practical terms, however, because of the spontaneous
self-centeredness of most of us, Buddhism encourages us to focus love and
compassion on others, and thus can be characterized as "altruistic." Many
would agree with the Dalai Lama that Buddhism as a religion is kindness
toward others.
+
+Still, the very notion of altruism is modified in such a world-view, since
the belief is that such a practice promotes our own happiness: "The more we
care for the happiness of others, the greater our own sense of well-being
becomes" (Dalai Lama).
+
+In the context of larger ethical discussions on moral action and judgment,
Buddhism is characterized by the belief that negative (unhappy)
consequences of our actions derive not from punishment or correction based
on moral judgment, but on the law of karma, which functions like a natural
law of cause and effect. One simple illustration of such cause and effect
would be the case of experiencing the effects of what I myself cause: if I
cause suffering, I will as a natural consequence experience suffering; if I
cause happiness, I will as a natural consequence experience happiness.
+In Buddhism, "karma" (Pāli "kamma") is strictly distinguished from vipāka,
meaning "fruit" or "result". Karma is categorized within the group or
groups of cause (Pāli "hetu") in the chain of cause and effect, where it
comprises the elements of "volitional activities" (Pali "sankhara")
and "action" (Pali "bhava"). Any action is understood to create "seeds" in
the mind that will sprout into the appropriate result (Pāli "vipaka") when
they meet with the right conditions. Most types of karmas, with good or bad
results, will keep one within the wheel of samsāra; others will liberate
one to nirvāna.
+
+Buddhism relates karma directly to motives behind an action. Motivation
usually makes the difference between "good" and "bad", but included in the
motivation is also the aspect of ignorance; so a well-intended action from
an ignorant mind can easily be "bad" in the sense that it creates
unpleasant results for the "actor".
+
+In Buddhism, karma is not the only cause of everything that happens. The
commentarial tradition classified causal mechanisms governing the universe
as taught in the early texts in five categories, known as Niyama Dhammas:
+
+* Kamma Niyama — Consequences of one's actions
+* Utu Niyama — Seasonal changes and climate
+* Biija Niyama — Laws of heredity
+* Citta Niyama — Will of mind
+* Dhamma Niyama — Nature's tendency to produce a perfect type
+
+===Jainism===
+The fundamental principles of Jainism revolve around the concept of
altruism, not only for humans but for all sentient beings. This religion
preaches the view of Ahimsa – to live and let live, thereby not harming
sentient beings, i.e. uncompromising reverence for all life. Jainism
considers all living things to be equal. The first Thirthankar, Rishabh
introduced the concept of altruism for all living beings, from extending
knowledge and experience to others to donation, giving oneself up for
others, non-violence and compassion for all living things.
+
+Jainism prescribes a path of non-violence to progress the soul to this
ultimate goal. Jains believe that to attain enlightenment and ultimately
liberation, one must practice the following ethical principles (major vows)
in thought, speech and action. The degree to which these principles are
practiced is different for householders and monks. They are:
+# Non-violence (Ahimsa)
+# Truthfulness (Satya)
+# Non-stealing (Asteya)
+# Celibacy (Brahmacharya)
+# Non-possession or non-materialism (Aparigraha)
+
+A major characteristic of Jain belief is the emphasis on the consequences
of not only physical but also mental behaviors. One's unconquered mind with
anger, pride (ego), deceit, greed and uncontrolled sense organs are the
powerful enemies of humans. Anger spoils good relations, pride destroys
humility, deceit destroys peace and greed destroys everything. Jainism
recommends conquering anger by forgiveness, pride (ego) by humility, deceit
by straight-forwardness and greed by contentment.
+
+The principle of non-violence seeks to minimize karmas which limit the
capabilities of the soul. Jainism views every soul as worthy of respect
because it has the potential to become Siddha (Param-atma – "highest
soul"). Because all living beings possess a soul, great care and awareness
is essential in one's actions. Jainism emphasizes the equality of all life,
advocating harmlessness towards all, whether the creatures are great or
small. This policy extends even to microscopic organisms. Jainism
acknowledges that every person has different capabilities and capacities to
practice and therefore accepts different levels of compliance for ascetics
and householders. The "great vows" (mahavrata) are prescribed for monks
and "limited vows" (anuvrata) are prescribed for householders. In other
words, the house-holders are encouraged to practice the five cardinal
principles of non-violence, truthfulness, non-stealing, celibacy and
non-possessiveness with their current practical limitations while the monks
have to observe them very strictly. With consistent practice, it will be
possible to overcome the limitations gradually, accelerating the spiritual
progress.
+
+===Christianity===
+Altruism was central to the teachings of Jesus found in the Gospel
especially in the Sermon on the Mount and the Sermon on the Plain. From
biblical to medieval Christian traditions, tensions between
self-affirmation and other-regard were sometimes discussed under the
heading of "disinterested love," as in the Pauline phrase "love seeks not
its own interests." In his book "Indoctrination and Self-deception",
Roderick Hindery tries to shed light on these tensions by contrasting them
with impostors of authentic self-affirmation and altruism, by analysis of
other-regard within creative individuation of the self, and by contrasting
love for the few with love for the many. Love confirms others in their
freedom, shuns propagandas and masks, assures others of its presence, and
is ultimately confirmed not by mere declarations from others, but by each
person's experience and practice from within. As in practical arts, the
presence and meaning of love becomes validated and grasped not by words and
reflections alone, but in the making of the connection.
+
+Though it might seem obvious that altruism is central to the teachings of
Jesus, one important and influential strand of Christianity would qualify
this. St Thomas Aquinas in the "Summa Theologica", II:II Quaestio 25,
Article 4 states that we should love our neighbour more than our ourselves.
His interpretation of the Pauline phrase is that we should seek the common
good more than the private good but this is because the common good is a
more desirable good for the individual. 'You should love your neighbour as
yourself' from Leviticus 19 and Matthew 22 is interpreted by St Thomas as
meaning that love for ourselves is the exemplar of love for others. He does
think though, that we should love God more than ourselves and our
neighbour, taken as an entirety, more than our bodily life, since the
ultimate purpose of love of our neighbour is to share in eternal beatitude,
a more desirable thing than bodily well being. Comte was probably opposing
this Thomistic doctrine, which is present in some theological schools
within Catholicism, in coining the word Altruism, as stated above.
+
+Many biblical authors draw a strong connection between love of others and
love of God. In 1 John 4 it is stated that for one to love God one must
love his fellowman, and that hatred of one's fellowman is the same as
hatred of God.
+
+Thomas Jay Oord has argued in several books that altruism is but one
possible form of love. An altruistic action is not always a loving action.
Oord defines altruism as acting for the good of the other, and he agrees
with feminists who note that sometimes love requires acting for one's own
good when the demands of the other undermine overall well-being.
+
+German philosopher Max Scheler distinguishes two different ways in which
the strong can help the weak, one which is a sincere expression of
Christian love, "motivated by a powerful feeling of security, strength, and
inner salvation, of the invincible fullness of one’s own life and
existence" and another which is merely "one of the many modern substitutes
for love, ... nothing but the urge to turn away from oneself and to lose
oneself in other people’s business." At its worst, Scheler says, "love for
the small, the poor, the weak, and the oppressed is really disguised
hatred, repressed envy, an impulse to detract, etc., directed against the
opposite phenomena: wealth, strength, power, largesse."
+
+===Islam and Sufism===
+In Sufism, the concept of "īṯār" (altruism) is the notion of 'preferring
others to oneself'. For Sufis, this means devotion to others through
complete forgetfulness of one's own concerns. The importance lies in
sacrifice for the sake of the greater good; Islam considers those
practicing i'thar as abiding by the highest degree of nobility.
+This is similar to the notion of chivalry, but unlike the European concept
there is a focus on attention to everything in existence. A constant
concern for Allah results in a careful attitude towards people, animals,
and other things in this world.
+This concept was emphasized by Sufi mystics like Rabia al-Adawiyya who
paid attention to the difference in dedication to Allah and dedication to
people. 13th century Turkish sufi poet Yunus Emre explained this philosophy
as "Yaratılanı severiz, Yaratandan ötürü" or "We love the creature, because
of The Creator". In practice, for many Muslims, i'thar is only practiced
during specific Islamic holidays. However, i'thar is still an Islamic
ideal, to which all Muslims should strive to adhere at all times.
+
+===Judaism===
+Judaism defines altruism as the desired goal of creation. The famous Rabbi
Abraham Isaac Kook stated that love is the most important attribute in
humanity. This is defined as bestowal, or giving, which is the intention of
altruism. This can be altruism towards humanity that leads to altruism
towards the creator or God. Kabbalah defines God as the force of giving in
existence. Rabbi Moshe Chaim Luzzatto in particular focused on the 'purpose
of creation' and how the will of God was to bring creation into perfection
and adhesion with this upper force.
+
+Modern Kabbalah developed by Rabbi Yehuda Ashlag, in his writings about
the future generation, focuses on how society could achieve an altruistic
social framework. Ashlag proposed that such a framework is the purpose of
creation, and everything that happens is to raise humanity to the level of
altruism, love for one another. Ashlag focused on society and its relation
to divinity.
+
+===Sikhism===
+Altruism is essential to the Sikh religion. In the late 17th century, Guru
Gobind Singh Ji (the tenth guru in Sikhism), was in war with the Moghul
rulers to protect the people of different faiths, when a fellow Sikh, Bhai
Kanhaiya, attended the troops of the enemy. He gave water to both friends
and foes who were wounded on the battlefield. Some of the enemy began to
fight again and some Sikh warriors were annoyed by Bhai Kanhaiya as he was
helping their enemy. Sikh soldiers brought Bhai Kanhaiya before Guru Gobind
Singh Ji, and complained of his action that they considered
counterproductive to their struggle on the battlefield.
+"What were you doing, and why?" asked the Guru. "I was giving water to the
wounded because I saw your face in all of them," replied Bhai Kanhaiya.
+The Guru responded, "Then you should also give them ointment to heal their
wounds. You were practicing what you were coached in the house of the Guru."
+
+It was under the tutelage of the Guru that Bhai Kanhaiya subsequently
founded a volunteer corps for altruism. This volunteer corps still to date
is engaged in doing good to others and trains new volunteering recruits for
doing the same.
+
+===Hinduism===
+Advaita Vedanta differs from the view that karma is a law of cause and
effect but instead additionally hold that karma is mediated by the will of
a personal supreme god. This view of karma is in contradiction to Buddhism,
Jainism and other Indian religions that do view karma as a law of cause and
effect.
+
+Swami Sivananda, an Advaita scholar, reiterates the same views in his
commentary synthesising Vedanta views on the Brahma Sutras, a Vedantic
text. In his commentary on Chapter 3 of the Brahma Sutras, Sivananda notes
that karma is insentient and short-lived, and ceases to exist as soon as a
deed is executed. Hence, karma cannot bestow the fruits of actions at a
future date according to one's merit. Furthermore, one cannot argue that
karma generates apurva or punya, which gives fruit. Since apurva is
non-sentient, it cannot act unless moved by an intelligent being such as a
god. It cannot independently bestow reward or punishment.
+
+==Philosophy==
+There are a wide range of philosophical views on man's obligations or
motivations to act altruistically. Proponents of ethical altruism maintain
that individuals are morally obligated to act altruistically. The opposing
view is ethical egoism, which maintains that moral agents should always act
in their own self-interest. Both ethical altruism and ethical egoism may be
contrasted with utilitarianism, which is the view that every individual's
well-being (including one's own) is of equal moral importance.
+
+A related concept in descriptive ethics is psychological egoism, the
thesis that humans always act in their own self-interest and that true
altruism is impossible. Rational egoism is the view that rationality
consists in acting in one's self-interest (without specifying how this
affects one's moral obligations).
+
+==See also==
+
+* Altruism in animals
+* Altruria
+* Charity (practice)
+* Charitable organization
+* Egotism
+* Empathy
+* Empathy-altruism
+* Family economics
+* Gene-centered view of evolution
+* Giving Pledge, pledge by Gates, Buffett and others to donate to charity
at least half of their wealth
+* Inclusive fitness
+* Justice (economics)
+* Group selection
+* Kin selection
+* Misanthropy
+* Mutual aid
+* Philanthropy
+* "The Power of Half"; how a family came to decide to sell its home, so
that it could donate half the proceeds to charity
+* Prisoner's dilemma
+* Prosocial behavior
+* Random acts of kindness
+* Reciprocal altruism
+* Reputation capital
+* Reverse commons
+* Selfishness
+* Social psychology
+* Solidarity (sociology)
+* Tit for tat
+==References==
+;Notes
+;Bibliography
+*
+*
+* Comte, Auguste, "Catechisme positiviste" (1852) or "Catechism of
Positivism", tr. R. Congreve, (London: Kegan Paul, 1891)
+* Kropotkin, Peter, "" (1902)
+*Nietzsche, Friedrich, "Beyond Good and Evil"
+*Pierre-Joseph Proudhon, "The Philosophy of Poverty" (1847)
+*Lysander Spooner, "Natural Law"
+*Matt Ridley, "The Origins of Virtue"
+*Oliner, Samuel P. and Pearl M. Towards a Caring Society: Ideas into
Action. West Port, CT: Praeger, 1995.
+*
+*
+*Wedekind, C. and Milinski, M. Human Cooperation in the simultaneous and
the alternating Prisoner's Dilemma: Pavlov versus Generous
Tit-for-tat. "Evolution", Vol. 93, pp. 2686–2689, April 1996.
+
+
+==External links==
+
+;General
+;Society
+*What is Altruism? from Altruists International
+;Philosophy and religion
+*"Giving and Receiving" from "Kabbalah.info"
+*Selflessness: Toward a Buddhist Vision of Social Justice by Sungtaek Cho
+*Organizes knowledge about empathy/altruism across disciplines
+;Science
+*Biological Altruism at the Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
+*The Altruistic Personality and Prosocial Behavior Institute at Humboldt
State University
+*"Unraveling altruism, conscience, and condemnation"
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
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+Altruism is a well-documented animal behaviour, which appears most
obviously in kin relationships but may also be evident amongst wider social
groups, in which an animal sacrifices its own well-being for the benefit of
another animal.
+
+== Overview ==
+In the science of ethology (the study of behavior), and more generally in
the study of social evolution, on occasion, some animals do behave in ways
that reduce their individual fitness but increase the fitness of other
individuals in the population; this is a functional definition of altruism.
Research in evolutionary theory has been applied to social behaviour,
including altruism. Cases of animals helping individuals to whom they are
closely related can be explained by kin selection, and are not considered
true altruism. Beyond the physical exertions that mothers, and in some
species fathers, undertake to protect their young, extreme examples of
sacrifice may occur. One example is matriphagy (the consumption of the
mother by her offspring) in the spider "Stegodyphus". Hamilton's rule
describes the benefit of such altruism in terms of Wright's coefficient of
relationship to the beneficiary and the benefit granted to the beneficiary
minus the cost to the sacrificer. Should this sum be greater than zero a
fitness gain will result from the sacrifice.
+
+When apparent altruism is not between kin, it may be based on reciprocity.
A monkey will present its back to another monkey, who will pick out
parasites; after a time the roles will be reversed. Such reciprocity will
pay off, in evolutionary terms, as long as the costs of helping are less
than the benefits of being helped and as long as animals will not gain in
the long run by "cheating" – that is to say, by receiving favours without
returning them. This is elaborated on in evolutionary game theory and
specifically the prisoner's dilemma as social theory.
+
+==Implications in evolutionary theory==
+Researchers on alleged altruist behaviours among animals have been
ideologically opposed to the social Darwinist concept of the "survival of
the fittest", under the name of "survival of the nicest" — the latter being
globally compatible, however, with the theory of evolution by natural
selection. Insistence on such cooperative behaviours between animals was
first exposed by the Russian zoologist and anarchist Peter Kropotkin in his
1902 book, "".
+
+Recent developments in game theory have provided some explanations for
apparent altruism, as have traditional evolutionary analyses. Among the
proposed mechanisms are:
+
+* Behavioural manipulation (for example, by certain parasites that can
alter the behavior of the host)
+* Bounded rationality (for example, Herbert Simon)
+* Kin selection including eusociality (see also "The Selfish Gene")
+* Memes (by influencing behavior to favor their own spread; see religion
as a meme)
+* Reciprocal altruism, mutual aid
+* Sexual selection, in particular, the Handicap principle
+* Reciprocity
+** Indirect reciprocity (for example, reputation)
+** Strong reciprocity
+* Pseudo-reciprocity
+
+The study of altruism was the initial impetus behind George R. Price's
development of the Price equation which is a mathematical equation used to
study genetic evolution. An interesting example of altruism is found in the
cellular slime moulds, such as "Dictyostelium mucoroides". These protists
live as individual amoebae until starved, at which point they aggregate and
form a multicellular fruiting body in which some cells sacrifice themselves
to promote the survival of other cells in the fruiting body. Social
behavior and altruism share many similarities to the interactions between
the many parts (cells, genes) of an organism, but are distinguished by the
ability of each individual to reproduce indefinitely without an absolute
requirement for its neighbors.
+
+Jorge Moll and Jordan Grafman, neuroscientists at the National Institutes
of Health and LABS-D'Or Hospital Network (J.M.) provided the first evidence
for the neural bases of altruistic giving in normal healthy volunteers,
using functional magnetic resonance imaging. In their research, published
in the Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences USA in October,
2006, they showed that both pure monetary rewards and charitable donations
activated the mesolimbic reward pathway, a primitive part of the brain that
usually lights up in response to food and sex. However, when volunteers
generously placed their interests of others before their own by making
charitable donations, another brain circuit was selectively activated: the
subgenual cortex/septal region. These structures are intimately related to
social attachment and bonding in other species. Altruism, the experiment
suggested, was not a superior moral faculty that suppresses basic selfish
urges but rather was basic to the brain, hard-wired and pleasurable.
+
+A new study by Samuel Bowles at the Santa Fe Institute in New Mexico, US,
is seen by some as breathing new life into the model of group selection for
altruism, known as "Survival of the nicest". Bowles conducted a genetic
analysis of contemporary foraging groups, including Australian aboriginals,
native Siberian Inuit populations and indigenous tribal groups in Africa.
It was found that hunter-gatherer bands of up to 30 individuals were
considerably more closely related than was previously thought. Under these
conditions, thought to be similar to those of the middle and upper
Paleolithic, altruism towards other group-members would improve the overall
fitness of the group.
+
+If an individual defended the group but was killed, any genes that the
individual shared with the overall group would still be passed on. Early
customs such as food sharing or monogamy could have levelled out the "cost"
of altruistic behaviour, in the same way that income taxes redistribute
income in society. He assembled genetic, climactic, archaeological,
ethnographic and experimental data to examine the cost-benefit relationship
of human cooperation in ancient populations. In his model, members of a
group bearing genes for altruistic behaviour pay a "tax" by limiting their
reproductive opportunities to benefit from sharing food and information,
thereby increasing the average fitness of the group as well as their
inter-relatedness. Bands of altruistic humans would then act together to
gain resources from other groups at this challenging time in history.
+
+Altruist theories in evolutionary biology were contested by Amotz Zahavi,
the inventor of the signalling theory and its correlative, the handicap
principle, based mainly on his observations of the Arabian Babbler, a bird
commonly known for its surprising (alleged) altruistic behaviours.
+
+Researchers in Switzerland have developed an algorithm based on Hamilton's
rule of kin selection. The algorithm shows how altruism in a swarm of
entities can, over time, evolve and result in more effective swarm
behaviour.
+
+== Examples of animal altruism ==
+
+*Dogs often adopt orphaned cats, squirrels, ducks and even tigers.
+*Dolphins support sick or injured animals, swimming under them for hours
at a time and pushing them to the surface so they can breathe.
+*Mongooses support elderly, sick, or injured animals
+*Wolves and wild dogs bring meat back to members of the pack not present
at the kill.
+*Male baboons threaten predators and cover the rear as the troop retreats.
+*Gibbons and chimpanzees with food will, in response to a gesture, share
their food with others of the group. Chimpanzees will help humans and
conspecifics without any reward in return.
+*Bonobos have been observed aiding injured or handicapped bonobos.
+*Vampire bats commonly regurgitate blood to share with unlucky or sick
roost mates that have been unable to find a meal, often forming a buddy
system.
+*Raccoons inform conspecifics about feeding grounds by droppings left on
commonly shared latrines. A similar information system has been observed to
be used by common ravens.
+*In numerous bird species, a breeding pair receives support in raising its
young from other "helper" birds, including help with the feeding of its
fledglings. Some will even go as far as protecting an unrelated bird's
young from predators
+*Most mammal carnivores like wolves or dogs have a habit of not harming
pack members below certain age, of opposite sex or in surrendering position
(in case of some animals, the behavior exists within entire species rather
than one pack).
+*Vervet Monkeys give alarm calls to warn fellow monkeys of the presence of
predators, even though in doing so they attract attention to themselves,
increasing their personal chance of being attacked.
+*Walruses have been seen adopting orphans who lost their parents to
predators.
+*Some termites and ants release a sticky secretion by fatally rupturing a
specialized gland. This autothysis altruistically aids the colony at the
expense of the individual insect. For example, defending against invading
ants by creating a tar baby effect.
+*Meerkats often have one standing guard to warn whilst the rest feed in
case of predator attack.
+*African buffalo will rescue a member of the herd captured by predators.
+*Lemurs of all ages and of both sexes will take care of infants unrelated
to them.
+
+== See also ==
+*Cheating (biology)
+* Evolutionarily stable strategy
+* Gene-centered view of evolution
+* Sociobiology
+* Evolution of morality
+* Evolutionary ethics
+
+==References==
+== External links ==
+* Biological Altruism
+* International Union for the Study of Social Insects
+* Quick Guide: Kin Selection (Current Biology)
+* Quick Guide: Altruism (Current Biology)
+* "Mutt-ernal Instincts" An article about dogs caring for other species'
young (cats, tigers, etc.).
+
+
+
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+++ /trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Ambiguity tolerance Mon Jun 11 05:34:01
2012
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+Ambiguity tolerance is the ability to perceive ambiguity in information
and behavior in a neutral and open way.
+
+Ambiguity tolerance is an important issue in personality development and
education. In psychology and in management, levels of tolerance of
ambiguity are correlated with creativity, risk aversion, psychological
resilience, lifestyle, orientation towards diversity (cross-cultural
communication, intercultural competence), and leadership style.
+
+Wilkinson's Modes of Leadership is largely based on ambiguity tolerance.
Mode one leaders have the least tolerance to ambiguity with mode four
leaders enjoying and preferring to work in ambiguous situations. In part
this is due to what Wilkinson calls 'emotional resilience'.
+
+The converse, ambiguity intolerance, which was introduced in "The
Authoritarian Personality" in 1950, was defined in 1975 as a “tendency to
perceive or interpret information marked by vague, incomplete, fragmented,
multiple, probable, unstructured, uncertain, inconsistent, contrary,
contradictory, or unclear meanings as actual or potential sources of
psychological discomfort or threat.”
+
+== References ==
+
+
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+++ /trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Ambivalent prejudice Mon Jun 11 05:34:01
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+Ambivalent prejudice is a social psychological theory that states when
people become aware they have conflicting beliefs about an outgroup (a
group of people that do not belong to an individual's own group), they
experience an unpleasant mental feeling generally referred to as cognitive
dissonance. These feelings are brought about because on one hand an
individual believes in humanitarian virtues such as helping those in need,
but on the other hand also believes in individualistic virtues such as
working hard to improve one’s life.
+
+Bernard Whitley and Mary Kite contend that this dissonance motivates
people to alter their thoughts in an attempt to reduce their discomfort.
Depending on the situation or context that has primed them, people will
give priority to either the positive beliefs or the negative beliefs
leading to a corresponding behavioral shift, known as response
amplification.
+==Views on ambivalent prejudice==
+According to Bernard Whitley and Mary Kite, ambivalent prejudice comes
from one person having both good and bad thoughts about an outgroup. The
example in their book, ”The Psychology of Prejudice and Discrimination,”
talks about race and how White people often have ambivalent attitudes
towards Black people. This means that their behavior is also
ambivalent, "sometimes it is positive, sometimes negative" (Whitley & Kite,
2010, p. 214).
+
+Irwin Katz said ambivalent prejudice only occurs when the individual
becomes aware of the conflicting attitudes, and for most people, simply
coming face-to-face with someone from the out-group can cause this.
According to Katz, this conflict of attitudes can cause problems with one's
self-image, because it seems as though one is not living up to all
important values that one holds. This conflict can cause negative emotions,
which are expressed in negative behavior.
+
+Irwin Katz and Glen Hass believed that contradicting American values is to
blame for ambivalent prejudice (1988). The first value is that hard work
will always pay off and people get what they deserve. The other is that all
people are equal and people should help the less fortunate. When this is
applied to race, many White people are torn. They see disadvantaged Black
people as not working hard enough to be worth as much as White people, but
they also understand that Black people have a harder time financially and
socially. These mixed emotions lead to ambivalence.
+
+Tara MacDonald and Mark Zanna suggested that stereotypes were to blame for
ambivalent prejudice. According to MacDonald and Zanna, people can like
others and respect others, the two emotions working independently of each
other. When a person feels those things towards an entire group, it is
because of stereotypes. Therefore, a White person can like and disrespect
Black people, due to certain stereotypes, or dislike but respect Black
people for other stereotypes.
+
+In a study testing the nature of ambivalent prejudice, Dr. H. Matsuo
(2005) studied American attitudes toward immigrant groups. He proposed that
ambivalent prejudice stems from two views. There is a more individualistic
attitude, which is associated with the importance of the Protestant work
ethic. This attitude is associated with more negative attitudes toward
outgroups. The other view is an egalitarian or humanitarian view. This view
is associated with more positive attitudes toward outgroups.
+
+==Response Amplification==
+When trying to rid themselves of their cognitive dissonance people tend to
act based on the context in which they find themselves. For example if they
are having a negative experience they will react more negatively than the
situation calls for and if they are having a positive experience they will
respond more positively than the situation calls for. Essentially they are
amplifying what they think the correct response is in order to prove to
themselves that they are not behaving in a prejudiced way.
+
+==Example of ambivalent prejudice in action==
+Susan believes she is a tolerant, accepting person. She agrees that
African Americans have many more disadvantages than whites and is therefore
supportive of spending tax dollars to help support the poor. However, she
also believes that people should work hard for what they want and often
wonders why African Americans don't try harder to better themselves. When
someone points out that these beliefs contradict with a tolerant
perspective, Susan gets very uncomfortable.
+
+In an effort to overcome this discomfort Susan prioritizes one set of
beliefs over the other, responding more positively in response to a
positive interaction and more negative in response to a negative
interaction. In other words If she has a pleasant interaction with an
African American she will respond more positively than a person who is not
experiencing ambivalent prejudice would and conversely if she has a
negative reaction she would respond more negatively than a person who is
not experiencing ambivalent prejudice would.
+
+==See also==
+*Ambivalent sexism
+*Benevolent prejudice
+*Hostile prejudice
+*Prejudice
+*Ingroups and outgroups
+
+==References==
+
+
=======================================
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+++ /trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Analysis of subjective logics Mon Jun 11
05:34:01 2012
@@ -0,0 +1,244 @@
+
+
+Analysis of subjective logics (ASL) is an original method of discourse
analysis developed and taught by the French psychoanalyst Jean-Jacques
Pinto.
+
+== A Brief Presentation of Analysis of Subjective Logics (ASL) ==
+
+=== Definition ===
+ASL is a method of analysis of the words (lexemes) of a spoken or written
text, drawing from psychoanalytical theory. ASL allows the analyst to
ascertain a notional understanding of the personality of the author of the
examined work, without studying nonverbal communication, as well as of
those of the audience that is the target of the text.
+
+The word-only analysis defined by ASL allows an exponent of the method to
use either anonymous or signed texts to influence readers on an emotional
level (sympathy, antipathy, indifference), even though the author (who can
be remote in time and/or space) is unknown to them.
+
+In ASL, the analyst takes into account the partial meaning of words by
breaking their meaning down into the most elementary components possible.
The purpose of this deconstruction is to find general tendencies and
subjective invariant items, independent of the issue/s broached in the text.
+
+=== Series (definition in extension) ===
+
+There are, in a language such as French for instance, subjective
sub-languages or "speeches" which, though different, are understood as they
mutually translate into the other. These are combinations of words endowed
with a positive or negative value.
+* Simple words ("atoms") are adjectives expressing simple properties
(opened / closed, new / ancient), classified in two lists of opposites
called "series" :
+** Series " A " concerns the outside, changement, disorder, destruction of
the ancient. It is made up of simple adjectives such as : opened, flexible,
divers, changeable, new, free etc.
+** Series " B " concerns by contrast the inside, non-change, order,
permanence. It is made up of simple adjectives such as : serious, firm,
stable, ancient, solid, lasting etc.
+* Complex words ("molecules ") are complex adjectives, names, verbs and
adverbs, whose meaning can be broken down into A or B atoms. When they are
of almost homogeneous composition, they are attributed to series either A
(i.e. "butterfly": "mobile, light, quick, unruly") or B
(i.e. "turtle": "heavy, slow, rigid"). It is approximative, for only the
simple adjectives make up the series. If they are of mixed composition or
difficult to analyse, they will be qualified respectively as "neutral"
(noted "0 ") or "undecidable" (noted "? ").
+* The value attributed to a word depends on the favourable or
disadvantageous echo this word holds for the speaker. It is positive ("+"),
negative ("-"), neutral ("0") or undecidable ("?"). It can change depending
on the moment or the time of life.
+
+=== Points of view ===
+
+One obtains points of view by comparing for every pertinent word in a text
its series and its value. They can change, as the value, according to
instants or according to ages of life.
+
+The "extraverted" point of view (indicated by the letter E) values series
A and depreciates series B, expressed thus:
+
+:::::A + = B — = E...Example: I am open-minded, I am not narrow-minded
+
+(From now on, to make their location easier, words A will appear
in "italics", and words B in bold).
+
+The "introverted" point of view (indicated by I) values series B and
depreciates series A, expressed thus:
+
+:::::B + = A — = I...Example: I am serious, I am not a phoney.
+
+The "extraverted" point of view will therefore choose its words in series
A to express what it likes, and in series B to express what it criticises,
does not like or even fears :
+
+The "introverted" point of view will on the contrary choose its words from
series B to express what it likes, and in series A to express what it
criticises, does not like or even fears:
+
+Consequences :
+The "same" word or the "same" expression can be valued (+) according to
the "extraverted" point of view and depreciated (-) according to
the "introverted" point of view, and conversely.
+
+In fact, it is not the "same" words or expressions, but homonyms (same
form, different use) as seen by A.L.S.
+
+To describe the same kind of pleasure, the speakers use words from
opposite series.
+
+Also, to describe the same type of annoyance.
+
+=== Speeches ===
+
+It is the extension to a whole life of the notion of point of view,
matching the empirical notion of personality and the psychoanalytic notion
of identification: each one plays "his" biography as an actor says "his"
text, in fact written by another. The subjective sub-languages,
or "speeches", make combinations in time (from adolescence to the end of
life, see Genesis §) of the "I " and " E " points of view, what succeeds
in :
+
+1) A "conservative" speech (I → I), corresponding to the obsessional
personality : "incorruptible introvert", nostalgic for a lost Paradise, who
begins "I" and finishes "I".
+
+2) A "change / destruction" speech (E → E) corresponding to the hysterical
personality : "incorrigible extravert", attracted by Hell, which begins "
E " and finishes " E ".
+
+3) A "progressive" or "constructor" speech (E → I), "repentant extravert",
passing in transit through Purgatory, which begins " E " and finishes "I ".
+
+4) A "hesitating" speech(I or E, abbreviation of I → E → I → E.), roughly
the phobic personality: "eternally undecided", wobbling all his life
between "I " and " E ".
+
+=== Combinations of speeches ===
+
+There is a «missed E → I» speech in which the speaker fails or even dies
at the very time when he finishes the masterpiece which compensates its
previous restless wandering. The representatives of the "hesitating" speech
can "lean out" on the side of the I → I speech or of the E → E speech:
facing a frightening situation, the first ("cautious") will be held on
their guard, the second ("ambitious") will nevertheless go ahead, as
knights "with fear and with reproach"! These names are borrowed from B.
Cathelat and his Socio-Styles-Système (cf. § Validation, infra). The
existence of these combinations shows to the reader suspecting A.S.L. of
simplification that the current list of possibilities is not limitative.
+
+== Filiation ==
+
+A.S.L. draws its inspiration from some swordings of Jacques Lacan (theory
of « Four discourses »); it tries to validate them by putting them in
contact with corpuses drawn of the common speech. What relation between
speeches in A.L.S and discourses in Lacan ? His "Mathèmes" (symbols
formalizing clinical experience) describe the discourses of the Master, of
the University, of the Hysterical and of the Analyst. But they do not
prevent the unreliable interpretations by the disciples, and correlations
with clinical observation are sometimes doubtful (cf. § Applications).
+
+Refusing these expressions, ambiguous and perhaps premature, to start from
the word for word of swordings, led to create A.S.L. It describes speeches
coinciding only partly with the discourses of Lacan, what does not prevent
the compatibility of A.S.L. with lacanian premises, and the fact that to
speeches can be applied what Jean-Claude Milner says about "four
discourses": « [... a speech [...] is [...] nothing but a group of rules of
synonymy and of non-synonymy. [...] telling that there is a division
between two discourses, is only telling that none of the proposals of one
is synonymous with any of the proposals of the other. [...] there can only
be synonymies [...] inside the same discourse, and between different
discourses the only possible resemblances belong to homonymy. »
+
+== Genesis of the series and speeches ==
+
+Starting with the noticing that there are different sub-languages, let us
now present arguments in favour of the identificatory and fantastical
nature of series, points of view and speeches described by A.S.L.
+
+=== The psychoanalytical term "identification" ===
+
+The first moment of identification consists in starting to speak, in
becoming identified with the functioning of language, however without
indicating oneself in the swording (the child does not straightaway
say "I").
+
+The second moment founds in the speech of the parent (proper name,
personal pronouns) the conviction of the child that he is somebody, an
unified entity, and moreover the author of his speech, although it comes
from another one.
+
+The « third identification » sets up the fantasy, which can accept a
linguistic definition : "according to freudian theory, a fantasy is always
expressed by a sentence, or more exactly by a sentence phrase, every
variant of which answers in principle a distinct fantasy" (Jean-Claude
Milner). The subject of the unconscious, as the freudo-lacanian theory of
subjectivity defines it, is then constituted.
+
+=== Hypothesis of A.S.L. ===
+
+It is the "parental discourse" that determines, not in a linear way but
with transformations themselves « programmed », the "fantastical discourse
of the child", depending on whether it is "idealised" or "rejected"
(extreme cases). The child, once identified with the text of parental
desire, will "describe" and will "treat" from now on any object (including
himself and his parent) as the parent "described" him and wanted to "treat"
him. It is "the satisfaction of the parent, and not his", that he expresses
and searches without knowing it. The adjectives extracted from the
evaluations of the parent on him, and the verbs describing the fate which
he wishes upon him, will give the atoms valued in fantastical wordings, and
constituent of the series.
+
+# Adjectives describe the object :
+## such as he is considered by the parent (beautiful, "ugly", as
expected, "not as expected", etc.)
+## plus such as it ought to be so that the action the parent would wish to
accomplish upon it, or the behaviour he expects from it are made possible,
i.e. "light" to more easily get rid of it if it is "a burden", careful if
it is a matter of protecting it.
+
+# Verbs describe the attitude of the parent :
+## in front of the idealised child: to like, to love, to take seriously,
to respect, to look, to see, to consider, to own, to control, to keep, to
protect, to lock up, to hold, to contain, to isolate, to incorporate (often
metaphorized as to eat), to feed, to fill, etc.
+## in front of the unwanted child: verbs
expressing "disappointment", "surprise", "astonishment", "fright", "horror", "to
hate, to detest, to curse, not to take seriously, to deride", as well as
the means to get rid of such a child, to make it change, or to ignore
it : "to destroy (to open, break, demolish, burn, burst, tear, pierce,
etc.), to change, alter, corrupt, distort, twist, displace, move, shake,
move away, move aside, chase away, chase out" (sometimes metaphorized
as "to vomit"), "to leave, to let go, to drop down, to throw out, to lose,
to mislead, to give, to sell, to exchange, to disregard, to ignore, to
forget", etc. all these words being secondarily valued by the adult this
child will become.
+
+The verbs expressing the wish of the parent will be able to be found in
the discourse of the child in the active, passive or reflexive voice.
+
+* The connection is generally easily perceived between the fact having
been carefully kept (parental « I keep him/her »), and the fact finding I
keep « its » satisfaction to keep objects or persons, to guard against
(dangers or of contacts), and to be kept. Filial love, where the deified
child worships his parents, is as for it an example of « return to sender ».
+
+* It is less obvious to consider that (French) « "s'éclater, se défoncer,
s'envoyer en l'air, se fendre la gueule" » may result from the reflexive
transformation of a parental « "je l'éclate, je le défonce, je l'envoie en
l'air, je lui fends la gueule" ». It is however quite simply the
freudolacanian thesis of reversibility between subject and object in
fantasy. The auto-aggressiveness which ranges from exhibition to danger up
to suicide is coupled with a hetero-aggressiveness which ranges from the
disrespect to others up to their destruction, both of them uniting in the
example of the terrorist exploding with his bomb. It is possible to admit
in the parricide a « return to sender » to the parent dreaming about
infanticide.
+
+Minimal semantic features or "atoms" extracted from these verbs and
adjectives are precisely those who constitute the two series :
+
+* series "destruction-disappearance-moving away-change", or A series.
+
+* series conservation-integrity-stability, or B series.
+
+== In depth description of series, points of view and speeches ==
+=== Attempt at a linguistic description ===
+
+The two points of view I and E, and their combinations (speeches), recall
the lects described by Michel Le Guern (1983) :
+:A language is a polyhierarchy of subsystems. Some [...] offer to speakers
choices between various variants. Each one a lect. Lects [... will be
allocated neither to an individual, nor to a social category, nor to a
geographical area, nor to a particular type of communication. They will be
studied "in itself ", in their pure oppositive relations [...].
+
+- The two series of atoms A and B are therefore lists of minimal semantic
features (or Seme (semantics)|semes) compared urgent term, for example open
/ close, flexible / rigid, distant / close.
+
+-The complex signifiers (verbs, complex adjectives, nouns, adverbs) do not
a priori belong to series. It is possible for each of them to describe its
composition in atoms.
+
+- Expressions and frozen expressions,
+
+It is often possible to find out simple rules of calculation to determine
the series of an expression with the form Verb + Direct object, using its
elements :
+
+* Verb A + Noun B → expression A
+* Verb B + Noun A → expression B
+* Verb A + Noun A → expression A
+* Verb B + Noun B → expression B
+
+The study of these expressions allows to compare the ways to describe the
same referent using the different points of view (it is possible to list
the "translations" of an expression from a point of view into another).
+
+- The sentences. As well as symmetrical expressions exist, it is possible
to meet :
+
+1. symmetrical sentences,
+
+2. symmetrical analogies,
+
+3. symmetrical proverbs, aphorisms and maxims.
+
+- The texts of variable length.
+
+- The biographies. It is possible to consider a biography to be a text
which argues in favour of one of the identifications described sooner, as a
subjective lect (a subjilect), a speech deriving from an identification to
the parental discourse.
+
+=== Rules and comments===
+
+- Each and every perception, event, and content can be talked of in at
least two ways, two different forms.
+
+- Rules of the « dialogical game » : CONSENSUS, CONFLICT
+* CONSENSUS (agreement of opinion on the content). Whenever there is
consensus, the words of the other party are translated by the speaker into
« his own » speech.
+* CONFLIT : there might be disagreement on the content (issue of the
debate) or on the form (kind of speech).
+
+- Cross-overs from one point of view to the other : they may be structural
or conjonctural
+
+* Structural (dependant on the structure of a speech)
+
+* Conjonctural (« exceptions confirming the rule »)
+
+- Depreciation of a « friend-like » word or appreciation of a « fiend-like
» word : when the speakers have to use in a negative manner a word of the
series they value, and vice and versa.
+
+- « Atoms » and « molecules » of a same series are potentially
exchangeable within metaphorical expressions, even in cases when they are
non-synonymous, or moreover incompatible at a cognitive level. These
synonymies can only be explained by A.S.L.
+
+== Direct and indirect validation, critics and self-critics, results ==
+=== Direct validation of A.S.L. ===
+=== Indirect validation of A.S.L. ===
+=== Critics and self-critics ===
+== Applications of A.S.L. ==
+=== To psychoanalysis ===
+
+A.L.S allows a logicized presentation of clinical descriptions in
neuroses, thus avoiding some confusions. For example:
+* The notion of « I or E » speech helps to better understand why typical
phobics are simultaneously agoraphobic (I point of view) and claustrophobic
(E point of view).
+
+* The possible confusion between obsessional discourse and discourse of
the University is overcome thanks to the terminology of A.S.L. («
conservative » speech and « constructive » speech). Indeed Lacan often
considers these two designations to be synonyms. And the logic of the « I →
I » speech (counterpart of obsessional discourse) makes its assimilation
impossible to university discourse (counterpart of the « E → I » speech) :
the first assumes an initial perfection, a « inbred wisdom », incompatible
with the acquisition of new knowledge (the obsessed man/woman is « full of
dirty ignorance », and nevertheless pedant) ; the second assumes a
secondary perfectibility and allows one to « fill up with knowledge » in
order to redeem a « mad » and not very studious youth, and to acquire the
respectability which one had not at first.
+
+The validation of A.L.S allows as an indirect consequence to contribute to
« upstream » validation of general theses which it presupposes (Lacan, 1966
), notably:
+
+* The subject of unconscious represented in language, « perfectly
accessible to the calculation of conjecture » and pertaining to « the
inscription of a combinatory the exhaustion of which would be possible »,
+* the fundamental notion that « the desire of man is the desire of Other »,
+* The reversibility between subject and object in phantasy.
+
+« Series and speeches » can also and especially be applied to the
discourses of the analysts.
+
+The analysts being made with the same "clay" as their patients, the
analytical discourse should not consist simply in their statements, often
fantastical. To characterise it, it is easier to proceed by elimination, to
say what it is not, as the identification of the different phantasies goes
along.
+
+* On the goals of the analytical "therapy", it can exist an unconscious
complicity between the analyst and his patient in a common phantasy, when
they share the same speech, what A.S.L. can detect. And such phantasies
have an effect on the practice and effects of analyses, which in that case,
instead of sending back all the identifications back to back to tend
towards the "désêtre", the subjective deposition (Lacan), take back
the "analysing one" in a neurotic speech only dressed with psychoanalytic
jargon.
+
+* On theory : analytical literature is swarming with suspicious
conceptualisations, which sometimes put forward as an alibi the « structure
of fiction of truth ». A.S.L. allows, in this jungle of « analytical »
productions, to make a first sorting between the wrong tracks (banally
fantastical) and potentially interesting hypotheses (in the operating sense
by Gardin), which then remain to demonstrate.
+
+A.L.S. cannot apply directly to the psychoanalytic "therapy". Thus the
applications of A.S.L., method based on psychoanalytic theses, are mostly
extra-psychoanalytic.
+
+=== To speech sciences ===
+==== To semantics ====
+
+Since there is subjective universaux, distinct from cognitive universaux,
following from the genesis of identifications, and exceeding the style of
an author, the languages or the epochs, A.S.L. has some explicative
potential, or even predictive in the semantics of rhetoric figures. This
can be seen in cognitively unexplainable synonymies. So the MORFLER article
of the Dictionary of non conventional French (Cellard, on 1980) points out:
«(1) to receive (blows, bullet): of series Morfiler, « to eat », by
figurative passage to « to take »(cf. "déguster"). (2) to speak, to
confess, to report : incomprehensible meaning. It must be a confusion
between "Morfler" and "Moufter" (to speak)».
+
+==== To rhetorics and to argumentation ====
+
+Each one is made by his parent the lawyer of a type of identification,
therefore is dedicated to a kind of lexical advocacy. To hear "his" dialect
or the opposing dialect provokes adhesion or opposition, consensus or
conflict. Series are therefore tanks of metaphoric elements with
argumentative value, where one scoop out to argue without using reasoning"
+
+Misunderstanding being the thing best shared in the world, A.S.L. has
consequences in the field of negotiation. It allows to explain and
sometimes to solve misunderstanding generative either of conflicts (cf. §
Rules of " dialogic game") or wrong consensus bound to break.
+
+==== To poetry and to litterature ====
+
+Baudelaire (1993) declared (Salon of 1859): « Rhetorics and prosodies are
not tyrannies arbitrarily invented, but collection of rules claimed by the
organisation of the spiritual being ».
+
+These rules of the subjective organisation intervene in composition as
well in reception of the literary text. A.S.L. adds a dimension to the
classical or modern analyses. Independently of poetic singularity
(singularity of the poet by its biography, singularity of the poem by its
place in work and by its unique character), it searches :
+* the common denominator to the author, to his heirs (other " accursed
poets " for example) and to his readers : who appreciates him, who rejects
him, and in which terms (networks of complicity). A study on
Baudelaire's "The Flowers of Evil", to be published, shows the reliability
of this approach.
+
+* constancy or variation of its "point of view" in the course of his life.
So Aragon (1977) passes from E point of view to I point of view, as shown
by the opposite prefaces of 1924 and 1964 of "Le libertinage" , unlike Paul
Nizan who stays in the dialect E → E.
+
+==== To translations ====
+
+One can take into account the level of language of terms to be translated,
and to render depending on circumstances original expression either by «
perdre la raison », or « devenir fou », or « péter les plombs ».. But it is
unlikely that they differentiate, at the same level of language,
between "fondu" and "givré" or they enter « y passer » and « y rester »
(pseudosynonyms) there. Of this fact the reader will be deprived of a key
information concerning the personality of the author (autobiography), or
the psychology of the character.
+
+=== To all human sciences ===
+
+Brunetto Latini wrote in the Middle Ages ("The Book of Treasure"): «
Tullius Tullius Cicero said that the highest science of city governing is
rhetorics, that is the science of speech ; because if speech did not exist,
neither would city exist nor any establishment of justice or of human
company ».
+
+Lakoff (1985) and Johnson point out : « Metaphors can create realities,
especially social realities », and J. Molino (1979) : « Metaphor, at the
moment when linguists rediscover its importance, appears therefore as a
strategical instrument of analysis of culture ... But if metaphor is
necessary to the interpretation of cultures, would not it be at the same
time one of its essential ingredients ? ».
+
+For A.S.L., which here agrees with Lacan, metaphor is constituent of
phantasy, and institutions (which are based on statements or texts), social
realities and cultures are only aspects of the subjective text or «
psychical reality » which derives from our condition of speaking beings.
And so one can and must, to understand them, approach the study of "human
being" from the angle of speech. A.S.L., among other methods, can
contribute to the critic of psychological, sociological, economic,
political, philosophical, or even pseudo-psychoanalytic explanations
of "discontents in civilisation" : learning to raise the pertinent
questions - i.e. in any "theory" to look for phantasy - is imperative
before even beginning to look for solutions. Indeed the speaker described
by A..S.L. as the simple spokesperson of a "cleared out from its
singularity identification" is no more neither the individual subject of
psychology, nor the collective subject of sociology : « it speaks », there
is no author, were he unique or numerous, of speeches and their effects.
+
+== Notes and references ==
+== See also ==
+== References ==
+== External links ==
+* Tout sur l'Analyse des Logiques Subjectives
+
+== Literature ==
+
+* Arrivé (M.). 1994. "Langage et psychanalyse, linguistique et
inconscient". Paris : P.U.F.
+* Cathelat (B.) & Cathelat (M.). 1992. "Panorama des styles de vie
1960-90". Paris : Les Éditions d’organisation.
+* Dumarsais (C.). 1730. "Des tropes ou des différents sens dans lesquels
on peut prendre un même mot dans une même langue". Paris : Broca. Réédition
présentée, commentée et annotée par Douay, F. (1988). Paris : Flammarion.
+* Dupriez (B.). 1984. "Gradus, les procédés littéraires". Paris : 10/18.
+* Gardes-Tamine (J.). 1996. "La rhétorique". Paris : Armand Colin.
+* Gardin (J.-C.) & Molino (J.). 1987. "La logique du plausible, essais
d'épistémologie pratique en sciences humaines". Paris : Éditions de la
Maison des Sciences de l'Homme.
+* Lakoff, G., Johnson, M. (1985). "Les métaphores dans la vie
quotidienne". Paris : Les Éditions de Minuit.
+* Le Guern (M.). 1973. "Sémantique de la métaphore et de la métonymie".
Paris : Larousse.
+* Milner (J.-C.). 1989. "Introduction à une science du langage". Paris :
Seuil, Coll. « Des travaux ».
+* Milner (J.-C.). 1995. « Linguistique et psychanalyse ».
in : "Encyclopædia Universalis France" CD-Rom.
+* Molino (J.), Soublin (F.) & Tamine (J.). 1979. « Présentation :
problèmes de la métaphore ». in : "Langages", 54.
+* Rastier (F.). 1987. "Sémantique interprétative". Paris : P.U.F.
+* Ronat (M.). 1974. « Énonciation et « grammaire » de l'inconscient ».
in : "L'Arc", 58, pp. 73–78.
+* Tamba-Mecz (I.). 1981. "Le sens figuré". Paris : P.U.F.
+
+
+
+
=======================================
--- /dev/null
+++ /trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Anomie Mon Jun 11 05:34:01 2012
@@ -0,0 +1,72 @@
+
+Anomie describes a lack of social norms; "normlessness". It describes the
breakdown of social bonds between an individual and their community ties,
with fragmentation of social identity and rejection of self-regulatory
values. It was popularized by French sociologist Émile Durkheim in his
influential book "Suicide" (1897). Durkheim borrowed the word from French
philosopher Jean-Marie Guyau. Durkheim never uses the term normlessness;
rather, he describes anomie as "a rule that is a lack of
rule," "derangement," and "an insatiable will."
+
+For Durkheim, anomie arises more generally from a mismatch between
personal or group standards and wider social standards, or from the lack of
a social ethic, which produces moral deregulation and an absence of
legitimate aspirations. This is a nurtured condition:
+
+== History ==
+
+In 1893, Durkheim introduced the concept of "anomie" to describe the
mismatch of collective guild labor to evolving societal needs when the
guild was homogeneous in its constituency. He equated homogeneous
(redundant) skills to "mechanical solidarity" whose inertia retarded
adaptation. He contrasted this with the self-regulating behavior of a
division of labor based on differences in constituency, equated to "organic
solidarity", whose lack of inertia made it differentially sensitive to need
changes.
+
+Durkheim observed that these two labour forms could not co-exist. The
conflict between the evolved organic division of labor and the homogeneous
mechanical type was such that one could not long exist in the presence of
the other: "This social type rests on principles so different from the
preceding that it can develop only in proportion to the effacement of that
preceding type". and "The history of these two types shows, in effect, that
one has progressed only as the other has retrogressed". When solidarity is
organic, anomie is "impossible whenever solidary organs are sufficiently in
contact or sufficiently prolonged. In effect, being contiguous, they are
quickly warned, in each circumstance, of the need they have of one another,
and, consequently, they have a lively and continuous sentiment of their
mutual dependence. For the same reason that exchanges take place among them
easily, they take place frequently, and in time the work of consolidation
is achieved". Their sensitivity to mutual needs promotes the evolution in
the division of labor "because the smallest reaction can be felt from one
part to another. ... They foresee and fix, in detail, the conditions of
equilibrium". "Producers, being near consumers, can easily reckon the
extent of the needs to be satisfied. Equilibrium is established without any
trouble and production regulates itself." Durkheim contrasted the condition
of anomie as being the result of mechanical solidarity: "But on the
contrary, if some opaque environment is interposed, then only stimuli of
certain intensity can be communicated from one organ to another. Relations
being rare, are not repeated enough to be determined; each time there
ensues new grouping. The lines of passage taken by the streams of movement
cannot deepen because the streams themselves are too
intermittent". "Contact is no longer sufficient. The producer can no longer
embrace the market at a glance, nor even in thought. He can no longer see
its limits, since it is, so to speak limitless. Accordingly, production
becomes unbridled and unregulated."
+
+Durkheim's use of the term anomie was about a phenomenon of
industrialization—mass-regimentation that could not adapt due to its own
inertia—its resistance to change, which causes disruptive cycles of
collective behavior (e.g. economics) due to the necessity of a prolonged
buildup of sufficient force or momentum to overcome the inertia.
+
+Later in 1897, in his studies of suicide, Durkheim associated anomie to
the influence of a lack of norms or norms that were too rigid. But such
normlessness or norm-rigidity was a "symptom of anomie", caused by the lack
of differential adaptation that would enable norms to evolve naturally due
to self-regulation, either to develop norms where none existed or to change
norms that had become rigid and obsolete.
+
+== Etymology ==
+
+The word comes from Greek ανομία, namely the prefix "a-" "without",
and "nomos" "law". The Greeks distinguished between "nomos" (νόμος, "law"),
and "arché" (αρχή, "starting rule, axiom, principle"). For example, a
monarch is a single ruler but he or she might still be subject to, and not
exempt from, the prevailing laws, i.e. "nomos". In the original city state
democracy, the majority rule was an aspect of "arché" because it was a
rule-based, customary system, which might or might not make laws,
i.e. "nomos". Thus, the original meaning of "anomie" defined anything or
anyone against or outside the law, or a condition where the current laws
were not applied resulting in a state of illegitimacy or lawlessness.
+
+The contemporary English understanding of the word "anomie" can accept
greater flexibility in the word "norm", and some have used the idea of
normlessness to reflect a similar situation to the idea of anarchy. But, as
used by Émile Durkheim and later theorists, "anomie" is a reaction against
or a retreat from the regulatory social controls of society, and is a
completely separate concept from anarchy, which is an absence of effective
rulers or leaders.
+
+== As social disorder ==
+
+The nineteenth century French pioneer sociologist Émile Durkheim borrowed
the word from French philosopher Jean-Marie Guyau and used it in his
influential book "Suicide" (1897), outlining the social (and not
individual) causes of suicide, characterized by an absence or diminution of
standards or values (referred to as normlessness), and an associated
feeling of alienation and purposelessness. He believed that "anomie" is
common when the surrounding society has undergone significant changes in
its economic fortunes, whether for good or for worse and, more generally,
when there is a significant discrepancy between the ideological theories
and values commonly professed and what was actually achievable in everyday
life. This is contrary to previous theories on suicide which generally
maintained that suicide was precipitated by negative events in a person's
life and their subsequent depression.
+
+In Durkheim's view, traditional religions often provided the basis for the
shared values which the anomic individual lacks. Furthermore, he argued
that the division of labor that had been prevalent in economic life since
the Industrial Revolution led individuals to pursue egoistic ends rather
than seeking the good of a larger community. Robert King Merton also
adopted the idea of "anomie" to develop Strain Theory, defining it as the
discrepancy between common social goals and the legitimate means to attain
those goals. In other words, an individual suffering from "anomie" would
strive to attain the common goals of a specific society yet would not be
able to reach these goals legitimately because of the structural
limitations in society. As a result the individual would exhibit deviant
behavior. Friedrich Hayek notably uses the word "anomie" with this meaning.
+
+According to one academic survey, psychometric testing confirmed a link
between anomie and academic dishonesty among university students suggesting
that universities needed to foster codes of ethics among students in order
to curb it. In another study anomie was seen as a "push factor" in tourism.
+
+As an older variant, the Webster 1913 dictionary reports use of the
word "anomie" as meaning "disregard or violation of the law" but anomie as
a social disorder is not to be confused with "anarchy". Proponents of
anarchism claim that anarchy does not necessarily lead to "anomie" and that
hierarchical command actually increases lawlessness. Some subsets of
anarchism, such as anarcho-primitivism argue in works such as Industrial
Society and Its Future that conditions such as anomie are directly caused
by complex societies, particularly industrial and post-industrial societies
due to their deprivation of individual self-determination and a relatively
small reference group to relate to, such as the band, clan, or tribe.
+
+== In literature, film, and theater ==
+
+In Albert Camus's existentialist novel "The Stranger", the bored,
alienated protagonist Meursault struggles to construct an individual system
of values as he responds to the disappearance of the old. He exists largely
in a state of "anomie", as seen from the apathy evinced in the opening
lines: "" ("Today mother died. Or maybe yesterday, I don't know"). When
Mersault is prosecuted for shooting an Arab man during a fight, the
prosecuting attorneys seem more interested in the inability or
unwillingness of Meursault to cry at his mother's funeral than the murder
of the Arab, because they find his lack of remorse offensive. The novel
ends with Meursault recognizing the universe's indifference toward
humankind. In the first half of the novel Meursault is clearly an
unreflecting, unapologetic individual. Ultimately, Camus presents the world
as essentially meaningless and therefore, the only way to arrive at any
meaning or purpose is to make it oneself.
+
+Fyodor Dostoyevsky, whose work is often considered a philosophical
precursor to existentialism, often expressed a similar concern in his
novels. In "The Brothers Karamazov", it is expressed more than once by
different characters that in the absence of God and immortal life,
everything would be lawful. That one can do as one likes, but this one
cannot. The novel explores the existence of God, the nature of truth, and
the importance of forgiveness through the actions of its characters.
Raskolnikov, the anti-hero of Dostoevsky’s novel "Crime and Punishment",
puts this philosophy into action when he kills an elderly pawnbroker and
her sister, later rationalizing this act to himself with the words, "...it
wasn’t a human being I killed, it was a principle!" Raskolnikov's inner
conflict in the opening section of the novel results in a
utilitarian-altruistic justification for the proposed crime: why not kill a
wretched and "useless" old moneylender to alleviate the human misery?
+
+The Swiss Friedrich Dürrenmatt's 1956 tragicomic play The Visit is another
striking example of anomie. The town of Guellen eagerly surrenders to the
temptation of modern-day fiscal freedom promised by billionairess Claire
Zachanassian in exchange for the dead body of the Alfred Ill. Now the
recently elected mayor-to-be, he was also the man who jilted Zachanassian
(and their unborn child) several decades ago leaving her destitute.
Initially reluctant, the townsfolk quickly forgo the established societal
norms and basic human values, disrupting and disregarding the victim's ties
to his family and community. Inevitably, the people of Guellen fall in the
trap of gaudy materialism, justifying themselves as they increasingly allow
themselves to become selfish; they promote normlessness. Eventually they
succeed in alienating and hypocritically passing judgment on the man, to
the extent where they carry out his public execution - he is lynched by his
townsmen. They then abandon his body as they are too distracted in
celebration of their 'rightful' blood-money - signifying that anomie
continues even after they are gone.
+
+Hermann Hesse's "Der Steppenwolf" also expresses a picture of anomie. The
novel tells the story of a middle-aged man named Harry Haller who is beset
with reflections on his being ill-suited for the world of "everybody", the
regular people. In his aimless wanderings about the city he is given a book
which describes the two natures of man: one "high", spiritual and "human";
while the other is "low" and animal-like. Thus, man is entangled in an
irresolvable struggle, never content with either nature because he cannot
see beyond this self-made construct. While Haller longs to live free from
social convention, he continually lives as a bourgeois bachelor. Haller
argues that the men of the Dark Ages did not suffer more than those of
Classical Antiquity, and vice-versa. It is rather those who live between
two times, those who do not know what to follow, that suffer the most. In
this token, a man from the Dark Ages living in Classical Antiquity, or the
opposite, would undergo a gulping sadness and agony.
+
+The characters Vladimir and Estragon in Samuel Beckett's absurdist
play "Waiting For Godot" express a sense of anomie. The play follows two
consecutive days in the lives of a pair of men who divert themselves while
they wait expectantly and unsuccessfully for someone named Godot to arrive.
Frustrated at the long wait, they think of what to do to pass the time.
Estragon suggests that they hang themselves, but since they are concerned
that they might not both die, they decide to do nothing: "It's safer",
explains Estragon. Another character, Lucky, describes an impersonal and
callous God. Lucky next asserts that man 'wastes and pines', mourns an
inhospitable earth, and claims that he diminishes in a world that does not
nurture him". The play illustrates an attitude toward man's experience on
earth: the poignancy, oppression, camaraderie, hope, corruption, and
bewilderment of human experience that can only be reconciled in the mind
and art of the absurdist.
+
+The Yugoslav film "When I Am Dead and Gone" (1967) is a relentless
portrayal of anomie throughout the contemporary Yugoslav society,
experiencing rapid industrialization and urbanization. The main character
seeks to settle down in an environment where all norms are habitually
broken.
+
+== See also ==
+== References ==
+
+== Bibliography ==
+
+* Durkheim, Émile. (1893). "The Division of Labour in Society"
+* Durkheim, Émile. (1897). "Suicide"
+* Realino Marra, "Suicidio, diritto e anomia. Immagini della morte
volontaria nella civiltà occidentale", Edizioni Scientifiche Italiane,
Napoli, 1987, ISBN 209776
+* Realino Marra, "Geschichte und aktuelle Problematik des
Anomiebegriffs", "Zeitschrift für Rechtssoziologie", XI-1, 1989, 67-80.
+* Marco Orru. "The Ethics of Anomie: Jean Marie Guyau and Émile
Durkheim", "British Journal of Sociology", Vol. 34, No. 4 (Dec., 1983),
pp. 499–518
+* Riba, Jordi (1999). "La Morale Anomique de Jean-Marie Guyau'.
L'Harmattan. ISBN 978-2-7384-7772-9
+
+== External links ==
+
+* "Anomie" discussed at the Émile Durkheim Archive.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
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--- /dev/null
+++ /trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Anticipatory socialization Mon Jun 11
05:34:01 2012
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+Anticipatory socialization is the process, facilitated by social
interactions, in which non-group-members learn to take on the values and
standards of groups that they aspire to join, so as to ease their entry
into the group and help them interact competently once they have been
accepted by it. It is the process of changing one's attitudes and
behaviours, in preparation for a shift in one's role. Words commonly
associated with anticipatory socialization include grooming, play-acting,
training and rehearsing.
+
+The concept of anticipatory socialization, first defined by sociologist
Robert K. Merton, has its origins in a 1949 study of the United States
military which found that privates who modelled their attitudes and
behaviours on those of officers were more likely to be promoted than those
who didn't.
+
+When people are blocked from access to a group they might have wanted to
join, they reject that group's values and norms, and instead begin the
anticipatory socialization process with groups that are more receptive to
them. People doing this, for example economically disadvantaged teenagers
who aspire to become drug dealers rather than professionals, are sometimes
criticized as lacking motivation, however sociologists say they are simply
making a pragmatic adjustment to the opportunities available to them.
+
+Examples of anticipatory socialization include law school students
learning how to behave like lawyers, older people preparing for retirement
and Mormon boys getting ready to become missionaries.
+
+==References==
+
+
=======================================
--- /dev/null
+++ /trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Anticonformism Mon Jun 11 05:34:01 2012
@@ -0,0 +1,24 @@
+
+The term Anti-conformism has been defined as when a human seeks to "spit
in society's face, doing things just to shock or spite them." It is unknown
when the term first came to be used in society, but the term can be
confused with "non-conformism". The etymology of the actual word reveals
that the first section of the word is the Greek anti- (αντι),
meaning "against" or "instead of"; whilst the second part of the term,
conformist, can be traced back to the Old French (O.Fr.) word "conformer",
meaning to "make or be similar".
+
+==Definition==
+Anti-conformism is a philosophy which actively rejects conformity.
Anti-conformists are not merely individualists, but more so, believe that
conformity is responsible for many of the world's ills and problems.
Anti-conformists usually equate the pressure to conform to social norms
with a form of cultural bigotry and therefore champion a free-spirited
individualism that attempts to rid him or herself of all vestiges of
socially-based desires and characteristics.
+
+The Anticonformism is the opposite of conformity. We use this word to
describe the attitude of opposition to it, even hostility to the standards,
of the established practices.
+
+The Standard, from the Latin norma (square, ruler), functions as a model,
reference, or even a rule. It corresponds to the usual state, consistent
with the majority of cases. So it means the average, normal .
+
+Any individual who, in society, deviates from the norm, and is often
considered abnormal, and sometimes even deviant. In this regard, Andre
Gide(French writer of the twentieth century) writes:
+
+"Every non-compliant thought is suspect." Suspect in the eyes of those who
conform precisely to a standard of thought and often behavioral standard.
These individuals end up resembling, as their desire to imitate is huge.
And Marcel, the Conformist hero in Alberto Moravia's book (1951), is
delighted to be like everyone else.
+
+The Anticonformist is often an individualist, derived from the Latin word
dividere, which means to "split", "separate". It is "separated" from the
mass, from his environment, because he does not comply with the models laid
down by the majority. The nonconformist therefore declined to be the one
that he should be. He asserts his originality: indeed, the nonconformist
wants to innovate, invent.
+
+True artists are almost all anticonformists, We should think about of the
Romantic artists of the early nineteenth century, the Impressionist
painters who opposed then by their creative freedom, the aesthetic
standards of academic painting. And, closer to us, the surrealist movement
which has deeply influenced the years 1920-1930.
+
+But if conformity favors, one can guess, social integration,
non-conformist is sometimes a source of mistrust, (see quote from Andre
Gide above); hostility or exclusion of the representatives of the standard,
of the order.
+Even if a anticonformist, might be seen as a resistant, or a rebel, the
philosopher Pascal Bruckner points out in "the conformism of subversion",
the systematic critique of modern society and, more particularly, of the
liberal system, the advertising and media, with whom he is in affinity,
becomes a conformist upside down, a new way, just as excessive and
ridiculous, to be the part of the herd. Pierre Bourdieu also emphasized
that conformity and homogenization of thought is conveyed in most media.
+
+==References==
+
+
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--- /dev/null
+++ /trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Antilocution Mon Jun 11 05:34:01 2012
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+
+Antilocution is a term defined by psychologist Gordon Allport in his
book "The Nature of Prejudice", 1954. Antilocution is defined as verbal
remarks against a person, group or community, which are not addressed
directly to the target. Generally referred to as "talking behind someone's
back," the impact of this is often overlooked. However because antilocution
creates an environment where discrimination is acceptable, it frequently
progresses to other more damaging forms of prejudiced behavior. It's use is
overshadowed by the more modern term Hate speech which has almost the same
meaning.
+
+==See also==
+*Allport's scale
+
+
+
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--- /dev/null
+++ /trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Antiprocess Mon Jun 11 05:34:01 2012
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+
+
+Antiprocess is the preemptive recognition and marginalization of undesired
information by the interplay of mental defense mechanisms: the subconscious
compromises information that would cause cognitive dissonance. It is often
used to describe a difficulty encountered when people with sharply
contrasting viewpoints are attempting (and failing) to discuss a topic. In
other words, when one is debating with another, there may be a baffling
disconnect despite his apparent understanding of the argument. Despite the
apparently sufficient understanding to formulate counter-arguments, the
mind of the debater does not allow him to be swayed by that knowledge.
+
+There are many instances on the Internet where antiprocess can be
observed, but the prime location to see it is in Usenet discussion groups,
where discussions tend to be highly polarized. In such debates, both sides
appear to have a highly sophisticated understanding of the other position,
yet neither side is swayed. As a result, the debate can continue for years
without any progress being made.
+
+Antiprocess occurs because:
+
+# The mind is capable of multitasking;
+# The mind has the innate capability to evaluate and select information at
a preconscious level so that we are not overwhelmed with the processing
requirements;
+# It is not feasible to maintain two contradictory beliefs at the same
time;
+# It is not possible for people to be aware of every factor leading up to
decisions they make;
+# People learn argumentatively effective but logically invalid defensive
strategies (such as rhetorical fallacies);
+# People tend to favour strategies of thinking that have served them well
in the past; and
+# The truth is just too unpalatable to the mind to accept.
+
+The ramifications of these factors are that people can be engaged in a
debate sincerely, yet the appearances suggest that they are not. This can
lead to acrimony if neither party is aware of antiprocess and does not
adjust his or her debating style accordingly.
+
+==External links==
+*Introduction to Antiprocess (archive)
+
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+++ /trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Archetype Mon Jun 11 05:34:01 2012
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+
+An archetype () is a universally understood symbol, term, or pattern of
behavior, a prototype upon which others are copied, patterned, or emulated.
Archetypes are often used in myths and storytelling across different
cultures.
+
+In psychology, an archetype is a model of a person, personality, or
behavior.
+
+In philosophy, archetypes have, since Plato, referred to ideal forms of
the perceived or sensible objects or types.
+
+In the analysis of personality, the term "archetype" is often broadly used
to refer to:
+# A stereotype— a personality type observed multiple times, especially an
oversimplification of such a type.
+# An epitome— a personality type exemplified, especially the "greatest"
such example.
+# A literary term to express details.
+
+Archetype refers to a generic version of a personality. In this
sense, "mother figure" may be considered an archetype, and may be
identified in various characters with otherwise distinct (non-generic)
personalities.
+
+Archetypes are likewise supposed to have been present in folklore and
literature for thousands of years, including prehistoric artwork. The use
of archetypes to illuminate personality and literature was advanced by Carl
Jung early in the 20th century, who suggested the existence of universal
contentless forms that channel experiences and emotions, resulting in
recognizable and typical patterns of behavior with certain probable
outcomes. Archetypes are cited as important to both ancient mythology and
modern narratives.
+
+==Etymology==
+First attested in English in 1540s, the word "archetype" derives from the
Latin noun "archetypum", the latinisation of the Greek noun ἀρχέτυπον
("archetupon") and adjective ἀρχέτυπος ("archetupos"),
meaning "first-moulded", which is a compound of ἀρχή ("archē",) "beginning,
origin" + τύπος ("tupos"), amongst others "pattern, model, type".
+
+"Pronunciation note": The "ch" in archetype is a transliteration of the
Greek chi () and is most commonly articulated in English as a "k".
+
+==Origins==
+The origins of the archetypal hypothesis date back as far as Plato. Jung
himself compared archetypes to Platonic ideas. Plato's "ideas" were pure
mental forms that were imprinted in the soul before it was born into the
world. They were collective in the sense that they embodied the fundamental
characteristics of a thing rather than its specific peculiarities.
+
+The Platonist Jewish philosopher Philo of Alexandria used the term to
describe the "Imago Dei", and the Gallic Christian theologian Irenaeus of
Lyons used the term to describe the act of Creation.
+
+==Jungian archetypes==
+The concept of psychological archetypes was advanced by the Swiss
psychiatrist Carl Jung, c. 1919. In Jung's psychological framework,
archetypes are innate, universal prototypes for ideas and may be used to
interpret observations. A group of memories and interpretations associated
with an archetype is a complex ( e.g. a mother complex associated with the
mother archetype). Jung treated the archetypes as psychological organs,
analogous to physical ones in that both are morphological constructs that
arose through evolution.
+
+Jung outlined five main archetypes:
+*The Self, the regulating center of the psyche and facilitator of
individuation,
+*The Shadow, the opposite of the ego image, often containing qualities
with which the ego does not identify, but which it possesses nonetheless,
+*The Anima, the feminine image in a man's psyche, or
+*The Animus, the masculine image in a woman's psyche,
+*The Persona, the image we present to the world, usually protecting the
Ego from negative images (like a mask), and considered another of 'the
subpersonalities, the complexes'.
+
+Although archetypes can take on innumerable forms, there are a few
particularly notable, recurring archetypal images:
+*The Child
+*The Hero
+*The Martyr
+*The Great Mother
+*The Wise old man or Sage
+*The Wise Old Woman/Man, archetypes of the collective unconscious
+
+*The Damsel in distress
+*The Trickster or Fox
+*The Devil or Satan
+*The Scarecrow
+*The Mentor
+*The Warrior
+Jung also outlined what he called archetypes of transformation, which are
situations, places, ways, and means that symbolize the transformation in
question. These archetypes exist primarily as energy and are useful in
organizational development, personal and organizational change management,
and extensively used in place branding.
+
+==In pedagogy (teaching)==
+Clifford Mayes (born July 15, 1953), professor in the Brigham Young
University McKay School of Education, has developed what he has termed
archetypal pedagogy. Mayes' work also aims at promoting what he calls
archetypal reflectivity in teachers; this is a means of encouraging
teachers to examine and work with psychodynamic issues, images, and
assumptions, as those factors affect their pedagogical practices.
Archetypal reflectivity, which draws not only upon Jungian psychology but
transpersonal psychology, generally offers an avenue for teachers to probe
the spiritual dimensions of teaching and learning in non-dogmatic terms.
+
+In the USA, Mayes' two most recent works, "Inside Education: Depth
Psychology in Teaching and Learning" (2007) and "The Archetypal Hero's
Journey in Teaching and Learning: A Study in Jungian Pedagogy" (2008),
incorporate the psychoanalytic theories of Heinz Kohut (particularly
Kohut's notion of the selfobject) and the object relations theory of Ronald
Fairbairn and D.W. Winnicott. Some of Mayes' work in curriculum theory,
especially "Seven Curricular Landscapes: An Approach to the Holistic
Curriculum" (2003) and "Understanding the Whole Student: Holistic
Multicultural Education" (2007), is concerned with holistic education.
+
+==In literature and art==
+
+Archetypes can be found in nearly all forms of literature, with their
motifs being predominantly rooted in folklore.
+
+William Butler Yeats completed an automatic writing with his wife
(Georgie) Hyde-Lees. Their book, A Vision, contains an interesting mapping
and list of 28 archetypes by these characters' will and fate.
+Tarot cards depict a system of archetypes used for divination of a
persons' fate or story.
+In the Noh plays of Japan, the characters are skillfully depicted with
exaggerated expressions and elaborate costumes to clearly portray a system
of archetypes.
+
+William Shakespeare is responsible for popularizing several archetypal
characters. Falstaff, the bawdy rotund comic knight; Romeo and Juliet, the
ill-fated ("star-crossed") lovers; Richard II, the hero who dies with
honour; and many others. Although Shakespeare based many of his characters
on existing archetypes from fables and myths (e.g., Romeo and Juliet on
Arthur Brooke's "Romeus and Juliet"), Shakespeare's characters stand out as
original by their contrast against a complex social literary landscape. For
instance, in" The Tempest", Shakespeare borrowed from a manuscript by
William Strachey that detailed an actual shipwreck of the Virginia-bound
17th-century English sailing vessel "Sea Venture" in 1609 on the islands of
Bermuda. Shakespeare also borrowed heavily from a speech by Medea in
Ovid's" Metamorphoses "in writing Prospero's renunciative speech;
nevertheless, the combination of these elements in the character of
Prospero created a new interpretation of the sage magician as that of a
carefully plotting hero, quite distinct from the wizard-as-advisor
archetype of Merlin or Gandalf. Both of these are likely derived from
priesthood authority archetypes, such as Celtic Druids, or perhaps Biblical
figures like Abraham, Moses, etc.; or in the case of Gandalf, the Norse
figure Odin.
+
+Certain common methods of character depiction employed in dramatic
performance rely on the pre-existence of literary archetypes. Stock
characters used in theatre or film are based on highly generic literary
archetypes. A pastiche is an imitation of an archetype or prototype in
order to pay homage to the original creator.
+
+Sheri Tepper's novel" Plague of Angels "contains archetypical villages,
essentially human zoos where a wide variety of archetypal people are kept,
including heroes, orphans, oracles, ingénues, bastards, young lovers,
poets, princesses, martyrs, and fools.
+
+Similarly, the song "Atlantis" by the folk singer Donovan mentions twelve
archetypal characters leaving the sinking Atlantis and spreading to the far
corners of the world to bring civilization, though only five of the twelve
are mentioned in the song:
+
+Knowing her fate, Atlantis sent out ships to all corners of the Earth.
+On board were the Twelve:
+The poet, the physician, the farmer, the scientist, the magician,
+And the other so-called Gods of our legends,
+Though Gods they were.</poem>
+
+The superhero genre is also frequently cited as emblematic of archetypal
literature.
+
+—"Superman on the Couch "by Danny Fingeroth 151
+==See also==
+
+* Archive for Research in Archetypal Symbolism
+* Character (arts)
+* Cliché
+* Mental model
+* Ostensive definition
+* Perennial philosophy
+* Personification
+* Prototype
+* Simulacrum
+* Theory of Forms
+* Wounded healer
+==References==
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
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2012
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+
+Artificial demand constitutes demand for something that, in the absence of
exposure to the vehicle of creating demand, would not exist. It has
controversial applications in microeconomics (pump and dump strategy) and
advertising. Synonyms for "artificial demand" include "fake demand"
and "false need".
+
+A demand is usually seen as artificial when it increases consumer utility
very inefficiently; for example, a physician proscribing unnecessary
surgeries would be creating artificial demand. Government spending with the
primary purpose of providing jobs (rather than deliverying any other end
product) has been labelled "artificial demand".
+
+Vehicles of creating artificial demand can include mass media advertising,
which can create demand for goods, services, political policies or
platforms, and other entities.
+
+Another example of artificial demand can be seen in penny stock spam.
After purchasing a large number of shares of an extremely low-value stock,
the spammer attempts to create artificial demand by implementing a
spam-based guerilla marketing strategy.
+
+== Notes ==
+==See also==
+*Pump and dump
+
+
+
+
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+++ /trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Asch conformity experiments Mon Jun 11
05:34:01 2012
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+
+The Asch conformity experiments were a series of laboratory studies
published in the 1950s that demonstrated a surprising degree of conformity
to a majority opinion. These are also known as the Asch Paradigm.
+
+==Influences on Asch==
+Solomon Asch attributed his research on group conformity to an experience
he had as a child growing up in Poland. When Asch stayed up late to
participate in his first Passover, he witnessed his grandmother setting out
an extra glass of wine out on the table. When Asch asked who would be
drinking that glass of wine, his uncle replied that it was for the prophet
Elijah. Asch was “filled with the sense of suggestion and expectation” and
believed he saw the level of wine in the glass decrease slightly.
+
+At the beginning of World War II, Asch began to study the effects
propaganda and indoctrination at Brooklyn College. Asch came to the
conclusion that propaganda was most effective when fear and ignorance
played a part on the intended targets.
+
+==Methodology==
+
+Experiments led by Solomon Asch of Swarthmore College asked groups of
students to participate in a "vision test." In reality, all but one of the
participants were confederates of the experimenter, and the study was
really about how the remaining student would react to the confederates'
behavior.
+
+Each participant was put into a group with 5 to 7 "confederates" (people
who knew the true aims of the experiment, but were introduced as
participants to the naive "real" participant). The participants were shown
a card with a line on it, followed by another card with 3 lines on it
labeled A, B, and C. The participants were then asked to say which line
matched the line on the first card in length. Each line question was called
a "trial". The "real" participant answered last or next to last. For the
first two trials, the subject would feel at ease in the experiment, as he
and the other "participants" gave the obvious, correct answer. On the third
trial, the confederates would start all giving the same wrong answer. There
were 18 trials in total and the confederates answered incorrectly for 12 of
them, these 12 were known as the "critical trials". The aim was to see
whether the real participant would change his answer and respond in the
same way as the confederates, despite it being the wrong answer.
+
+==Results==
+In a control group, with no pressure to conform to an erroneous view, only
one subject out of 35 ever gave an incorrect answer. Solomon Asch
hypothesized that the majority of people would not conform to something
obviously wrong; however, when surrounded by individuals all voicing an
incorrect answer, participants provided incorrect responses on a high
proportion of the questions (32%). Seventy-five percent of the participants
gave an incorrect answer to at least one question.
+
+Variations of the basic paradigm tested how many cohorts were necessary to
induce conformity, examining the influence of just one cohort and as many
as fifteen. Results indicate that one cohort has virtually no influence and
two cohorts have only a small influence. When three or more cohorts are
present, the tendency to conform increases only modestly. The maximum
effect occurs with four cohorts. Adding additional cohorts does not produce
a stronger effect.
+
+The unanimity of the confederates has also been varied. When the
confederates are not unanimous in their judgment, even if only one
confederate voices a different opinion, participants are much more likely
to resist the urge to conform (only 5-10% conform) than when the
confederates all agree. This finding illuminates the power that even a
small dissenting minority can have. Interestingly, this finding holds
whether or not the dissenting confederate gives the correct answer. As long
as the dissenting confederate gives an answer that is different from the
majority, participants are more likely to give the correct answer. Males
show around half the effect of females (tested in same-sex groups); and
conformity is higher among members of an ingroup.
+
+==Interpretations==
+===Public conformity vs. social influence===
+The Asch conformity experiments are often interpreted as evidence for the
power of conformity and normative social influence. That is, the
willingness to conform publicly in order to attain social reward and avoid
social punishment. Others have argued that it is rational to use other
people's judgments as evidence. Along the lines of the latter perspective,
the Asch conformity experiments are cited as evidence for the
self-categorization theory account of social influence. From that
perspective the Asch results are interpreted as an outcome of
depersonalization processes whereby the participants expect to hold the
same opinions as similar others.
+
+===Social comparison theory===
+The conformity demonstrated in Asch experiments is problematic for social
comparison theory, which predicts that social reality testing, or
informational influence, will arise when physical reality testing yields
uncertainty. The Asch conformity experiments demonstrated that uncertainty
can arise as an outcome of social reality testing. Relatedly, this
inconsistency has been used to support the position that the theoretical
distinction between social reality testing and physical reality testing is
untenable.
+
+==See also==
+* No soap radio, a joke or prank that preys upon a subject's likeliness to
conform to other people's reactions to a stimulus. The basic setup is very
similar to an Asch conformity experiment.
+* Three men make a tiger, a Chinese proverb which refers to an
individual's tendency to accept absurd information as long as it is
repeated by enough people.
+
+==References==
+
+==Bibliography==
+* Asch, S. E. (1951). Effects of group pressure upon the modification and
distortion of judgment. In H. Guetzkow (ed.) "Groups, leadership and men".
Pittsburgh, PA: Carnegie Press. (summary here)
+* Asch, S. E. (1955). Opinions and social pressure. "Scientific American,
193", 31-35.
+* Asch, S. E. (1956). Studies of independence and conformity: A minority
of one against a unanimous majority. "Psychological Monographs, 70" (Whole
no. 416).
+* Bond, R., & Smith, P. (1996). Culture and conformity: A meta-analysis of
studies using Asch’s (1952b, 1956) line judgment task. "Psychological
Bulletin", 119, 111-137.
+* Hayes, N. (2000). Foundations of psychology. 3rd edition. Thomson,
p. 518-520.
+
+==External links==
+
+*Science Aid: Asch experiment A look at majority influence and Asch's
experiment for high school level
+*Changingminds: Normative social influence
+*Age of the sage summary of one Asch experiment
+*BBC Radio: Mind changers: Solomon Asch
+*Video
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
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--- /dev/null
+++ /trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Ascribed status Mon Jun 11 05:34:01 2012
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+
+Ascribed status is the social status a person is assigned at birth or
assumed involuntarily later in life. It is a position that is neither
earned nor chosen but assigned. These rigid social designators remain fixed
throughout an individual's life and are inseparable from the positive or
negative stereotypes that are linked with one's ascribed statuses.
+
+The practice of assigning such statuses to individuals exists
cross-culturally within all societies and is based on sex, gender, race,
family origins, and ethnic backgrounds. For example, a person born into a
wealthy family has a high ascribed status based solely on the social
networks and economic advantages that one gains from being born into a
family with more resources than others.
+
+In contrast, an achieved status is a social position a person takes on
voluntarily that reflects both personal ability and merit. An individual's
occupation tends to fall under the category of an achieved status; for
example, a teacher or a firefighter.
+
+Individuals have control over their achieved statuses insofar as there are
no restrictions that are associated with their ascribed statuses that could
potentially hinder their social growth. Ascribed status plays an important
role in societies because it can provide the members with a defined and
unified identity. No matter where an individual's ascribed status may place
him or her in the social hierarchy each has a set of roles and expectations
that are directly linked to each ascribed status and thus, provides a
social identity.
+
+==Factors==
+The various factors which determine ascribed status are:
+
+*Age, as in age stratification
+*Kinship
+*Sex
+*Appearance
+*Race
+*Group
+*Caste
+
+In addition to ascription, at birth there are also:
+*Delayed Ascription - When the social status is given at a later stage of
life
+*Fluid Ascription - When the ascribed status leads to an achieved status
+
+==Reversible and irreversible ascribed status==
+The sociologist, Ralph Linton, developed definitions for ascribed status
and achieved status. According to Linton, ascribed status is assigned to an
individual without reference to their innate differences or abilities.
Achieved status is determined by an individual's performance or effort.
Linton noted that while the definitions of the two concepts are clear and
distinct, it is not always easy to identify whether an individual's status
is ascribed or achieved. His perspective offers a deviation from the view
that ascribed statuses are always fixed.
+
+Religion is generally perceived as an ascribed status but for those
individuals that choose a religion as an adult or convert to another
religion their religion is then an achieved status, based on Linton's
definition. It is commonly perceived that ascribed statuses are
irreversible while achieved statuses are reversible. Linton uses Leo
Schnore's research to illustrate how ascribed statuses can be both
irreversible and reversible. An example of an ascribed reversible status is
the status of citizenship.
+
+An example of ascribed irreversible status is age. His conclusion is based
on the fact that an ascribed status within a social structure is indicative
of the behavior that one can exhibit but it does not explain the action
itself. Ascribed status is an arbitrary system of classifying individuals
that is not fixed in the way that most people think.
+
+Status is a social phenomenon rather than a biological one. The meaning is
derived from the collection of expectations of how an individual should
behave and what the expected treatment of that individual is. If an
individual lies about a biological fact or social accomplishment and this
lie remains undiscovered by others and is accepted by them then in this
social system, his status will be based on the lie. His status would not be
based on a biological fact or social accomplishment.
+
+Behavior toward the individual will be in accordance with the accepted
lie. Consequently, behavior expected from that individual will also be in
accordance with that accepted lie rather than the ascribed status that
would be associated with him if the truth were known. The success of the
structure requires that the expectations remain constant, even if they are
illegitimately acquired, given that the truth is never discovered. This
further highlights the arbitrariness of ascribed status because there is no
biological basis or universal truth for assigning these societal rankings
to individuals.
+
+==Low self-esteem and ascribed status==
+There is a positive correlation between an individual's self-esteem and
their ascribed status; for this purpose, self-esteem is defined as a liking
and respect for oneself which has its basis in reality. Individuals with a
low social status generally have a lower self-esteem. A negative image of
oneself among individuals with lower ascribed statuses is the result of the
internalization of the expectations that others have of them and the
treatment that they receive based on those statuses.
+
+The juxtaposition of their own value systems against the larger society's
view often leaves individuals of a lower status with low self-esteem
without regard to the individual’s actual capabilities. A negative
self-image may stifle an individual's efforts to acquire a certain achieved
status; this illustrates how a low ascribed status can result in a low
achieved status.
+
+==Minorities and status inconsistency==
+Ascribed statuses are determined by the dominant groups in society and as
a result, minorities are often assigned lower statuses. Within the social
structure of the United States, minority groups are forced to attempt to
reconcile the conflicts that arise from the social expectations that are
linked with their assigned statuses in society and their perceived view of
themselves. In the face of the knowledge that individuals occupy more than
one ascribed role at a time, it becomes evident that there may be some
statuses in society’s multi-dimensional structure that do not comfortably
coexist.
+
+Status consistency is defined as the degree to which an individual’s
social rank positions that exist within important status hierarchies are at
a comparable level. The greater mobility of class systems produces less
status consistency. In Canada, for example, most university professors with
advanced academic degrees enjoy high social prestige but earn only average
salaries. Low status consistency means that classes are much harder to
define than castes.
+
+At the root of the problem of status inconsistency is the inability of
individuals to reconcile the conflicting expectations. A woman from a
racial minority group may not experience status inconsistency because as a
woman and as a member of a minority group she may be considered to be of a
lower ascribed status. But, if this woman rejects the assigned roles that
are associated with her status she is then experiencing status
inconsistency.
+
+To offer another example, a woman born into a wealthy family occupies both
a high and a low ascribed status within the social structure because her
inherited resources and social networks are advantageous while her role as
a woman may be considered inferior. When a person holds a high rank on one
status dimension and low rank on another, the expectations of the two are
often at odds with one another.
+
+The two general consequences that arise from the tension that exists
between the differing expectations are frustration and uncertainty about
how one should act given how others believe they should behave and their
own perceived notions of their abilities and the course of action that they
should take to achieve their goals.
+
+==Types of statuses in upper class population==
+*The Ascribed Status - an inherited status which symbolizes ownership of
wealth and vast land. The royal family fall into this category
+*The 'Pop Aristocracy' in which famous people who originated from working
and middle class background made their money. Football players, actors and
the like are included in this category.
+*Achieved Status - the last group of upper class are the entrepreneurs.
They will have made their money from business. Firstly starting with a
small family business, they slowly expanded and made their wealth in this
way.
+
+==Religion==
+Wealth is not the only social characteristic that defines an individual's
ascribed status. Religion is also a factor that must be considered. If your
family identifies with a particular religion be it Christianity, Hinduism,
Islam, etc., you are identified as the same religion as your biological or
adopted parents. An individual's religion or absence of religion then
becomes apart of his or her ascribed status. The social norms of a
particular religion may have different ascribed statuses than those that
are given by the larger society that it assigns to its followers based on
the religious doctrines that govern their belief. Ascribed status can also
be closely linked with master status as they both involve what you were
born with although master status is a broader term and looks at more topics
than ascribed status. Another way to look at ascribed status is through the
caste system in India.
+
+==Caste system==
+
+The caste system in India long has been an extreme example of a
stratification structure based on ascribed status. Each level in the
stratification structure is known as a caste. Everyone is born belonging to
a specific caste. The caste of the parents thus generally determines the
status of their children, regardless of ability or merit. The ranks of the
caste system include:
+
+*Brahmins- These is the highest rank of the whole caste system. The
Brahmins consist of all priests, scholars, and enlightened people that have
been through many lives.
+
+*Kshatriyas- These are the rulers, warriors, and those concerned with the
defense and administration of the well-being of their town or village.
+
+*Vaishyas- These people consisted of all the traders, merchants, and
people involved in agricultural production
+
+*Sudra- These people are the lowest of the caste system. Hindu religion
believes this class is where first life starts. The sudras spend most of
their time being the laborers and servants for the other castes.
+
+*Untouchables- The untouchables are the lowest of the low. They are so low
that they do not have a place in the caste system. The jobs of these people
include the cleaning of dead bodies and fecal excrement.
+
+==See also==
+* Achieved status
+* Master status
+* Social status
+
+==References==
+==Citations==
+
+# http://www.sociologyguide.com/basic-concepts/Ascribed-Statuses.php
+# A Clarification of "Ascribed Status" and "Achieved Status", by Irving S.
Foladare The Sociological Quarterly © 1969 Midwest Sociological Society.
+# A Clarification of "Ascribed Status" and "Achieved Status", by Irving S.
Foladare The Sociological Quarterly © 1969 Midwest Sociological Society.
+# Self-Esteem and Low Status Groups: A Changing Scene?, by Jeffrey M.
Jacques and Karen J. Chason The Sociological Quarterly © 1977 Midwest
Sociological Society.
+# Status Consistency and Symptoms of Stress, by Elton F. Jackson American
Sociological Review © 1962 American Sociological Association.
+
+
+
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+++ /trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Assertiveness Mon Jun 11 05:34:01 2012
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+Assertiveness is a particular mode of communication. "Dorland's Medical
Dictionary" defines assertiveness as:
+During the second half of the 20th century, assertiveness was increasingly
singled out as a behavioral skill taught by many personal development
experts, behavior therapists, and cognitive behavioral therapists.
Assertiveness is often linked to self-esteem. The term and concept was
popularized to the general public by books such as "Your Perfect Right: A
Guide to Assertive Behavior" (1970) by Robert E. Alberti, and "When I Say
No, I Feel Guilty: How To Cope Using the Skills of Systematic Assertiveness
Therapy" (1975) by Manuel J. Smith.
+
+==Training==
+Joseph Wolpe originally explored the use of assertiveness as a means
of "reciprocal inhibition" of anxiety, in his 1958 book on treating
neurosis; and it has since been commonly employed as an intervention in
behavior therapy. Assertiveness Training ("AT") was introduced by Andrew
Salter (1961) and popularized by Joseph Wolpe. Wolpe's belief was that a
person could not be both assertive and anxious at the same time, and thus
being assertive would inhibit anxiety.
+The goals of assertiveness training include:
+* increased awareness of personal rights
+* differentiation between non-assertiveness and assertiveness
+* differentiation between passive–aggressiveness and aggressiveness
+* learning both verbal and non-verbal assertiveness skills.
+
+As a communication style and strategy, assertiveness is thus distinguished
from both aggression and passivity. How people deal with personal
boundaries, their own and those of other people, helps to distinguish
between these three concepts. Passive communicators do not defend their own
personal boundaries and thus allow aggressive people to abuse or manipulate
them through fear. Passive communicators are also typically not likely to
risk trying to influence anyone else. Aggressive people do not respect the
personal boundaries of others and thus are liable to harm others while
trying to influence them. A person communicates assertively by overcoming
fear of speaking his or her mind or trying to influence others, but doing
so in a way that respects the personal boundaries of others. Assertive
people are also willing to defend themselves against aggressive people.
+
+==Communication==
+Assertive communication involves respect for the boundaries of oneself and
others. It also presumes an interest in the fulfillment of needs and wants
through cooperation.
+
+According to the textbook "Cognitive Behavior Therapy" (2008), "Assertive
communication of personal opinions, needs, and boundaries has been ...
conceptualized as the behavioral middle ground, lying between ineffective
passive and aggressive responses". Such communication "emphasizes
expressing feelings forthrightly, but in a way that will not spiral into
aggression".
+
+If others' actions threaten one's boundaries, one communicates this to
prevent escalation.
+
+In contrast, "aggressive communication" judges, threatens, lies, breaks
confidences, stonewalls, and violates others' boundaries.
+
+At the opposite end of the dialectic is "passive communication". Victims
may passively permit others to violate their boundaries. At a later time,
they may come back and attack with a sense of impunity or righteous
indignation.
+
+Assertive communication attempts to transcend these extremes by appealing
to the shared interest of all parties; it "focuses on the issue, not the
person". Aggressive and/or passive communication, on the other hand, may
mark a relationship's end, and reduce self-respect.
+
+==Assertive people==
+Assertive people tend to have the following characteristics:
+* They feel free to express their feelings, thoughts, and desires.
+* They are "also able to initiate and maintain comfortable relationships
with people"
+* They know their rights.
+* They have control over their anger. This does not mean that they repress
this feeling; it means that they control anger and talk about it in a
reasoning manner.
+* "Assertive people ... are willing to compromise with others, rather than
always wanting their own way ... and tend to have good self-esteem".
+* "Assertive people enter friendships from an 'I count my needs. I count
your needs' position".
+
+==Techniques==
+Techniques of assertiveness can vary widely. Manuel Smith, in his 1975
book "When I Say No, I Feel Guilty", offered some of the following
behaviors:
+
+===Broken record===
+The "broken record" technique consists of simply repeating your requests
or your refusals every time you are met with resistance. The term comes
from vinyl records, the surface of which when scratched would lead the
needle of a record player to loop over the same few seconds of the
recording indefinitely. "As with a broken record, the key to this approach
is repetition ... where your partner will not take no for an answer."
+
+A disadvantage with this technique is that when resistance continues, your
requests may lose power every time you have to repeat them. If the requests
are repeated too often, it can backfire on the authority of your words. In
these cases, it is necessary to have some sanctions on hand.
+
+===Fogging===
+Fogging consists of finding some limited truth to agree with in what an
antagonist is saying. More specifically, one can "agree in part" or "agree
in principle".
+
+===Negative inquiry===
+Negative inquiry consists of requesting further, more specific criticism.
+
+===Negative assertion===
+Negative assertion is agreement with criticism without letting up demand.
+
+===I-statements===
+I-statements can be used to voice one's feelings and wishes from a
personal position without expressing a judgment about the other person or
blaming one's feelings on them.
+
+==Applications==
+Several research studies have identified assertiveness training as a
useful tool in the prevention of alcohol-use disorders. Psychological
skills in general including assertiveness and social skills have been posed
as intervention for a variety of disorders with some empirical support.
+
+In connection with gender theory, "Tannen argues that men and women would
both benefit from learning to use the others' style. ... So, women would
benefit from assertiveness training just as men might benefit from
sensitivity training".
+
+==Criticism==
+Some authors stress that assertiveness is not always practiced in a
balanced way, especially by those new to the process: " problem with the
concept of assertiveness is that it is both complex and
situation-specific. ... Behaviors that are assertive in one circumstance
may not be so in another". More particularly, while "unassertiveness courts
one set of problems, over-assertiveness creates another." Assertiveness
manuals recognize that "many people, when trying out assertive behaviour
for the first time, find that they go too far and become aggressive."
+
+Also, in the late 1970s and early 1980s, in the heyday of assertiveness
training, sometimes so-called assertiveness training techniques were
distorted, and "people were told to do some pretty obnoxious things in the
name of assertiveness. Like blankly repeating some request over and over
until you got your way". Divorced from respect for the rights of others,
so-called assertiveness techniques could be psychological tools that might
be readily abused: The line between repeatedly demanding with sanctions
("broken record") versus coercive nagging, emotional blackmail, or
bullying, could be a fine one, and the caricature of assertiveness training
as "training in how to get your own way ... or how to become as aggressive
as the next person" was perpetuated.
+
+==References==
+==Further reading==
+* Alberti, Robert E. & Emmons, Michael L. "Your Perfect Right:
Assertiveness and Equality in Your Life and Relationships". 2001
+* Bower, S.A. & Bower, G.H. "Asserting Yourself: A Practical Guide for
Positive Change". 1991
+* Davidson, Jeff. "The Complete Idiot's Guide to Assertiveness". 1997
+* Dyer, Wayne W. "Pulling Your Own Strings". 1978
+* Lloyd, Sam R. "Developing Positive Assertiveness: Practical Techniques
for Personal Success". 2001
+* Paterson, Randy J. "The Assertiveness Workbook: How to Express Your
Ideas and Stand Up for Yourself at Work and in Relationships". 2000
+* Smith, M. J. "When I Say No, I Feel Guilty." 1975
+
+==External links==
+
+* Relationship Problems: Assertiveness
+* Assertiveness and Assertiveness Training
+* Assertiveness Training Modules
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
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+++ /trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Assimilation effect Mon Jun 11 05:34:01
2012
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+The assimilation effect is a frequently observed bias in evaluative
judgments towards the position of a context stimulus. When an assimilation
effect occurs, judgments and contextual information are correlated
positively, i.e. a positive context stimulus results in a positive
judgment, whereas a negative context stimulus results in a negative
judgment. Assimilation effects are different from contrast effects, where a
negative correlation between judgments and contextual information is
observed.
+
+==Factors determining Assimilation Effects==
+
+Assimilation effects are more likely when the context stimulus and the
target stimulus have characteristics that are quite close to each other. In
their priming experiments, Herr, Sherman and Fazio (1983) found
assimilation effects when subjects were primed with moderate context
stimuli. The more specific or extreme the context stimuli are in comparison
to the target stimulus, the more likely contrast effects are to occur.
+
+However, these are just likelihoods that can serve as indicators for the
occurrence of assimilation effects. Depending on how the individual
categorizes information, contrast effects can occur as well. A more
specific model to predict assimilation and contrast effects with
differences in categorizing information is the inclusion/exclusion model
developed by Norbert Schwarz and Herbert Bless.
+
+==The Inclusion/Exclusion Model==
+The inclusion/exclusion model of assimilation and contrast effects
explains the mechanism through which assimilation and contrast effects
occur. The model assumes that in feature-based evaluative judgments of a
target stimulus, people have to form two mental representations: A
representation of the target stimulus and one of a standard of comparison
to evaluate the target stimulus. Focusing on the dependence of the context,
the construal of these mental representations from accessible information
(i.e. information that comes to mind in that specific moment and draws
attention) results in either assimilation or contrast effects. When using
the accessible information for constructing the representation of the
target, an assimilation effect results, whereas accessible information that
is constructed in the mental representation of the standard of comparison
leads to contrast effects.
+
+By way of illustration, in their research on the perceived trustworthiness
of politicians, Schwarz & Bless either primed their subjects with
scandal-ridden politicians (e.g. Richard Nixon) or primed them not. When
subsequently asked for the evaluation of politicians’ trustworthiness in
general, subjects under the priming condition evaluated politicians in
general as less trustworthy than subjects did in the condition without
priming. This demonstrates the inclusion of scandal-ridden politicians in
the representation of the target stimulus and depicts an assimilation
effect. The accessible information of politicians’ scandals led to a less
favorable evaluation of politicians’ trustworthiness in general, or in
other words, was included in the representation of the target stimulus.
+
+In contrast, such inclusion after the priming did not occur when subjects
were subsequently asked for the trustworthiness of other specific
politicians. In this case the priming led to a more favorable evaluation of
the other politician's trustworthiness than under the condition without
priming. This demonstrates a contrast effect, because the accessible
information was excluded from the representation of the target stimulus
(e.g. Richard Nixon is not Newt Gingrich) and therefore constructed in the
mental representation of the standard of comparison.
+
+Consequently, the same accessible information can result in assimilation
or contrast effects, depending on how it is categorized.
+
+==Examples of Assimilation Effects==
+Assimilation effects arise in many fields of social cognition, for example
in the field of judgment processes or in social comparison.
+
+Whenever researchers conduct attitude surveys and design questionnaires,
they have to take judgment processes and the resulting assimilation effects
into account. Assimilation effects (as well as contrast effects) may arise
through the sequence of questions. Previously asked specific questions may
influence subsequent more general ones:
+
+Many researchers found assimilation effects when deliberately manipulating
the order of general and specific questions. When they first asked
participants how happy they were with their dating or how satisfied they
were with their relationship (a specific question that functions as a
moderate context stimulus) and subsequently asked the participants how
happy they were with their life in general (general question), they found
assimilation effects. The specific question of their happiness with dating
or satisfaction with their relationship made specific information
accessible, that was further included as representation of the subsequent
general question as target stimulus. Thus, by the time the participants
were happy with their dating or satisfied with their relationship, they
also reported being happier with their life in "general". Similarly, when
the participants were unhappy with their dating or dissatisfied with their
relationships, they indicated being as well unhappier with their life
in "general". This effect did not occur when asking the general question in
the first place.
+
+The term assimilation effect appears in the field of social comparison
research as well. Complementary to the previously stated definition, the
term describes the effect of a felt psychological closeness of social
surroundings that influence the current self-representation and
self-knowledge.
+
+==See also==
+*Norbert Schwarz#Categorization and Judgment
+
+== References ==
+
=======================================
--- /dev/null
+++ /trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Attention seeking Mon Jun 11 05:34:01
2012
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+Enjoying the attention of others is in socially acceptable. In some
instances, however, the need for attention can lead to difficulties. The
term attention seeking (or attention-seeking) is generally reserved for
such situations where excessive and "inappropriate attention seeking" is
seen.
+
+==Styles==
+The following styles of attention seeking have been identified:
+* Extroverted positive overt style – associated with narcissism, bragging
and boasting. May also include shocking exhibitionist behavior such as
streaking.
+* Extroverted positive subdued style – similar but more subtle such as
wearing designer clothes, wearing sexy clothes or dominating the
conversation.
+* Extroverted negative overt style – to gain pity and reassurance.
+* Extroverted negative subdued style – making a negative statement to the
world by, for example, dressing in an unusual style.
+
+==In different pathologies or contexts==
+* Attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder
+* Münchausen by Internet
+* Münchausen syndrome
+* Münchausen syndrome by proxy
+* Personality disorders – A sustained pattern of attention seeking in
adults is often associated with, in particular, histrionic personality
disorder – but it may instead be associated with narcissistic personality
disorder or borderline personality disorder. The expression drama queen is
associated with histrionic behavior.
+* Self-destructive behavior – It is a common misconception that
self-destructive behavior is inherently attention seeking, or at least that
attention is a primary motive. While this is undoubtedly true in some
cases, normally the motivation runs much deeper than that. Many
self-injurers are very self-conscious of their wounds and scars and feel
guilty about their behavior leading them to go to great lengths to conceal
their behavior from others.
+* Voluntary false confession
+
+==Tactical ignoring==
+
+Tactical ignoring, also known as planned ignoring, is a behavioral
management strategy used in response to challenging behavior that seeks to
receive attention or to gain a reaction from others. It is a commonly used
strategy when the person displaying the attention seeking behavior still
feels rewarded by a negative response.
+
+==See also==
+* Exaggeration
+* Victim playing
+* Trolling
+
+==References==
+==Further reading==
+* Gewirtz, Jacob L "Three determinants of attention-seeking in young
children" (1956)
+* Gewirtz, Jacob L "A factor analysis of some attention-seeking behaviors
of young children" Child Development (1956)
+* Harvey, Eric & Mellor, Nigel "Helping Parents Deal With Attention
Seeking Behaviour" (2009)
+* Leit, Lisa & Jacobvitz, Deborah & Hazen-Swann, Nancy "Conversational
Narcissism in Marriage: Narcissistic attention seeking behaviors in
face-to-face interactions: Implications for marital stability and partner
mental health" (2008)
+* Mellor, Nigel "Attention Seeking: A Practical Solution for the
Classroom" (1997)
+* Mellor, Nigel "The Good, the Bad and the Irritating: A Practical
Approach for Parents of Children who are Attention Seeking" (2000)
+* Mellor, Nigel "Attention Seeking: A Complete Guide for Teachers" (2008)
+* Smith-Martenz, Arden "Attention-seeking misbehaviors" (1990)
+
+==External links==
+* Hysteria, Drama Majors and Drama Queens
+* Attention-seeking personality disorders
+
+
+
=======================================
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05:34:01 2012
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+
+
+Attribution is a concept in social psychology referring to how individuals
explain causes of behavior and events. Attribution theory is an umbrella
term for various theories that attempt to explain these processes. Fritz
Heider first proposed a theory of attribution "The Psychology of
Interpersonal Relations" (1958). It was further developed by others such as
Harold Kelley and Bernard Weiner.
+
+== Types ==
+=== Explanatory attribution ===
+People make explanatory attributions to understand the world and seek
reasons for a particular event. Explanatory attribution plays an important
role in understanding what is happening around us. For example, let’s say
Jacob’s car tire was punctured. Jacob will make attributions by reasoning
that it was the hole on the road that made the puncture. The tire puncture
might be due to Jacob’s bad driving habit but by making attributions to the
poor road condition, Jacob has successfully made sense of this unfortunate
event. Without the attributional explanations, Jacob will be very
embarrassed and discomforted to believe that he caused the puncture.
+
+=== Interpersonal attribution ===
+Sometimes, when your action or motives for the action are questioned, you
need to explain the reasons for your action. Interpersonal attributions
happen when the causes of the events involve two or more individuals. More
specifically, you will always want to present yourself in the most positive
light in interpersonal attributions. For example, let’s say Jaimie and her
boyfriend had a fight. When Jaimie explains her situation to her friends,
she will say she tried everything to avoid a fight but she will blame her
boyfriend that he nonetheless started a fight. This way, Jaimie is seen as
a peacemaker to her friends whereas her boyfriend is seen as the one who
started it all.
+
+== Theories ==
+===Common sense psychology===
+From the book "The Psychology of Interpersonal Relations(1958)", Fritz
Heider tried to explore the nature of interpersonal relationship, and
espoused the concept of what he called "common sense" or "naïve
psychology". In his theory, he believed that people observe, analyze, and
explain behaviors with explanations. Although people have different kinds
of explanations for the events of human behaviors, Heider found it is very
useful to group explanation into two categories; Internal (personal) and
external (situational) attributions. When an internal attribution is made,
the cause of the given behavior is assigned to the individual's
characteristics such as ability, personality, mood, efforts, attitudes, or
disposition. When an external attribution is made, the cause of the given
behavior is assigned to the situation in which the behavior was seen such
as the task, other people, or luck (that the individual producing the
behavior did so because of the surrounding environment or the social
situation). These two types lead to very different perceptions of the
individual engaging in a behavior.
+
+===Correspondent inference theory===
+Correspondent inferences state that people make inferences about a person
when his or her actions are freely chosen, are unexpected, and result in a
small number of desirable effects. According to Edward E. Jones and Keith
Davis’ Correspondent Inference Theory, people make correspondent inferences
by reviewing the context of behavior. It describes how people try to find
out individual’s personal characteristics from the behavioral evidence.
People make inferences on the basis of three factors; degree of choice,
expectedness of behavior, and effects of someone’s behaviors.
+
+===Covariation model of attribution===
+
+Co-variation principle states that people attribute behavior to the
factors that are present when a behavior occurs and absent when it does
not. Thus, the theory assumes that people make causal attributions in a
rational, logical fashion, and that they assign the cause of an action to
the factor that co-varies most closely with that action. Harold Kelley's
covariation model of Attribution looks to three main types of information
from which to make an attribution decision about an individual's behavior.
The first is consensus information, or information on how other people in
the same situation and with the same stimulus behave. The second is
distinctiveness information, or how the individual responds to different
stimuli. The third is consistency information, or how frequent the
individual's behavior can be observed with similar stimulus but varied
situations. From these three sources of information observers make
attribution decisions on the individual's behavior as either internal or
external.Kelly’s theory and the examples of prediction are represented in
the diagram.
+
+===Three dimensional model of attribution===
+Bernard Weiner proposed that individuals have initial affective responses
to the potential consequences of the intrinsic or extrinsic motives of the
actor, which in turn influence future behavior. That is, a person's own
perceptions or attributions determine the amount of effort the person will
engage in activities in the future. Weiner suggests that individuals exert
their attribution search and cognitively evaluate casual properties on the
behaviors they experience. When attributions lead to positive affect and
high expectancy of future success, such attributions should result in
greater willingness to approach to similar achievement tasks in the future
than those attributions that produce negative affect and low expectancy of
future success. Eventually, such affective and cognitive assessment
influences future behavior when individuals encounter similar situations.
+
+Weiner's achievement attribution has three categories:
+#stable theory (stable and unstable)
+#locus of control (internal and external)
+#control (controllable or uncontrollable)
+
+Stability influences individuals' expectancy about their future; control
is related with individuals' persistence on mission; causality influences
emotional responses to the outcome of task.
+
+== Bias and errors in attributions ==
+While people strive to find reasons for behaviors, they fall into many
traps of biases and errors. As Fritz Heider says, “our perceptions of
causality are often distorted by our needs and certain cognitive biases”.
The following are examples of attributional biases.
+
+===Fundamental attribution error===
+The fundamental attribution error describes the tendency to over-value
dispositional or personality-based explanations for behavior while
under-valuing situational explanations. The fundamental attribution error
is most visible when people explain the behavior of others. For example,
when a student fails to turn in a homework assignment, a teacher is too
ready to assume that the student was too lazy to finish the homework,
without sufficiently taking into account the situation that the student was
in.
+===Culture bias===
+People in individualist cultures, generally North American and Western
European societies, value individuals, personal goals, and independence.
People in collectivist cultures see individuals as members of groups such
as families, work units, and nations, and tend to value conformity and
interdependence, this culture is embraced in Asia, Latin America, and
Africa.
+
+Research shows that culture, either individualist or collectivist, affects
how people make attributions.
+
+People from individualist cultures are more inclined to make
fundamental-attribution error than people from collectivist cultures.
Individualist cultures tend to attribute a person’s behavior to his
internal factors whereas collectivist cultures tend to attribute a person’s
behavior to his external factors.
+
+Research suggests that individualist cultures engage in self-serving bias
more than do collectivist cultures, i.e. individualist cultures tend to
attribute success to internal factors and to attribute failure to external
factors. In contrast, collectivist cultures engage in the opposite of
self-serving bias i.e. self-effacing bias, which is: attributing success to
external factors and blaming failure on internal factors (the individual).
+
+===Spotlight effect error===
+The spotlight effect error is the tendency of an individual to
overestimate the extent to which others are paying attention to the
individual's appearance and behavior. That is, people believe that they are
in the “spotlight” and that everyone is paying attention to them, as when a
person drops a cup in a restaurant and gets embarrassed, believing that
everyone has seen it. “The Barry Manilow t-shirt experiment” demonstrates
the spotlight effect. Students got self-conscious when they were required
to wear a t-shirt with an unpopular picture to classes. The students
believed more than 50 percent of their classmates would notice their shirts
and judge them, when in fact fewer than 20 percent even noticed the t-shirt.
+
+===Actor/observer difference===
+People tend to attribute other people’s behaviors to their dispositional
factors while attributing own actions to situational factors. Basically,
even in the same situation, people’s attribution can differ depending on
their role(actor or observer). For example, when a person gets a low grade
on a test, he finds situational factors to justify the negative event such
as saying that the teacher asked a question that she never went over in
class. However, if other people get low grades on the test, he attributes
the results to their internal factors such as laziness and inattentiveness
in classes. The actor/observer bias is used less frequently with people one
knows well such as friends and family since one knows how his/her close
friends and family will behave in certain situation, leading him/her to
think more about the external factors rather than internal factors.
+
+===Dispositional attributions===
+Dispositional attribution is a tendency to attribute people’s behaviors to
their dispositions that is to their personality, character and ability.
+For example, when a normally nice waiter is being rude to his customer,
the customer will assume he has a bad temper. The customer, just by looking
at the attitude that the waiter is giving him, instantly decides that the
waiter is a bad person. The customer oversimplifies the situation by not
taking into account all the unfortunate events that might have happened to
the waiter which made him become rude at that moment. Therefore, the
customer made dispositional attribution by attributing the waiter’s
behavior directly to his personality rather than considering situational
factors that might have caused the whole “rudeness”.
+
+===Self-serving bias===
+Self serving bias is attributing dispositional and internal factors for
success and external, uncontrollable factor for failure. For example, if a
person gets promoted, it is because of his/her ability and competence
whereas if he/she does not get promoted, it is because his/her manager does
not like him/her ( external, uncontrollable factor). Originally,
researchers assumed that self-serving bias is strongly related to the fact
that people want to protect their self-esteem. However, alternative
information processing explanation came out. That is, when the outcomes
match people’s expectations, they make attributions to internal factors;
when the outcome does not match their expectations, they make external
attributions. People also use defensive attribution to avoid feelings of
vulnerability and to differentiate himself from a victim of a tragic
accident. An alternative version of the theory of the self-serving bias
states that the bias does not arise because people wish to protect their
private self-esteem, but to protect their self-image (a self-presentational
bias). Note well that this version of the theory can predict that people
attribute their successes to situational factors, for fear that others will
disapprove of them looking overly vain if they should attribute successes
to themselves.
+
+For example, people believe in just-world hypothesis that “good things
happen to good people and bad things happen to bad people” to avoid feeling
vulnerable. This also leads to blaming the victim even in a tragic
situation. When people hear someone died from a car accident, they reassure
that the accident will never happen to them by deciding that the driver was
drunk at the time of the accident. People automatically decide that it was
the driver’s fault drunk-driving and thus it will never happen to them.
Another example of defensive attribution is optimism bias in which people
believe positive events happen to them more than to the others and that
negative events happen to them less than to the others. Too much optimism
leads people to ignore some warnings and precautions given to them. For
example, smokers believe they are less likely than other smokers to get
lung cancer.
+
+===Defensive attribution hypothesis===
+The defensive attribution hypothesis (or defensive attribution bias) is a
social psychological term referring to a set of beliefs held by an
individual with the function of defending the individual from concern that
they will be the cause or victim of a mishap. Commonly, defensive
attributions are made when individuals witness or learns of a mishap
happening to another person. In these situations, attributions of
responsibility to the victim or harm-doer for the mishap will depend upon
the severity of the outcomes of the mishap and the level of personal and
situational similarity between the individual and victim. More
responsibility will be attributed to the harm-doer as the outcome becomes
more severe, and as personal or situational similarity decreases.
+
+== Application of attribution ==
+===Learned helplessness===
+Learned helplessness was first found in animals when psychologists Martin
Seligman and Steven F. Maier discovered that the classically conditioned
dogs that got electrical shocks made no attempt to escape the situation.
The dogs were placed in a box divided into two sections by a low barrier.
Since one side of the box was electrified and the other was not, the dogs
could easily avoid electrical shocks by hopping to the other side. However,
the dogs just stayed in the electrified side, helpless to change the
situation.
+ This learned helplessness also applies to human beings. People feel
helpless when they feel powerless to change their situation. This happens
when people attribute negative results to their internal, stable and global
factors leading them to think they have no control over their situation.
Making no attempt to avoid or better the situation will often exacerbate
the situations that people are faced and may lead them to clinical
depression and related mental illnesses.
+
+== Perceptual salience and attribution ==
+When people try to make attributions about another's behavior, their
information focuses on the individual. Their perception of that individual
is lacking most of the external factors which might affect the individual.
The gaps tend to be skipped over and the attribution is made based on the
perception information most salient. The most salient perceptual
information dominates a person's perception of the situation.
+
+For individuals making behavioral attributions about themselves, the
situation and external environment are entirely salient, but their own body
and behavior are less so. This leads to the tendency to make an external
attribution in regards to one's own behavior.
+
+== Criticism ==
+Attribution theory has been criticized as being mechanistic and
reductionist for assuming that people are rational, logical and systematic
thinkers. It turns out however that they are cognitive misers and motivated
tacticians as demonstrated by the Fundamental attribution error. It also
fails to address the social, cultural and historical factors that shape
attributions of cause. This has been addressed extensively by discourse
analysis, a branch of psychology that prefers to use qualitative methods
including the use of language to understand psychological phenomena. The
linguistic categorization theory for example demonstrates how language
influences our attribution style.
+
+== See also ==
+
+* Attributional bias
+* Correspondent inference theory
+* Naïve realism
+
+==References==
+==Further reading==
+* Gordon, L. M., & Graham, S. (2006). Attribution theory. "The
encyclopedia of human development." Thousand Oaks: Sage Publications, 1,
142–144.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
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--- /dev/null
+++ /trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Attributional ambiguity Mon Jun 11
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+Attributional ambiguity is a social psychology attribution concept
describing the difficulty that a member of a stigmatized or commonly
stereotyped minority group may have in interpreting feedback from members
of dominant groups. According to this concept, members of groups that often
experience Social stigma find it challenging to determine whether feedback
from dominant groups is based upon their actual behavior or membership in a
stereotyped stigmatized group. This can cause stigmatized group members to
discredit feedback from dominant group members because of the belief that
stereotypes played a part in the overall decision. Positive feedback
received is sometimes considered to be given because of true deservingness
to those of a stigmatized group. The term was coined by Jennifer Crocker,
Brenda Major and their colleagues.
+
+==Implications==
+Attributional ambiguity can have unfortunate repercussions for members of
stigmatized groups. Members of groups that are ‘stereotype-vulnerable’ or
are often stereotyped are at greater risk of having less self worth through
the lens of attributional ambiguity. With this concept, when people of an
often stigmatized group receive feedback, they are unsure what the basis is
for that feedback and believe it could have been attributed to things other
than performance alone. Whether it is positive or negative feedback they
face uncertainty about how accurate that feedback was and thus feeling
uncertain about how to interpret the responses.
+
+ In the absence of true feedback one cannot totally rely on that
evaluation and thus cannot adjust their behavior or performance
accordingly. Attributional ambiguity can be applied in a very broad sense,
considering how often people seek feedback. In academics, athletics,
relationships, etc are all areas in which feedback can be pivotal. For
example, if it is known that a manager is very sensitive to his/her
subordinates’ feelings, and he/she gives positive feedback, it is unclear
if that feedback was true or simply an action of sensitivity.
+
+==Empirical support==
+In an experiment conducted by Jennifer Crocker, Brenda Major and
colleagues, women who were evaluated unfavorably by a blatantly prejudiced
evaluator experienced less negative affect than women who were rated
unfavorably by an unbiased evaluator. With African American participants,
it was found that when reviewed negatively African Americans were more
likely to attribute the evaluator's negativity to prejudice than were white
participants. Furthermore, African Americans were likely to attribute both
negative and positive reviews to prejudice if they could be seen by the
evaluator. Being invisible helped African Americans cope with negative
reviews, but also made them more likely to discredit positive reviews.
+
+The same concept can be applied not only to race, ethnicity, gender, etc.,
but appearance as well. To the extent to which one views his/herself as
attractive can impact how they perceive feedback. In a study by Major,
Carrington & Carnevale (1984) found that, as described above, the
attractive participants were less likely to believe positive feedback given
to them, believing that the observer had an ulterior motive. When the
observer could see the attractive participant, they doubted the true motive
behind their positive feedback. Unattractive participants were more likely
to believe positive feedback than were attractive participants. When an
ulterior motive is possible, it is easier to discount the feedback whether
it is positive or negative. (see also Lookism)
+
+C. L. Hoyt and colleagues examined attributional ambiguity in Latino
subjects as compared to white subjects. They found that when given a
negative review Latino subjects were more likely to attribute this
negativity to the prejudice of the examiner than white subjects. They also
found that when given a positive review, Latino subjects were more likely
to discredit the positivity of the reviewer and experience a lower sense of
well being than their white counter parts. This research suggests that
while attributional ambiguity can be used as a buffer to protect the self
from negative reviews and biased thoughts, it can also prevent stigmatized
groups from embracing reviews
+
+==See also==
+*Attribution (psychology)
+*Fundamental attribution error
+*Lookism
+*Minority (disambiguation)
+*Social Psychology
+*Social stigma
+*Ultimate attribution error
+
+==References==
+
=======================================
--- /dev/null
+++ /trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Audience effect Mon Jun 11 05:34:01 2012
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+
+
+The audience effect is the impact that a passive audience has on a subject
performing a task. It was first formally noted in various psychology
studies in the early 20th century. During some studies the presence of a
passive audience facilitated the better performance of a simple task; while
other studies show the presence of a passive audience inhibited the
performance of a more difficult task or one that wasn't well practiced,
possibly due to psychological pressure or stress.
+
+In 1965, Robert Zajonc proposed Drive theory as an explanation of
the "audience effect".
+
+In a study conducted by MIT, donation rates increase with the presence of
observers, and neuroimaging results revealed that activation in the ventral
striatum before the same choice (“to donate” or “not donate”) was
significantly effected by the presence of observers.
+
+==See also==
+* Audience theory
+* Social facilitation
+* Social inhibition
+* Social loafing
+
+== References ==
+
+
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--- /dev/null
+++ /trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Authoritarian personality Mon Jun 11
05:34:01 2012
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+
+
+
+==Historical origins==
+Adorno, Frenkel-Brunswick, Levinson and Sanford (1950) compiled a large
body of research and theory (known as the Berkeley studies), which
attempted to characterize a personality type that described the
“potentially fascistic individual”. This personality type was labeled the
Authoritarian Personality in honor of earlier writings by Fromm that used
this term (Baars & Scheepers, 1993). Their research focused mainly on
prejudice within a psychoanalytic/psychosocial theoretical framework (i.e.
Freudian and Fromian). The main historical influence for this work was the
rise of Fascism in the 1930s, World War II, and the Holocaust. Hence, a
main component of this personality type is one who is susceptible to
anti-semitic ideology and anti-democratic political beliefs.
+
+==Original theory==
+Adorno, et al. (1950) viewed the authoritarian personality as having a
strict superego that controls a weak ego unable to cope with strong id
impulses. The resulting intrapsychic conflicts cause personal insecurities,
resulting in that person’s superego to adhere to externally imposed
conventional norms (conventionalism), and to the authorities who impose
these norms (authoritarian submission). The ego-defense mechanism of
projection occurs as indicated when that person avoids self-reference of
the anxiety producing id impulse, by displaying them onto “inferior”
minority groups in the given culture (projectivity), with associated
beliefs that are highly evaluative (power and toughness), and rigid
(stereotypy). Additionally, there is a cynical view of mankind and a need
for power and toughness resulting from the anxieties produced by perceived
lapses in society’s conventional norms (destructiveness and cynicism).
Other characteristics of this personality type are a general tendency to
focus upon those who violate conventional values and act harshly towards
them (authoritarian aggression), a general opposition to subjective or
imaginative tendencies (anti-intraception), a tendency to believe in mystic
determination (superstition), and finally, an exaggerated concern with
promiscuity.
+
+In regards to child development, the formation of the authoritarian type
occurs within the first few years of the person’s life, strongly shaped by
the parents and family structure. “Hierarchical, authoritarian,
exploitative” parent-child relationships may result in this personality
type (Adorno et al., 1950, pp. 482–484). Parents who have a need for
domination, and who dominate and threaten the child harshly, and demand
obedience to conventional behaviors with threats, foster the
characteristics of this personality. In addition, the parents have a
preoccupation with social status, and communicate this to the child in
terms of rigid and externalized rules. The child then suffers from
suppressed feelings of resentment and aggression towards the parents, who
are instead, idealized with reverence.
+
+Alfred Adler provided another perspective, linking the "will to power over
others" as a central neurotic trait, usually emerging as aggressive
over-compensation for felt and dreaded feelings of inferiority and
insignificance. According to this view, the authoritarian needs to maintain
control and prove superiority over others is rooted in a worldview
populated by enemies and empty of equality, empathy, and mutual benefit.
+
+==Early research==
+These researchers most noteworthy measurement for authoritarianism is the
“F-scale”, designed to tap a set of beliefs thought to be associated with
authoritarianism without the need for specific out-groups indicated.
Kirscht and Dillehay (1967) outlined several problems with the Berkley
studies, including response bias. Response bias results from the F scale
being uniformly worded in a confirming direction. Hence, if one tends to
respond in agreement with items, regardless of their content, one is rated
as an authoritarian. Several studies have shown that more variance of the F
scale can be explained by response bias than the content of the items
(Kirscht & Dillehay, 1967).
+
+Actual assessment of 16 Nazi criminals at Nuremberg trials (reported in
Zillmer, "et al.", 1995) conducted by clinicians using the Rorschach
inkblots, and in one study, the F scale for authoritarianism, found that
these ex-Nazis score high on three dimensions (anti-intraception,
superstition and stereotyping, and projectivity), but not all nine
dimensions as the theory predicted.
+
+One of the first applications of the authoritarian scales in academia was
by Stern and colleagues, in the early 1950s, at the University of Chicago
(as reported in Wiggins, 1980). The hypothesized prediction was that
“authoritarian“ students would have difficulty in the sciences and
humanities, and use of an attitudinal scale was a successful predictor.
+
+==Validity==
+Soon after the publication of "The Authoritarian Personality", the theory
became the subject of many criticisms. Theoretical problems involved the
psychoanalytic interpretation of personality, and methodological problems
focused on the inadequacies of the F-scale. Another criticism is that the
theory of the Berkeley group insinuates that authoritarianism exists only
on the right of the political spectrum. As a result, some have claimed that
the theory is corrupted by political bias. Kreml found that the
anti-authoritarian personality had the same personality characteristics as
the authoritarian personality.
+
+Wiggins provided an insightful explanation of how the authoritarian
construct is an example of the synthetic approach to personality
assessment. In short, in the synthetic approach, the assumption is that
those with authoritarian personality characteristics are assessed with
researcher’s intuitive model of what characteristics fit the criterion role
requirements of the predicted situation (support of Fascism). Hence, it is
not a completely empirical approach to prediction, but rather based on “arm
chair” situational analysis of the criteria, and intuited psychological
characteristics to be assessed that fit the situation. More recently, Jost,
Glaser, Kruglanski, and Sullloway (2003) have presented how the traditional
research in authoritarianism or conservatism has confounded the
psychological variables (e.g., personality characteristics) with the
political criteria (conservative attitudes). Hence the scales measuring
individual differences on authoritarianism often include the criteria
attitudinal statements of political ideologies.
+
+Although the authoritarian is a personality construct, Adorno et al.,
(1950) proposed that the social environment influenced the expression of
prejudice expressed, based upon the “climate of opinion” that exists at the
time. Hence, ideological beliefs created within the culture and other
social forces shape the prejudices of the given authoritarian individual.
+However, as noted by Taylor (1998), this hypothesized interaction of
society and the individual as lost to most of the subsequent research that
implemented the F scale in differential psychological studies. Given the
science of personality assessment, the variety of methods Adorno, "et al."
used are now unsupported, and might explain that lack of empirical studies
using the F scale or the other scales developed by Adorno "et al." in
subsequent research. An example of the social environment impact is
presented by Gibb (1969) in his critique of personality traits and
leadership, where a study by Katz, suggested that the social situation can
override personality differences. In the study, groups of black and white
students where formed, some mixed racial groups had students scoring high
authoritarian F scores, and in other mixed groups, low F score students.
Comparisons of high authoritarian white students to those not scoring
authoritarian indicated that the former student type were more cooperative
and less willing to endorse stereotypes towards blacks. Situational norms
against prejudicial perceptions might have influenced authoritarian
students to act less prejudicial in order to conform to the prescribed norm.
+
+After extensive questionnaire research and statistical analysis, Altemeyer
found in 1981 that only three of the original nine hypothesized components
of the model correlated together: authoritarian submission, authoritarian
aggression, and conventionalism. Almeyer added: "The reader familiar with
the matter knows that most these criticisms the "Authoritarian Personality"
are over 25 years old, and now they might be considered little more than
flaying a dead horse. Unfortunately the flaying is necessary, for the horse
is not dead, but still trotting around—in various introductory psychology
and developmental psychology textbooks, for example.
+
+==Current reinterpretations==
+Altemeyer (1998) who has conducted a series of studies on what is labeled
the Right Wing Authoritarianism (RWA), presents the most recent version of
this personality type. The focus of RWA research is political preferences
as measured through surveys, that suggest three tendencies as noted in
attitudinal clusters. These are: 1) submission to legitimated authorities;
2) aggression towards sanctioned targeted minority groups; and 3) adherence
to values and beliefs perceived as endorsed by followed leadership. McCrae
& Costa (1997) report that the big 5 dimension of openness to experience is
negatively correlated to RWA (r=-0.57) as measured by the NEO-PI-R Openness.
+
+More recently, Jost, Glaser, Kruglanski, and Sulloway (2003) have proposed
that Authoritarianism, RWA and other similar constructs of political
conservatism are a form of motivated social cognition. These researchers
propose that conservatism has similar characteristics as to
authoritarianism, with resistance to change, and justification for
inequality as the core components. In addition, conservative individuals
have needs to manage uncertainty and threat with both situational motives
(e.g., striving for security and dominance in social hierarchies) and
dispositional motives (e.g., terror management and self-esteem).
+Despite its methodological deficiencies, the theory of the authoritarian
personality has had a major influence on research in political,
personality, and social psychology. In Germany, authoritarianism has been
recently studied by Klaus Roghmann, Detlef Oesterreich, and Christel Hopf.
One of the most active researchers in the field today is the Dutch
psychologist J.D. Meloen.
+
+==See also==
+* Conformity
+* Tyranny of the majority
+* "The Fear of Freedom"
+* "Repressive Tolerance"
+* F-scale
+* Freudo-Marxism
+* Right-wing authoritarianism
+* Fascist (epithet)
+
+==References==
+==External links==
+*Classical Adlerian Quotes: Power Addiction
+*Professor Robert Altemeyer's The Authoritarians - An on-line book about
the corruption of Congress, the destruction of traditional conservatism by
authoritarianism, the un-democratic push of the agenda of the “Religious
Right” and their amoral authoritarian leaders, and the United States
standing at a crossroads as the 2008 federal election approaches.
+*John Dean Exposes The Authoritarians - The first in a five part series on
America's authoritarians based on John Dean's Conservatives Without
Conscience.
+*Authoritarianism and Polarization in American Politics by Marc
Hetherington and Jonathan Weiler Excerpt.
+*Bob Altermeyer and Jonathan Shockley: A Discussion on Authoritarianism on
WBAI
+
+
+
+
+
+
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+
+Authoritarianism is a form of social organization characterized by
submission to authority. It is usually opposed to individualism and
libertarianism. In politics, an authoritarian government is one in which
political authority is concentrated in a small group of politicians.
+
+==Characteristics==
+
+Authoritarianism is characterized by highly concentrated, and centralized
power maintained by political repression and the exclusion of potential
challengers. It uses political parties and mass organizations to mobilize
people around the goals of the regime.
+
+Authoritarianism emphasizes arbitrary law rather than the rule of law, it
often includes election rigging, political decisions being made by a select
group of officials behind closed doors, a bureaucracy that sometimes
operates independently of rules, which does not properly supervise elected
officials, and fails to serve the concerns of the constituencies they
purportedly serve. Authoritarianism also tends to embrace the informal and
unregulated exercise of political power, a leadership that
is "self-appointed and even if elected cannot be displaced by citizens'
free choice among competitors," the arbitrary deprivation of civil
liberties, and little tolerance for meaningful opposition;
+
+A range of social controls also attempt to stifle civil society, while
political stability is maintained by control over and support of the armed
forces, a bureaucracy staffed by the regime, and creation of allegiance
through various means of socialization and indoctrination.
+
+Authoritarian political systems may be weakened through "inadequate
performance to demands of the people." Vestal writes that the tendency to
respond to challenges to authoritarianism through tighter control instead
of adaptation is a significant weakness, and that this overly rigid
approach fails to "adapt to changes or to accommodate growing demands on
the part of the populace or even groups within the system." Because the
legitimacy of the state is dependent on performance, authoritarian states
that fail to adapt may collapse.
+
+Authoritarianism is marked by "indefinite political tenure" of the ruler
or ruling party (often in a single-party state) or other authority. The
transition from an authoritarian system to a more democratic form of
government is referred to as democratization.
+
+John Duckitt of the University of the Witwatersrand suggests a link
between authoritarianism and collectivism, asserting that both stand in
opposition to individualism.
+Duckitt writes that both authoritarianism and collectivism submerge
individual rights and goals to group goals, expectations and conformities.
+Others argue that collectivism, properly defined, has a basis of consensus
decision-making, the opposite of authoritarianism.
+
+==Authoritarianism and totalitarianism==
+Totalitarianism is an extreme version of authoritarianism.
Authoritarianism primarily differs from totalitarianism in that social and
economic institutions exist that are not under governmental control.
Building on the work of Yale political scientist Juan Linz, Paul C. Sondrol
of the University of Colorado at Colorado Springs has examined the
characteristics of authoritarian and totalitarian dictators and organized
them in a chart:
+
+Sondrol argues that while both authoritarianism and totalitarianism are
forms of autocracy, they differ in "key dichotomies":
+
+Thus, compared to totalitarian systems, authoritarian systems may also
leave a larger sphere for private life, lack a guiding ideology, tolerate
some pluralism in social organization, lack the power to mobilize the whole
population in pursuit of national goals, and exercise their power within
relatively predictable limits.
+
+==Authoritarianism and democracy==
+Authoritarianism and democracy are not fundamentally opposed to one
another, it is thus perfectly possible for democracies to possess strong
authoritarian elements, for both feature a form of submission to authority.
An illiberal democracy (or procedural democracy) is distinguished from
liberal democracy (or substantive democracy) in that illiberal democracies
lack the more democratic features of liberal democracies, such as the rule
of law, an independent judiciary, along with a further distinction that
liberal democracies have rarely made war with one another. More recent
research has extended the theory and finds that more democratic countries
tend to have few Militarized Interstate Disputes causing less battle deaths
with one another, and that democracies have few civil wars.
+
+* Poor democracies tend to have better education, longer life expectancy,
lower infant mortality, access to drinking water, and better health care
than poor dictatorships. This is not due to higher levels of foreign
assistance or spending a larger percentage of GDP on health and education.
Instead, the available resources are more likely to be managed better.
+
+* Studies suggest that several health indicators (life expectancy and
infant and maternal mortality) have a stronger and more significant
association with democracy than they have with GDP per capita, size of the
public sector, or income inequality.
+
+*A prominent economist, Amartya Sen, has theorized that no functioning
country labeled as having a liberal democracy has ever suffered a
large-scale famine. This includes democracies that have not been very
prosperous historically, like India, which had its last great famine in
1943 and many other large-scale famines before that in the late nineteenth
century, all under British rule. (However, some others ascribe the Bengal
famine of 1943 to the effects of World War II. The government of India had
been becoming progressively more democratic for years. Provincial
government had been entirely so since the Government of India Act of 1935.)
+
+* Refugee crises almost always occur in the least democratic countries.
Looking at the volume of refugee flows for the last twenty years, the first
eighty-seven cases occurred in most authoritarian countries.
+
+* Research shows that the democratic nations have much less democide or
murder by government. However it should be noted that those were also
moderately developed nations before applying liberal democratic policies.
Similarly, they have less genocide and politicide.
+
+* Research by the World Bank suggests that political institutions are
extremely important in determining the prevalence of corruption:
parliamentary systems, political stability, and freedom of the press are
all associated with lower corruption. Freedom of information legislation is
important for accountability and transparency. The Indian Right to
Information Act "has already engendered mass movements in the country that
is bringing the lethargic, often corrupt bureaucracy to its knees and
changing power equations completely."
+
+* Of the eighty worst financial catastrophes during the last four decades,
only five were in countries labeled as democracies. Similarly, those
labeled as "poor democracies" are half as likely as countries labeled as
non-democracies to experience a 10 percent decline in GDP per capita over
the course of a single year.
+
+* One study has concluded that terrorism is most common in nations with
intermediate political freedom. The nations with the least amount of
terrorism are the most and least democratic nations.
+
+==Authoritarian states==
+Any list of such states is bound to be controversial; certain indices have
striven to ascertain the openness or democratic quality of countries based
on a somewhat simplistic tick-box method, the notion of index itself being
economically oriented. Within the present world system, unsurprisingly
the "soft power" countries of major western power centers often come out at
the top of such lists, countries such as Sweden, Norway, etc.. on the other
hand, places like North Korea, Chad, Iran, Belarus, Zimbabwe and
Turkmenistan appear as strongly authoritarian. For a list see, for
example, "The Economist" magazine's democracy index, though this is a
economic-liberal magazine - but indexes compiled from other points of view
such as Amnesty International or Freedom House are available from time to
time. It is often the more wealthy countries that come out at the top of
such lists and the poorer ones that fall toward the end; whether this is a
cause or result of their political systems is open to debate.
+
+Another way of looking at the problem of trying to make a list of
authoritarian regimes is not to compare the apparent forms of government
(for example, whether direct election as in the Swiss Cantons or by
collegiate representation etc.) but, in making such a list, to compare the
balance of power between the political elite and the general populace. Such
an index asks questions as to whether or not a given government allows the
direct influence of its subjects in the decision making process, whether or
not it suppresses Freedom of Speech, imprisons them in Gulags or other such
prison systems or behaves in a belligerent manner towards more democratic
nations or allows poor work conditions to flourish or even allows forms of
slavery.
+
+The government of China is generally considered to be a modern
authoritarian government. China is ruled by one party only, known as the
Communist Party. Policies in China are created in high-level meetings, in
which the general population has no input into the choices that are made
for them. The government of China keeps watch over the Chinese internet
meticulously, looking for anything that may be considered politically
sensitive. They also block major social networking websites such as
Facebook and Twitter, as they are concerned that citizens may use these
sites to organize public demonstrations. Furthermore, some citizens who
have posted information on the Internet that is pro-democratic have been
harassed and are sometimes even imprisoned. Another measure that the
government of China has taken which many argue infringes on the rights of
its citizens is the enforcement of the one-child policy of 1979, which
limits each couple who are ethnic Han Chinese living in urban areas to one
child. While this was done for purposes of population control, it has led
to the killing or abandonment of many female babies (so that the couple may
instead have a son to carry on their family name). Also, there have been
multiple consequences for parents who have more than one child, including
fines, pressure to abort, and forced sterilization.
+
+The Vietnamese communist regime in Hanoi is also considered to be
authoritarian. Vietnam is ruled by the Vietnamese Communist Party, the only
legal political party in the country, whose rule is unbroken ever since
1946 in North Vietnam, and later extended to the former South Vietnam after
the North Vietnamese invasion in the Vietnam War. Policies and laws are all
made unilaterally by the Party, with the general public having no power in
the decision-making process. Any political opposition is prohibited, like
the Bloc 8406, Viet Tan and Viet Nam Quoc Dan Dang, and dissidents,
including the singer and composer Viet Khang are routinely arrested and
imprisoned, with the government frequently charging dissidents
for "subverting the State", "endangering State security" or attempting
to "overthrow the "People's" socialist government". Political protests in
Vietnam are usually quashed by police, most notably the protests on
supporting Vietnamese sovereignty of the Paracel Islands and Spratly
Islands in the summer of 2011 in the cities of Hanoi and Saigon, and
smaller protests on the Vietnamese regime's confiscation of land. The
Internet is heavily censored by the government, and sites that are
anti-communist, critical or opposing the government, or in support of the
former Republic of Vietnam being blocked by the government firewall.
Websites being blocked include Facebook. The Vietnamese regime used to run
an expansive system of gulags (referred to as "reeducation camps"), where
hundreds of thousands perished. Many prisoners in the "re-education camps"
were political dissidents, South Vietnamese politicians, officials and
soldiers, and "land owners" (which also included former business and
property owners).
+
+==Authoritarianism in history==
+
+Many different forms of authoritarianism have served as the norm in many
polities and in most periods from the dawn of recorded history. Tribal
chiefs and god-kings often gave way to despots and emperors, then to
enlightened monarchs and juntas. Even superficially democratic
constitutions or those claiming to be such can allow the concentration of
power or domination by strong-men or by small groups of political elites -
note the history of the Icelandic Althing.
+
+In contrast to the varying manifestations of authoritarianism, more
democratic forms of governance as a standard mode of political organization
became widespread only after the Industrial Revolution had established
modernity. Tyrants and oligarchs bracketed the flourishing of democracy in
ancient Athens; and kings and emperors preceded and followed
experimentation with democratic forms in the Roman Republic. In the 15th
century, Vlad Dracula is credited for being the first ruler of Wallachia
and Transylvania to rule by Authoritarianism.
+
+==See also==
+* Anti-authoritarianism
+* Authoritarian personality
+
+==References==
+==External links==
+*Not The End Of History? Democracy vs Authoritarianism Debated
+*Growth of Authoritarianism in America
+*Are we entering the age of the autocrat? Francis Fukuyama, "Washington
Post", August 24, 2008
+
+
+
+
+
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+
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+
+Authority (from the Latin "auctoritas") is a right conferred by recognized
social position. Authority often refers to power vested in an individual or
organization by the state. Authority can also refer to recognized expertise
in an area of academic knowledge. An Authority (capitalized) refers to a
governing body upon which certain authority (with lower case "a") is
vested; for example, the Puerto Rico Electric Power Authority.
+
+==Authority in various settings==
+===Politics===
+In government, authority is the scope of an entity's legitimate power
(Cline n.d.) when acting on behalf of the government. This power is
conferred through officially recognized channels within the government, and
represents a portion of the government's overall power. For example, a
government might have the authority to execute criminals. The government
could then contain a jury authorized to determine if a citizen is a
criminal or a non-criminal; a judge authorized to sentence criminals to
execution; and an executioner authorized to kill criminals who have been
sentenced to execution. In contrast, a mob of citizens might have the power
to do all of the above things, but still lack the authority because the
actions would not be legitimate.
+
+Political authority can also be seen in situations that are typically
considered apolitical. (Agarwal n.d.) In truth bestowing authority is a
function of any social institution. A corporation for example, must hire
employees as a standard function of its existence. However, most of the
corporation's members are not authorized to hire employees. This authority
is passed down through the corporation to specific individuals without
government involvement. This same phenomenon can be found in religious
organizations, charities, fraternities, etc.
+
+===Academia===
+A person (or group) may be considered an "authority" on a subject matter
if their expertise is well established. This means that any statements the
person makes, with regard to their field of expertise, will have the burden
of proof in their favor. That is, if a professor of mathematics makes a
statement about numbers, it will be assumed to be true in the absence of
evidence to the contrary. This will also overrule any unsupported
objections by an individual without such expertise. Professional scholars
are common examples of this, but they are not the only examples. A
carpenter might be considered an authority on wood, for example.
+
+===Governmental agencies===
+Every state has a number of institutions which exercise authority based on
longstanding practices. Apart from this, every state sets up agencies which
are competent in dealing with one particular matter. All this is set up
within its charter. One example would be a port authority like the Port of
London. They are usually created by special legislation and are run by a
board of directors. Several agencies and institutions are created along the
same lines and they exercise authority in certain matters. They are usually
required to support themselves through property taxes or other forms of
collection or fees for services.
+
+==Controversy==
+In contemporary social science, the nature of authority is a matter of
debate. According to Michaels, in the Encyclopedia of Social Sciences,
authority is the capacity, innate or acquired for exercising ascendancy
over a group. Other scientists argue that authority is not a capacity but a
relationship. It is sanctioned power, institutionalized power.
+
+In political philosophy, the jurisdiction of political authority, the
location of sovereignty, the balancing of freedom and authority (cf. Cristi
2005), and the requirements of political obligations have been core
questions from Plato and Aristotle to the present. In many democratic
societies, there is an ongoing discussion regarding the legitimate extent
of governmental authority in general. In the United States, for instance,
there is a widespread belief that the political system as it was instituted
by the Founding Fathers should accord the populace as much freedom as
reasonable, and that government should limit its authority accordingly.
+
+==See also==
+
+* Authority (sociology)
+* Authority (management)
+* Anti-authoritarian
+* Appeal to authority
+* "Auctoritas"
+* Authoritarianism
+* Cognitive authority
+* Dominance (ethology)
+* Milgram experiment
+* Petty authority
+
+==References==
+
+* Giorgio Agamben, "State of Exception" (2005)
+* Hannah Arendt, "Between Past and Future" (New York, Viking, 1961) "The
Concept of Authority"
+* Józef Maria Bocheński, "?" (1974)
+* Renato Cristi, "Hegel on Freedom and Authority" (2005)
+* Stuart Lachs, "Means of Authorization: Establishing Hierarchy in
Ch'an/Zen Buddhism in America" (1999)
+* Rafael Domingo Osle, "Auctoritas" (1999)
+* Karl Popper, "On the Sources of Knowledge and of Ignorance" (1960)
+* Max Weber, "Economy and Society" (1922)
+* Austin Cline, "What is Authority? Differentiating Authority, Power, and
Legitimacy" (n.d.)
+* Ashish Agarwal, What is Authority? "Trace out the different types of
Authority" (n.d.)
+
+==External links==
+*
+* Qualitionary - Legal Definitions - Authority
+* Appeal to Authority Breakdown
+
+
+
+
+
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+
+Authority is the legitimate or socially approved use of power. It is the
legitimate power which one person or a group holds over another. The
element of legitimacy is vital to the notion of authority and is the main
means by which authority is distinguished from the more general concept of
power. Power can be exerted by the use of force or violence. Authority, by
contrast, depends on the acceptance by subordinates of the right of those
above them to give them orders or directives.
+
+==Types of Authorities==
+Traditional Authority: Power legitimized by respect for long-established
cultural patterns.
+
+Charismatic Authority: Power legitimized by extraordinary personal
abilities that inspire devotion and obedience.
+
+Rational-Legal Authority: Also known as bureaucratic authority, is when
power is legitimized by legally enacted rules and regulations such as
governments.
+
+==Children and the three Authority Attributes==
+The three attributes of authority are status, specialist skills or
knowledge, and social position. These are particularly relevant to children
when they regard their parents and teachers. Research has shown that
children have a complex notion of what authority is. Children consider the
type of command, the characteristics of the authority figure, and the
social context when making authority conclusions (Laupa, 1991).
+
+Although children regard these three types of authority attributes, they
firstly assess the legitimacy of the authority figure in question using the
nature of the commands they give. For example, a teacher that does not
appear to have legitimate power from the child’s perspective (perhaps
because she cannot control the class well) will not be obeyed. Regarding
parenting, authoritative parents who are warm and high in behavioural
control but low in psychological control are more likely to be seen as
having legitimate authority by the child, and will believe themselves that
they have a duty to obey them and internalise their values (Darling,
Cumsille,& Martínez,2008).
+
+==Max Weber on authority==
+Max Weber, in his sociological and philosophical work, identified and
distinguished three types of legitimate domination ("Herrschaft" in German,
which generally means 'domination' or 'rule'), that have sometimes been
rendered in English translation as types of authority, because domination
is not seen as a political concept in the first place. Weber defined
domination (authority) as the chance of commands being obeyed by a
specifiable group of people. Legitimate authority is that which is
recognized as legitimate and justified by both the ruler and the ruled.
+
+Weber divided legitimate authority into three types:
+
+*The first type discussed by Weber is "Rational-legal authority". It is
that form of authority which depends for its legitimacy on formal rules and
established laws of the state, which are usually written down and are often
very complex. The power of the rational legal authority is mentioned in the
constitution. Modern societies depend on legal-rational authority.
Government officials are the best example of this form of authority, which
is prevalent all over the world.
+
+*The second type of authority is "Traditional authority", which derives
from long-established customs, habits and social structures. When power
passes from one generation to another, then it is known as traditional
authority. The right of hereditary monarchs to rule furnishes an obvious
example. The Tudor dynasty in England and the ruling families of Mewar, in
Rajasthan (India) are some examples of traditional authority.
+
+*The third form of authority is "Charismatic authority". Here, the
charisma of the individual or the leader plays an important role.
Charismatic authority is that authority which is derived from "the gift of
grace" or when the leader claims that his authority is derived from
a "higher power" (e.g. God or natural law or rights) or "inspiration", that
is superior to both the validity of traditional and rational-legal
authority and followers accept this and are willing to follow this higher
or inspired authority, in the place of the authority that they have
hitherto been following. Examples in this regard can be NT Rama Rao, a
matinee idol, who went on to become one of the most powerful Chief
Ministers of Andhra Pradesh.
+
+History has witnessed several social movements or revolutions, against a
system of traditional or legal-rational authority, which are usually
started by Charismatic authorities. Weber states that what distinguishes
authority, from coercion, force and power on the one hand and leadership,
persuasion and influence on the other hand, is legitimacy. Superiors, he
states, feel that they have a right to issue commands; subordinates
perceive an obligation to obey. Social scientists agree that authority is
but one of several resources available to incumbents in formal positions.
For example, a Head of State is dependent upon a similar nesting of
authority. His legitimacy must be acknowledged, not just by citizens, but
by those who control other valued resources: his immediate staff, his
cabinet, military leaders and in the long run, the administration and
political apparatus of the entire society.
+
+Authority can be created either expressly or by implication; (2) public
entities act publicly, using the same means to communicate the grant of
authority to their agents that they use to communicate this to third
parties; (3) apparent authority describes the situation when a principal
has placed restrictions on an agent that are not known to a third party;
(4) restrictions on government agents are accomplished in the open, through
laws and regulations; (5) everyone, including contractors, are supposed to
know the laws and regulations of our government; and thus (6) the concept
of "apparent authority" is often inapt when dealing with the government,
insofar as the only cognizable restrictions on the agent's authority are
deemed known to third parties, shattering any appearance of authority. (14)
+
+Recently the concept of authority has also been discussed as a guiding
principle in human–machine interaction design.
+
+
+==See also==
+* List of sociology topics
+* Sociology
+
+==References==
+==External links==
+*http://www.swarthmore.edu/SocSci/rbannis1/AmCult/H47%236.html
+*http://www.soci.canterbury.ac.nz/resources/glossary/authorit.shtml
+
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+
+
+An authority problem is an interpersonal conflict in which a person
struggles in how to cope with someone who claims control over an aspect of
their lives. A few quintessential examples of such authority figures would
include police officers, teachers, parents, and employers.
+==See also==
+*Deviance (sociology)
+
+
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+
+
+Autonoetic consciousness is the human ability to mentally place ourselves
in the past, in the future, or in counterfactual situations, and to analyze
our own thoughts.
+
+Our sense of self affects our behavior, in the present, past and future.
It relates to how we reflect on our own past behavior, how we feel about
it, and this in turn determines if we do it again .
+
+It is episodic memory that deals with self-awareness and memories of the
self . Inward thoughts which can project onto the future actions of the
individual . It was “proposed by Tulving for self-awareness, allowing the
rememberer to reflect on the contents of episodic memory” .
+
+== The self ==
+
+Autonoetic consciousness is important in our formation of our “self”
identity. What we have done in the past becomes a part of our “self” and
the ability to reflect on this influences our behavior in the now.
+
+In psychology, the self is often used for that set of attributes that a
person attaches to himself or herself most firmly, the attributes that the
person finds it difficult or impossible to imagine himself or herself
without . Identity is also used to describe this . A person’s gender is
part of their identity but their profession, for example, may not be .
+
+In philosophy, the self is the agent, the knower and the ultimate locus of
personal identity . This self, the identity of which is at the bottom of
every action, and involved in every bit of knowledge, is the self
philosophers worry about .
+
+A straightforward view of the self would be that the self is just the
person, and that a person is a physical system . There are two problems
with this view. First, the nature of freedom and consciousness has
convinced many philosophers that there is a fundamentally non-physical
aspect of persons . The second challenge stems from puzzling aspects of
self-knowledge, as the knowledge we have of ourselves seems very unlike the
knowledge we have of other objects in several ways .
+
+== The parietal cortex ==
+
+The parietal cortex is the active part of brain involved in autonoetic
consciousness. Damage to areas of the parietal cortex can lead to different
functioning errors, including changes in personality.
+
+The parietal lobes can be divided into two functional regions. One
involves sensation and perception, and the other is concerned with
integrating sensory input, primarily with the visual system (Neuroskills:
TBI Resource Guide). The first function integrates sensory information to
form a single perception (Neuroskills: TBI Resource Guide). The second
function constructs a spatial coordinate system to represent the world
around us (Neuroskills: TBI Resource Guide).
+
+Individuals with damage to the parietal lobes often show striking
deficits, such as abnormalities in body image and spatial relations
(Neuroskills: TBI Resource Guide).
+
+Damage to the left parietal lobe can result in what is called Gerstmann's
syndrome which includes right-left confusion, difficulty with writing, and
difficulty with mathematics (Neuroskills: TBI Resource Guide). It can also
produce disorders of language, and the inability to perceive objects
normally (Neuroskills: TBI Resource Guide).
+
+Damage to the right parietal lobe can result in neglecting part of the
body or space, which can impair many self-care skills such as dressing and
washing (Neuroskills: TBI Resource Guide). Right side damage can also cause
difficulty in making things, denial of deficits, and drawing ability
(Neuroskills: TBI Resource Guide).
+
+Bi-lateral damage can cause Bálint's syndrome, a visual attention and
motor syndrome (Neuroskills: TBI Resource Guide). This is characterized by
the inability to voluntarily control the gaze, inability to integrate
components of a visual scene, and the inability to accurately reach for an
object with visual guidance (Neuroskills: TBI Resource Guide).
+
+Left parietal-temporal lesions can affect verbal memory and the ability to
recall strings of digits (Neuroskills: TBI Resource Guide).
+
+The right parietal-temporal lobe is concerned with non-verbal memory
(Neuroskills: TBI Resource Guide). Right parietal-temporal lesions can
produce significant changes in personality (Neuroskills: TBI Resource
Guide).
+
+Lesions in the right parietal lobe influence personality, and this could
be because the parietal lobe has to do with our sense of self. Our sense of
self is strongly reflected in our personality.
+
+Some common tests for parietal lobe function are: Kimura Box Test
(apraxia) and the Two-Point Discrimination Test (somatosensory)
(Neuroskills: TBI Resource Guide).
+
+During episodic retrieval, functional imaging studies consistently show
differential activity in medial prefrontal and medial parietal cortices .
+
+With positron-emission tomography, it has been shown that the medial
regions are functionally connected and interact with lateral regions that
are activated according to the degree of self-reference .
+
+For example, in one study, during retrieval of previous judgments of
oneself, best friend, and the Danish Queen, activation increased in the
left lateral temporal cortex and decreased in the right inferior parietal
region with decreasing self-reference . The decrease in parietal cortex
activation may then prove it is a nodal structure in self representation,
functionally connected to both the right parietal and the medial prefrontal
cortices . There was a decrease in the efficiency of retrieval of previous
judgment of mental Self compared with retrieval of judgment of Other with
transcranial magnetic stimulation at a latency of 160 ms, confirming the
hypothesis that the medial parietal cortex in this network is essential for
episodic memory retrieval with self-representation .
+
+This network is strikingly similar to the network of the resting conscious
state, suggesting that self-monitoring is a core function in resting
consciousness .
+
+== Episodic memory and the self ==
+
+For a coherent and meaningful life, conscious self-representation is
mandatory . Autonoetic consciousness is thought to emerge by retrieval of
memory of personally experienced events (episodic memory) . Without the
ability to reflect on our past experiences, we would be stuck in a state of
constant awakening, without a past and therefore unable to prepare for the
future.
+
+Episodic memory is the memory we have for our past experiences, which
influence our now, and our future. This is different from procedural
memory, which is our memory for how to do things. Episodic memories
influence our thinking about ourselves, good and bad.
+
+Autobiographical memories can be retrieved from either the 1st person
perspective, in which individuals see the event through their own eyes, or
from the 3rd person perspective, in which individuals see themselves and
the event from the perspective of an external observer .
+
+A growing body of research suggests that the visual perspective from which
a memory is retrieved has important implications for a person's thoughts,
feelings, and goals, and is integrally related to a host of self-
evaluative processes .
+
+== Event related potentials ==
+
+ERPs can measure autonoetic consciousness scientifically. Event-related
brain potentials (ERPs) are a non-invasive method of measuring brain
activity during cognitive processing (Ullman, Michael). The transient
electric potential shifts (so-called ERP components) are time-locked to the
stimulus onset (e.g., the presentation of a word, a sound, or an image)
(Ullman, Michael). Each component reflects brain activation associated with
one or more mental operations (Ullman, Michael).
+
+In contrast to behavioral measures such as error rates and response times,
ERPs are characterized by simultaneous multi-dimensional online measures of
polarity (negative or positive potentials), amplitude, latency, and scalp
distribution (Ullman, Michael). Therefore, ERPs can be used to distinguish
and identify psychological and neural sub-processes involved in complex
cognitive, motor, or perceptual tasks (Ullman, Michael).
+
+Unlike fMRI, they provide extremely high time resolution, in the range of
one millisecond (Ullman, Michael).
+
+The methodological advantages of ERPs have resulted in an ever increasing
number of ERP studies in cognitive neuroscience, cognitive psychology,
psycholinguistics, neurolinguistics, neuropsychology and neurology (Ullman,
Michael). ERPs have also been used to identify patients who seem to
be "brain-dead" but in fact are not (Ullman, Michael).
+
+There is an event-related potential (ERP) experiment of human recognition
memory that explored the relation between conscious awareness and
electrophysiological activity of the brain . ERPs were recorded from
healthy adults while they made “remember” and “know” recognition judgments
about previously seen words , reflecting “Autonoetic” and “Noetic”
awareness, respectively . The ERP effects differed between the two kinds of
awareness while they were similar for “true” and “false” recognition .
+
+In a study of real-time noninvasive recordings of the brain's electrical
activity (event-related potentials, ERPs), there was a common neural
“signature” that is associated with self-referential processing regardless
of whether subjects are retrieving general knowledge (noetic awareness) or
re-experiencing past episodes (autonoetic awareness) .
+
+== Social anxiety disorder ==
+
+Social anxiety disorder is an example of how bad experiences can also lead
to our behaviors. It demonstrates how our thoughts influence our feelings
about ourselves and therefore our actions in society around us. It has to
do with a person’s self esteem, fear of failure, shame, fear of offending,
and fear of strangers.
+
+Cognitive models of social anxiety disorder (SAD) believe the social self
is a key psychological mechanism that maintains fear of negative evaluation
in social and performance situations . Consequently, a distorted self-view
is evident when recalling painful autobiographical social memories, as
reflected in linguistic expression, negative self-beliefs, and emotion and
avoidance .
+
+To test this hypothesis, 42 adults diagnosed with SAD and 27
non-psychiatric healthy controls composed autobiographical narratives of
distinct social anxiety related situations, generated negative
self-beliefs, and provided emotion and avoidance ratings .
+
+Although narratives were matched for initial emotional intensity and
present vividness, linguistic analyses demonstrated that, compared to the
control group, the SAD group employed more self-referential, anxiety, and
sensory words, and made fewer references to other people . Social anxiety
symptom severity, however, was associated with greater self-referential NSB
in SAD only .
+
+SAD reported greater current self- conscious emotions when recalling
autobiographical social situations, and greater active avoidance of similar
situations than did the control group . Autobiographical memory of social
situations in SAD may influence current and future thinking, emotion, and
behavioral avoidance .
+
+== References ==
+#
+#
+#
+#
+#
+
=======================================
--- /dev/null
+++ /trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Autoplastic adaptation Mon Jun 11
05:34:01 2012
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+Autoplastic adaptation (from the Greek word auto) is a form of adaptation
where the subject attempts to change itself when faced with a difficult
situation.
+
+The concept of autoplastic adaptation was developed by Sigmund Freud,
Sándor Ferenczi, and Franz Alexander. They proposed that when an individual
was presented with a stressful situation, he could react in one of two ways:
+* Autoplastic adaptation: The subject tries to change himself, i.e. the
internal environment.
+* Alloplastic adaptation: The subject tries to change the situation, i.e.
the external environment.
+
+==Autoplasticity, hysteria and evolution==
+
+'Hysterical individuals appear to be turned inward. Their symptoms,
instead of presenting actions directed outward (alloplastic activities),
are mere internal innervations (autoplastic activities)'.
+
+Freud, with 'his single-minded Lamarckianism', speculated that
behind 'Lamarck's idea of "need"' was the 'power of unconscious ideas over
one's own body, of which we see remnants in hysteria, in short, "the
omnipotence of thought"'.
+
+As a result, among his immediate followers, 'Insight into this regressive
nature of the phenomenon of conversion may be taken as a starting-point for
speculation about the archaic origin of the capacity for autoplastic
conversion...according to which evolution took place through the
autoplastic adaptation of the body to the demands of the environment'.
+
+==Cross-cultural autoplasticity==
+
+'Cross-cultural helpers have debated what has been called the
autoplastic/alloplastic dilemma: how much should clients be encouraged to
adapt to a given situation and how much...to change? Most Western helping
modalities have a strong autoplastic bias; clients are encouraged to
abandon traditional beliefs...to fit into a dominant society's mainstream'.
+
+The analytic relationship is sometimes seen in similar terms: 'the two
practitioners in treatment are engaged in an unending struggle between
changing the other and effecting internal change..."autoplastic"
and "alloplastic"'.
+
+==References==
+==External links==
+*"Psychiatry and the dilemmas of crime" by Seymour L. Halleck, page 64
+*"Mediated learning experience (MLE)" by Reuven Feuerstein, Pnina S.
Klein, Abraham J. Tannenbaum, page 14
+*"Ferenczi's Trauma Theory" by Jay B. Frankel
+*"Digital creativity" by Colin Beardon, Lone Malmborg, page 58
+*PsychResidentOnline.com: Psychodynamic Theory Notes
+*Psychology Glossary
+
+
=======================================
--- /dev/null
+++ /trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Availability, salience and vividness Mon
Jun 11 05:34:01 2012
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+Availability, salience and vividness are three terms which refer to very
similar things in social psychology but have slightly different meanings.
They may actually all refer to the same underlying concept, and they
positively influence one another, but they are each used consistently in
different theoretical contexts.
+
+:Availability refers to how likely or probable something appears, in
probability estimation.
+
+:Salience refers to the likelihood that something will appear causal, in
attribution theory.
+
+:Vividness refers to how easily recalled and convincing something is, in
persuasion.
+
+== References ==
+
+* Plous, S. (1993). "The psychology of judgment and decision making". New
York: McGraw-Hill.
+
=======================================
--- /dev/null
+++ /trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Basic hostility Mon Jun 11 05:34:01 2012
@@ -0,0 +1,14 @@
+Basic hostility is a psychological concept first described by
psychoanalyst Karen Horney. It is an effect of "basic evi"l which is also
known as parental abuse. Horney described it as a bad attitude which
develops in the child as a result of basic evil, such as parental abuse.
The child is mistreated and becomes angry, but can do nothing as he is
dependent on the very persons who mistreat them.
+
+==The pattern of basic hostility==
+* The child wants to leave, but cannot. Although the child wants to avoid
the abuse, his parents are perpetrating it.
+* The child cannot move away or fight back against his parents because he
is dependent on them.
+* The child therefore redirects his feelings and expressions of hostility
toward people he does not depend on for support.
+
+According to Horney, some children find Basic Hostility to be an
aggressive coping strategy and continue using it to deal with life's
problems.
+
+==Sources==
+* Personality Theories page on Karen Horney
+* Women's Intellectual Contributions to the Study of Mind and Society:
Karen Horney
+
+
=======================================
--- /dev/null
+++ /trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Behavioral economics Mon Jun 11 05:34:01
2012
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+Behavioral economics and the related field, behavioral finance, study the
effects of social, cognitive and emotional factors on the economic
decisions of individuals and institutions and the consequences for market
prices, returns and the resource allocation. The fields are primarily
concerned with the bounds of rationality of economic agents. Behavioral
models typically integrate insights from psychology with neo-classical
economic theory. In so doing they cover a range of concepts, methods, and
fields.
+
+Behavioral analysts are not only concerned with the effects of market
decisions but also with public choice, which describes another source of
economic decisions with related biases towards promoting self-interest.
+==History==
+During the classical period, microeconomics was closely linked to
psychology. For example, Adam Smith wrote "The Theory of Moral Sentiments",
which proposed psychological explanations of individual behavior, including
concerns about fairness and justice, and Jeremy Bentham wrote extensively
on the psychological underpinnings of utility. However, during the
development of neo-classical economics economists sought to reshape the
discipline as a natural science, deducing economic behavior from
assumptions about the nature of economic agents. They developed the concept
of homo economicus, whose psychology was fundamentally rational. This led
to unintended and unforeseen errors.
+
+However, many important neo-classical economists employed more
sophisticated psychological explanations, including Francis Edgeworth,
Vilfredo Pareto and Irving Fisher. Economic psychology emerged in the 20th
century in the works of Gabriel Tarde, George Katona and Laszlo Garai.
Expected utility and discounted utility models began to gain acceptance,
generating testable hypotheses about decision making given uncertainty and
intertemporal consumption respectively. Observed and repeatable anomalies
eventually challenged those hypotheses, and further steps were taken by the
Nobel prizewinner Maurice Allais, for example in setting out the Allais
paradox, a decision problem he first presented in 1953 which contradicts
the expected utility hypothesis.
+In the 1960s cognitive psychology began to shed more light on the brain as
an information processing device (in contrast to behaviorist models).
Psychologists in this field, such as Ward Edwards, Amos Tversky and Daniel
Kahneman began to compare their cognitive models of decision-making under
risk and uncertainty to economic models of rational behavior. In
mathematical psychology, there is a longstanding interest in the
transitivity of preference and what kind of measurement scale utility
constitutes (Luce, 2000).
+
+===Prospect theory===
+In 1979, Kahneman and Tversky wrote "Prospect theory: An Analysis of
Decision Under Risk", an important paper that used cognitive psychology to
explain various divergences of economic decision making from neo-classical
theory. Prospect theory is an example of generalized expected utility
theory. Although not a conventional part of behavioral economics,
generalized expected utility theory is similarly motivated by concerns
about the descriptive inaccuracy of expected utility theory.
+
+In 1968 Nobel Laureate Gary Becker published "Crime and Punishment: An
Economic Approach", a seminal work that factored psychological elements
into economic decision making. Becker, however, maintained strict
consistency of preferences. Nobelist Herbert Simon developed the theory of
Bounded Rationality to explain how people "irrationally"
seek "satisfaction", instead of maximizing utility, as conventional
economics presumed. Maurice Allais produced "Allais Paradox", a crucial
challenge to expected utility.
+
+Psychological traits such as overconfidence, projection bias, and the
effects of limited attention are now part of the theory. Other developments
include a conference at the University of Chicago, a special behavioral
economics edition of the "Quarterly Journal of Economics" ('In Memory of
Amos Tversky') and Kahneman's 2002 Nobel for having "integrated insights
from psychological research into economic science, especially concerning
human judgment and decision-making under uncertainty".
+
+===Intertemporal choice===
+Behavioral economics has also been applied to intertemporal choice.
Intertemporal choice behavior is largely inconsistent, as exemplified by
George Ainslie's hyperbolic discounting (1975) which is one of the
prominently studied observations, further developed by David Laibson, Ted
O'Donoghue, and Matthew Rabin. Hyperbolic discounting describes the
tendency to discount outcomes in near future more than for outcomes in the
far future. This pattern of discounting is dynamically inconsistent (or
time-inconsistent), and therefore inconsistent with basic models of
rational choice, since the rate of discount between time "t" and "t+1" will
be low at time "t-1", when "t" is the near future, but high at time "t"
when "t" is the present and time "t+1" the near future.
+
+The pattern can actually be explained through models of subadditive
discounting which distinguishes the delay and interval of discounting:
people are less patient (per-time-unit) over shorter intervals regardless
of when they occur. Much of the recent work on intertemporal choice
indicates that discounting is a constructed preference. Discounting is
influenced greatly by expectations, framing, focus, thought listings, mood,
sign, glucose levels, and the scales used to describe what is discounted.
Some prominent researchers question whether discounting, the major
parameter of intertemporal choice, actually describes what people do when
they make choices with future consequences. Considering the variability of
discount rates, this may be the case.
+
+===Other areas of research===
+
+Other branches of behavioral economics enrich the model of the utility
function without implying inconsistency in preferences. Ernst Fehr, Armin
Falk, and Matthew Rabin studied "fairness", "inequity aversion",
and "reciprocal altruism", weakening the neoclassical assumption
of "perfect selfishness." This work is particularly applicable to wage
setting. Work on "intrinsic motivation" by Gneezy and Rustichini and
on "identity" by Akerlof and Kranton assumes agents derive utility from
adopting personal and social norms in addition to conditional expected
utility.
+
+"Conditional expected utility" is a form of reasoning where the individual
has an illusion of control, and calculates the probabilities of external
events and hence utility as a function of their own action, even when they
have no causal ability to affect those external events.
+
+Behavioral economics caught on among the general public, with the success
of books like Dan Ariely's "Predictably Irrational." Practitioners of the
discipline have studied quasi-public policy topics such as broadband
mapping.
+
+==Methodology==
+Behavioral economics and finance theories developed almost exclusively
from experimental observations and survey responses, although in more
recent times real world data have taken a more prominent position.
Functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) allows determination of which
brain areas are active during economic decision making. Experiments
simulating markets such as stock trading and auctions can isolate the
effect of a particular bias upon behavior. Such experiments can help narrow
the range of plausible explanations. Good experiments are
incentive-compatible, normally involving binding transactions and real
money.
+
+===Behavioral economics vs experimental economics===
+Note that behavioral economics is distinct from experimental economics,
which uses experimental methods to study economic questions. Not all
economics experiments are psychological. While many experimental economics
studies probe psychological aspects of decision making, other experiments
explore institutional features or serve as "beta testing" for new market
mechanisms. Not all behavioral economics uses experiments, either;
behavioral economists rely heavily on theory and on observational
studies "in the field."
+
+==Key observations==
+Three themes predominate in behavioral finance and economics:
+
+*Heuristics: People often make decisions based on approximate rules of
thumb, not strict logic. See also cognitive biases and bounded rationality.
+*Framing: The collection of anecdotes and stereotypes that make up the
mental emotional filters individuals rely on to understand and respond to
events.
+*Market inefficiencies: These include mis-pricings, non-rational decision
making, and return anomalies. Richard Thaler, in particular, has described
specific market anomalies from a behavioral perspective.
+
+Barberis, Shleifer, and Vishny and Daniel, Hirshleifer, and Subrahmanyam
(1998) built models based on extrapolation (seeing patterns in random
sequences) and overconfidence to explain security market under- and
overreactions, though their source continues to be debated. These models
assume that errors or biases are positively correlated across agents so
that they do not cancel out in aggregate. This would be the case if a large
fraction of agents look at the same signal (such as the advice of an
analyst) or have a common bias.
+
+More generally, cognitive biases may also have strong anomalous effects in
the aggregate if there is social contagion of ideas and emotions (causing
collective euphoria or fear) leading to phenomena such as herding and
groupthink. Behavioral finance and economics rests as much on social
psychology within large groups as on individual psychology. In some
behavioral models, a small deviant group can have substantial market-wide
effects (e.g. Fehr and Schmidt, 1999).
+
+==Topics==
+Models in behavioral economics typically address a particular market
anomaly and modify standard neo-classical models by describing decision
makers as using heuristics and subject to framing effects. In general,
economics continues to sit within the neoclassical framework, though the
standard assumption of rational behavior is often challenged.
+
+===Heuristics===
+
+* Prospect theory
+* Loss aversion
+* Disappointment
+* Status quo bias
+* Gambler's fallacy
+* Self-serving bias
+* Money illusion
+
+===Framing===
+
+* Cognitive framing
+* Mental accounting
+* Anchoring
+
+===Anomalies (economic behavior)===
+
+* Disposition effect
+* Endowment effect
+* Inequity aversion
+* Reciprocity
+* Intertemporal consumption
+* Present-biased preferences
+* Momentum investing
+* Greed and fear
+* Herd behavior
+* Sunk-cost fallacy
+
+===Anomalies (market prices and returns)===
+
+* Equity premium puzzle
+* Efficiency wage hypothesis
+* Price stickiness
+* Limits to arbitrage
+* Dividend puzzle
+* Fat tails
+* Calendar effect
+
+==Criticisms==
+Critics of behavioral economics typically stress the rationality of
economic agents. They contend that experimentally observed behavior has
limited application to market situations, as learning opportunities and
competition ensure at least a close approximation of rational behavior.
+
+Others note that cognitive theories, such as prospect theory, are models
of decision making, not generalized economic behavior, and are only
applicable to the sort of once-off decision problems presented to
experiment participants or survey respondents.
+
+Traditional economists are also skeptical of the experimental and
survey-based techniques which behavioral economics uses extensively.
Economists typically stress revealed preferences over stated preferences
(from surveys) in the determination of economic value. Experiments and
surveys are at risk of systemic biases, strategic behavior and lack of
incentive compatibility.
+
+Rabin (1998) dismisses these criticisms, claiming that consistent results
are typically obtained in multiple situations and geographies and can
produce good theoretical insight. Behavioral economists have also responded
to these criticisms by focusing on field studies rather than lab
experiments. Some economists see a fundamental schism between experimental
economics and behavioral economics, but prominent behavioral and
experimental economists tend to share techniques and approaches in
answering common questions. For example, behavioral economists are actively
investigating neuroeconomics, which is entirely experimental and cannot be
verified in the field.
+
+Other proponents of behavioral economics note that neoclassical models
often fail to predict outcomes in real world contexts. Behavioral insights
can influence neoclassical models. Behavioral economists note that these
revised models not only reach the same correct predictions as the
traditional models, but also correctly predict some outcomes where the
traditional models failed.
+
+==Behavioral finance==
+===Topics===
+The central issue in behavioral finance is explaining why market
participants make systematic errors. Such errors affect prices and returns,
creating market inefficiencies. It also investigates how other participants
arbitrage such market inefficiencies.
+
+Behavioral finance highlights inefficiencies such as under- or
over-reactions to information as causes of market trends (and in extreme
cases of bubbles and crashes). Such reactions have been attributed to
limited investor attention, overconfidence, overoptimism, mimicry (herding
instinct) and noise trading. Technical analysts consider behavioral
economics' academic cousin, behavioral finance, to be the theoretical basis
for technical analysis.
+
+Other key observations include the asymmetry between decisions to acquire
or keep resources, known as the "bird in the bush" paradox, and loss
aversion, the unwillingness to let go of a valued possession. Loss aversion
appears to manifest itself in investor behavior as a reluctance to sell
shares or other equity, if doing so would result in a nominal loss. It may
also help explain why housing prices rarely/slowly decline to market
clearing levels during periods of low demand.
+
+Benartzi and Thaler (1995), applying a version of prospect theory, claim
to have solved the equity premium puzzle, something conventional finance
models have been unable to do so far.
+Experimental finance applies the experimental method, e.g. creating an
artificial market by some kind of simulation software to study people's
decision-making process and behavior in financial markets.
+
+===Models===
+Some financial models used in money management and asset valuation
incorporate behavioral finance parameters, for example:
+
+* Thaler's model of price reactions to information, with two phases,
underreaction-adjustment-overreaction, creating a price trend
+:One characteristic of overreaction is that average returns following
announcements of good news is lower than following bad news. In other
words, overreaction occurs if the market reacts too strongly or for too
long to news, thus requiring adjustment in the opposite direction. As a
result, outperforming assets in one period are likely to underperform in
the following period.
+* The stock image coefficient
+
+===Criticisms===
+Critics such as Eugene Fama typically support the efficient-market
hypothesis. They contend that behavioral finance is more a collection of
anomalies than a true branch of finance and that these anomalies are either
quickly priced out of the market or explained by appealing to market
microstructure arguments. However, individual cognitive biases are distinct
from social biases; the former can be averaged out by the market, while the
other can create positive feedback loops that drive the market further and
further from a "fair price" equilibrium. Similarly, for an anomaly to
violate market efficiency, an investor must be able to trade against it and
earn abnormal profits; this is not the case for many anomalies.
+
+A specific example of this criticism appears in some explanations of the
equity premium puzzle. It is argued that the cause is entry barriers (both
practical and psychological) and that returns between stocks and bonds
should equalize as electronic resources open up the stock market to more
traders. In reply, others contend that most personal investment funds are
managed through superannuation funds, minimizing the effect of these
putative entry barriers. In addition, professional investors and fund
managers seem to hold more bonds than one would expect given return
differentials.
+
+===Quantitative===
+Quantitative behavioral finance uses mathematical and statistical
methodology to understand behavioral biases. In marketing research, a study
shows little evidence that escalating biases impact marketing decisions.
Leading contributors include Gunduz Caginalp (Editor of the Journal of
Behavioral Finance from 2001–2004) and collaborators including 2002
Nobelist Vernon Smith, David Porter, Don Balenovich, Vladimira Ilieva and
Ahmet Duran and Ray Sturm.
+
+The research can be grouped into the following areas:
+# Empirical studies that demonstrate significant deviations from classical
theories
+# Modeling using the concepts of behavioral effects together with the
non-classical assumption of the finiteness of assets
+# Forecasting based on these methods
+# Testing models against experimental asset markets
+
+==Behavioral game theory==
+Behavioral game theory is a subject that analyzes interactive strategic
decisions and behavior using the methods of game theory, experimental
economics, and experimental psychology. Experiments include testing
deviations from typical simplifications of economic theory such as the
independence axiom and neglect of altruism, fairness, and framing effects.
On the positive side, the method has been applied to interactive learning
• Teck H. Ho (2008). "Individual learning in games," "The New Palgrave
Dictionary of Economics", 2nd Edition. Abstract. </ref> and social
preferences. • Colin F. Camerer (2008). "behavioral game theory," "The
New Palgrave Dictionary of Economics", 2nd Edition. Abstract.</ref> As a
research program, the subject is a development of the last three decades.
+
+== Economic reasoning in non-human animals ==
+
+A handful of comparative psychologists at American universities have
attempted to demonstrate economic reasoning in non-human animals. Early
attempts along these lines focus on the behavior of rats and pigeons. These
studies draw on the tenets of behavioral psychology, where the main goal is
to discover analogs to human behavior in experimentally-tractable non-human
animals. They are also methodologically similar to the work of Ferster and
Skinner . Methodological similarities aside, early researchers in non-human
economics deviate from behaviorism in their terminology. Although such
studies are set up primarily in an operant conditioning chamber, using food
rewards for pecking/bar-pressing behavior, the researchers describe pecking
and bar pressing not in terms of reinforcement and stimulus-response
relationships, but instead in terms of work, demand, budget, and labor.
Recent studies have adopted a slightly different approach, taking a more
evolutionary perspective, comparing economic behavior of humans to a
species of non-human primate, the capuchin monkey.
+
+=== The animal as a human analog ===
+
+Many early studies of non-human economic reasoning were performed on rats
and pigeons in a operant conditioning chamber. These studies looked at
things like peck rate (in the case of the pigeon) and bar pressing rate (in
the case of the rat) given certain conditions of reward. Early researchers
claim, for example, that response pattern (pecking/bar pressing rate) is an
appropriate analog to human labor supply . Researchers in this field
advocate for the appropriateness of using animal economic behavior to
understand the elementary components of human economic behavior . In a
paper by Battalio, Green, and Kagel (1981, p 621), they write
+=== Labor supply ===
+
+The typical laboratory environment to study labor supply in pigeons is set
up as follows. Pigeons are first deprived of food. Since the animals are
hungry, food becomes highly desired. The pigeons are placed in an operant
conditioning chamber and through orienting and exploring the environment of
the chamber they discover that by pecking a small disk located on one side
of the chamber, food is delivered to them. In effect, pecking behavior
becomes reinforced, as it is associated with food. Before long, the pigeon
pecks at the disk (or stimulus) regularly.
+
+In this circumstance, The pigeon is said to "work" for the food by
pecking. The food, then, is thought of as the currency. The value of the
currency can be adjusted in a couple of different ways, including the
amount of food delivered, the rate of food delivery and the type of food
delivered (Some foods are more desirable than others).
+
+Economic behavior similar to that observed in humans is discovered when
the hungry pigeons stop working/work less when the reward is reduced.
Researchers argue that this is similar to labor supply behavior in humans.
That is like humans (who, even in need, will only work so much for a given
wage) the pigeons demonstrate decreases in pecking (work) when the reward
(value) is reduced .
+
+===Demand===
+
+In human economics, a typical demand curve is negative. This means that as
the price of a certain good increases, the amount that consumers are able
to purchase decreases. Researchers studying demand curves in non-human
animals such as rats observe that demand curves have negative slopes,
consistent with the slope of human demand curves.
+
+Researchers have studied demand in rats in a manner distinct from studying
labor supply in pigeons. Specifically, say we have experimental subjects,
rats, in an operant chamber and we require them to press a lever to receive
a reward. The reward can be either food (reward pellets), water, or a
commodity drink such as cherry cola. Unlike previous pigeon studies, where
the work analog was pecking and the monetary analog was reward, in the
studies on demand in rats, the monetary analog is bar pressing. Under these
circumstances, the researchers claim that changing the number of bar
presses required to obtain a commodity item is analogous to changing the
price of a commodity item in human economics .
+
+In effect, results of demand studies in non-human animals are that, as the
bar-pressing requirement (cost) increases, the animal presses the bar the
required number of times less often (payment).
+
+===Monkey trading behavior===
+Recent work on economic behavior in non-human animals has focused on
capuchin monkeys. Here the researchers seem less inclined toward the
behaviorist tradition of the laboratory animal-human behavior analog.
Instead, they attempt to adopt a more evolutionary perspective, positing
that economic reasoning might be basic, unlearned, and serve some adaptive
function.
+
+One recent study involves the introduction of a currency system into a
colony of captive capuchin monkeys. The currency is in the form of coins
and is redeemable for food and other purchasable items when exchanged with
a researcher. Under these conditions, the researchers studied three
features of monkey trading: demand, loss aversion, and risk aversion.
+
+In this study, monkeys are presented with an amount of money and are shown
a certain amount of food or other goods. The monkeys must take the money
and hand it to the experimenter in exchange for goods. In one condition of
the experiment, after the monkey has paid for the goods, it has the option
to take a sure amount of food now, or wait until the experimenter alters
the amount of food presented. In this circumstance, the experimenter can
either increase or decrease the amount of food given. Thus, this
experimental setup allows the researchers to look at the gambling behavior
of the animals. The experimenters can therefore ask the following
questions: Will the monkey take the sure amount of food? Will the monkey
“gamble” by waiting until the experimenter changes the amount of food
present? Does the decision of the animal depend on the circumstances?
Results indicate that the monkeys are risk-averse: They prefer to take the
initial amount of food than wait for the experimenter to change the amount
presented.
+
+The experimenters introduce several other manipulations, including
changing the allocated budget, changing the cost of certain items, changing
the items themselves. Specifically, the researchers found an increase in
item purchase and consumption when that item decreases in value, a result
consistent with those found in human economics.
+
+Taken together, the results of this study indicate that capuchin monkeys
are not only risk-averse, but are also sensitive to constructs such as
price, budget, and payoff expectation. According to the researchers, the
animals are not trained to behave in this way; these behaviors arise
naturally in the trading environment. As a result, these researchers argue
that basic economic behavior and reasoning might be unlearned, innate, and
subject to natural selection.
+
+==Key figures==
+===Economics===
+
+*Dan Ariely
+*Colin Camerer
+*Ernst Fehr
+*Daniel Kahneman
+*David Laibson
+*George Loewenstein
+*Sendhil Mullainathan
+*Drazen Prelec
+*Matthew Rabin
+*Herbert Simon
+*Paul Slovic
+*Vernon L. Smith
+*Larry Summers
+*Richard Thaler
+*Amos Tversky
+===Finance===
+
+*Malcolm Baker
+*Nicholas Barberis
+*Gunduz Caginalp
+*David Hirshleifer
+*Andrew Lo
+*Michael Mauboussin
+*Terrance Odean
+*Charles Plott
+*Hersh Shefrin
+*Robert Shiller
+*Andrei Shleifer
+*Richard Thaler
+==See also==
+
+* Adaptive market hypothesis
+* Behavioralism
+* Behavioral finance
+* Behavioral Operations Research
+* Cognitive bias
+* Cognitive psychology
+* Confirmation bias
+* Cultural economics
+* Culture change
+* Economic sociology
+* Emotional bias
+* Experimental economics
+* Experimental finance
+* Fuzzy-trace theory
+* Habit (psychology)
+* Hindsight bias
+* Important publications in behavioral finance(economics)
+* Journal of Behavioral Finance
+* List of cognitive biases
+* Methodological individualism
+* Neuroeconomics
+* Observational techniques
+* Praxeology
+* Rationality
+* Repugnancy costs
+* Socioeconomics
+* Socionomics
+
+==Notes==
+==References==
+*
+*
+* Diamond, Peter A., and Hannu Vartiainen, ed. (2007). "Behavioral
Economics and its Applications". Description and preview.
+*Garai Laszlo. Identity Economics – An Alternative Economic Psychology.
1990–2006.
+*
+*
+*Kuran, Timur (1995). "Private Truths, Public Lies: The Social
Consequences of Preference Falsification", Harvard University Press.
Description and chapter-preview links.
+* "The New Palgrave Dictionary of Economics" (2008), 2nd Edition. Abstract
links:
+: "Simon, Herbert A. (1916–2001)."
+: "Behavioral public economics."
+: "Behavioral finance."
+: "Rationality, bounded."
+* Abstract.
+* Plott, Charles R., and Vernon L. Smith, ed. (2008). "Handbook of
Experimental Economics Results", v. 1, Elsevier. Chapter-preview links.
+* Press +.
+* Schelling, Thomas C. (2006 "Micromotives and Macrobehavior", Norton.
[http://books.wwnorton.com/books/978-0-393-32946-9/ Description, preview.
+*
+* Thaler, Richard H., and Sendhil Mullainathan (2008). "Behavioral
Economics," "The Concise Encyclopedia of Economics", 2nd Edition. Liberty
Fund.
+
+==External links==
+* Behavioral Finance Initiative of the International Center for Finance at
the Yale School of Management
+* Overview of Behavioral Finance
+* Geary Behavioural Economics Blog, of the Geary Institute at University
College Dublin
+* Society for the Advancement of Behavioural Economics
+* Behavioral Economics: Past, Present, Future - Colin F. Camerer and
George Loewenstein
+* A History of Behavioural Finance / Economics in Published Research: 1944
- 1988
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
=======================================
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+++ /trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Belief Mon Jun 11 05:34:01 2012
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+
+
+Belief is the psychological state in which an individual holds a
proposition or premise to be true.
+
+==Belief, knowledge and epistemology==
+The terms "belief" and "knowledge" are used differently in philosophy.
+
+Epistemology is the philosophical study of knowledge and belief. The
primary problem in epistemology is to understand exactly what is needed in
order for us to have true knowledge. In a notion derived from Plato's
dialogue "Theaetetus", philosophy has traditionally defined knowledge
as "justified true belief". The relationship between belief and knowledge
is that a belief is knowledge if the belief is "true", and if the believer
has a "justification" (reasonable and necessarily plausible
assertions/evidence/guidance) for believing it is true.
+
+A false belief is not considered to be knowledge, even if it is sincere. A
sincere believer in the flat earth theory does not "know" that the Earth is
flat. Later epistemologists, for instance Gettier (1963) and Goldman
(1967), have questioned the "justified true belief" definition.
+
+==Belief as a psychological theory==
+Mainstream psychology and related disciplines have traditionally treated
belief as if it were the simplest form of mental representation and
therefore one of the building blocks of conscious thought. Philosophers
have tended to be more abstract in their analysis, and much of the work
examining the viability of the belief concept stems from philosophical
analysis.
+
+The concept of belief presumes a subject (the believer) and an object of
belief (the proposition). So, like other propositional attitudes, belief
implies the existence of mental states and intentionality, both of which
are hotly debated topics in the philosophy of mind, whose foundations and
relation to brain states are still controversial.
+
+Beliefs are sometimes divided into "core beliefs" (that are actively
thought about) and "dispositional beliefs" (that may be ascribed to someone
who has not thought about the issue). For example, if asked "do you believe
tigers wear pink pajamas?" a person might answer that they do not, despite
the fact they may never have thought about this situation before.
+
+That a belief is a mental state has been seen by some as contentious.
While some have argued that beliefs are represented in the mind as
sentence-like constructs, others have gone as far as arguing that there is
no consistent or coherent mental representation that underlies our common
use of the belief concept and that it is therefore obsolete and should be
rejected.
+
+This has important implications for understanding the neuropsychology and
neuroscience of belief. If the concept of belief is incoherent, then any
attempt to find the underlying neural processes that support it will fail.
+
+Philosopher Lynne Rudder Baker has outlined four main contemporary
approaches to belief in her controversial book "Saving Belief":
+* "Our common-sense understanding of belief is correct" - Sometimes called
the "mental sentence theory", in this conception, beliefs exist as coherent
entities and the way we talk about them in everyday life is a valid basis
for scientific endeavour. Jerry Fodor is one of the principal defenders of
this point of view.
+* "Our common-sense understanding of belief may not be entirely correct,
but it is close enough to make some useful predictions" - This view argues
that we will eventually reject the idea of belief as we use it now, but
that there may be a correlation between what we take to be a belief when
someone says "I believe that snow is white" and how a future theory of
psychology will explain this behaviour. Most notably, philosopher Stephen
Stich has argued for this particular understanding of belief.
+* "Our common-sense understanding of belief is entirely wrong and will be
completely superseded by a radically different theory that will have no use
for the concept of belief as we know it" - Known as eliminativism, this
view, (most notably proposed by Paul and Patricia Churchland), argues that
the concept of belief is like obsolete theories of times past such as the
four humours theory of medicine, or the phlogiston theory of combustion. In
these cases science hasn't provided us with a more detailed account of
these theories, but completely rejected them as valid scientific concepts
to be replaced by entirely different accounts. The Churchlands argue that
our common-sense concept of belief is similar in that as we discover more
about neuroscience and the brain, the inevitable conclusion will be to
reject the belief hypothesis in its entirety.
+* "Our common-sense understanding of belief is entirely wrong; however,
treating people, animals, and even computers as if they had beliefs is
often a successful strategy" - The major proponents of this view, Daniel
Dennett and Lynne Rudder Baker, are both eliminativists in that they
believe that beliefs are not a scientifically valid concept, but they don't
go as far as rejecting the concept of belief as a predictive device.
Dennett gives the example of playing a computer at chess. While few people
would agree that the computer held beliefs, treating the computer as if it
did (e.g. that the computer believes that taking the opposition's queen
will give it a considerable advantage) is likely to be a successful and
predictive strategy. In this understanding of belief, named by Dennett "the
intentional stance", belief-based explanations of mind and behaviour are at
a different level of explanation and are not reducible to those based on
fundamental neuroscience, although both may be explanatory at their own
level.
+
+==How beliefs are formed==
+Psychologists study belief formation and the relationship between beliefs
and actions. Beliefs form in a variety of ways:
+* We tend to internalise the beliefs of the people around us during
childhood. Albert Einstein is often quoted as having said that "Common
sense is the collection of prejudices acquired by age eighteen." Political
beliefs depend most strongly on the political beliefs most common in the
community where we live. Most individuals believe the religion they were
taught in childhood.
+* People may adopt the beliefs of a charismatic leader, even if those
beliefs fly in the face of all previous beliefs, and produce actions that
are clearly not in their own self-interest. Is belief voluntary? Rational
individuals need to reconcile their direct reality with any said belief;
therefore, if belief is not present or possible, it reflects the fact that
contradictions were necessarily overcome using cognitive dissonance.
+* The primary thrust of the advertising industry is that repetition forms
beliefs, as do associations of beliefs with images of sex, love, and other
strong positive emotions.
+* Physical trauma, especially to the head, can radically alter a person's
beliefs.
+
+However, even educated people, well aware of the process by which beliefs
form, still strongly cling to their beliefs, and act on those beliefs even
against their own self-interest. In Anna Rowley's Leadership Theory, she
states "You want your beliefs to change. It's proof that you are keeping
your eyes open, living fully, and welcoming everything that the world and
people around you can teach you." This means that peoples' beliefs should
evolve as they gain new experiences.
+
+==Belief-in==
+To "believe in" someone or something is a distinct concept
from "believe-that". There are two types of belief-in:
+* Commendatory - an expression of confidence in a person or entity, as
in, "I believe in his abililty to do the job".
+* Existential claim - to claim belief in the existence of an entity or
phenomenon with the implied need to justify its claim to existence. It is
often used when the entity is not real, or its existence is in doubt. "He
believes in witches and ghosts" or "many children believe in fairies" are
typical examples.
+
+==Delusional beliefs==
+Delusions are defined as beliefs in psychiatric diagnostic criteria (for
example in the "Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders").
Psychiatrist and historian G.E. Berrios has challenged the view that
delusions are genuine beliefs and instead labels them as "empty speech
acts", where affected persons are motivated to express false or bizarre
belief statements due to an underlying psychological disturbance. However,
the majority of mental health professionals and researchers treat delusions
as if they were genuine beliefs.
+
+In Lewis Carroll's "Through the Looking-Glass" the White Queen says, "Why,
sometimes I've believed as many as six impossible things before breakfast."
This is often quoted in mockery of the common ability of people to
entertain beliefs contrary to fact.
+
+==Notes==
+==See also==
+
+
+==External links==
+* William Kingdon Clifford. Ethics of Belief Classic essay that belief by
its nature is not ethical, with counterpoint by "The Will to Believe" of
William James
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
=======================================
--- /dev/null
+++ /trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Ben Franklin effect Mon Jun 11 05:34:01
2012
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+
+
+The Ben Franklin effect is a psychological finding: A person who
has "done" someone a favor is more likely to do that person another favor
than they would be if they had "received" a favor from that person.
Similarly, one who harms another is more willing to harm them again than
the victim is to retaliate.
+
+==Recognition of effect by Franklin==
+In the words of Benjamin Franklin, who famously observed the effect and
for whom it is named, "He that has once done you a Kindness will be more
ready to do you another, than he whom you yourself have obliged."
+
+In his autobiography, Franklin explains how he dealt with the animosity of
a rival legislator when he served in the Pennsylvania legislature in the
18th Century
+
+==Effect as an example of cognitive dissonance==
+
+This perception of Franklin has been cited as an example within cognitive
dissonance theory, which says that people change their attitudes or
behavior to resolve tensions, or "dissonance", between their thoughts,
attitudes, and actions. In the case of the Ben Franklin effect, the
dissonance is between the subject's negative attitudes to the other person
and the knowledge that they did that person a favor.
+==See also==
+* Foot-in-the-door technique
+
+==Notes==
+==Further reading==
+*
+
+==Related information==
+
+
+
=======================================
--- /dev/null
+++ /trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Benevolent prejudice Mon Jun 11 05:34:01
2012
@@ -0,0 +1,19 @@
+Benevolent prejudice is a superficially positive type of prejudice that is
expressed in terms of apparently positive beliefs and emotional responses.
Though this type of prejudice associates supposedly good things with
certain groups, it still has the result of keeping the group members in
inferior positions in society (Whitley, 2010). Benevolent prejudices can
help justify any hostile prejudices a person has toward a particular group
(Miller, 2001).
+
+== Application ==
+Most research on benevolent prejudice has been done on benevolent sexism
and stereotypical assumptions. This would entail positive gender roles,
like men being "strong" and "providers" and women being "fragile"
and "pure." Benevolent sexism, along with hostile sexism, is a sub-group of
Ambivalent sexism. There is also research indicating benevolent prejudice
as a part of Ageism. Benevolent beliefs can apply to any group and are as
detrimental as hostile prejudices. Examples of these types of prejudices
are that "all Asians are smart" and "all African Americans are athletic."
While we may view being smart and athletic as positive, these things do not
apply to every member of a particular group.
+
+== Study/Example ==
+In an experiment run by Judd, Park, Ryan, Brauer, and Kraus (1995),
perceptions of African Americans held by White Americans show that they
held hostile beliefs indicating that they viewed African Americans as
hostile, cliquish, irresponsible, and loud. However, the same White
American participants held benevolent beliefs that African Americans were
athletic, musical, religious, and had strong family ties. The study was
also done with African American participants who were asked to share their
beliefs about White Americans. The African Americans said that White
Americans were self-centered, greedy, stuffy/uptight, and sheltered from
the real world. However, the same African Americans held benevolent beliefs
that White Americans were intelligent, organized, independent, and
financially well-off (Judd, 1995).
+
+== See also ==
+* Ambivalent prejudice
+* Hostile prejudice
+* Ambivalent sexism
+* Women are wonderful
+* Racism
+* Prejudice
+* Stereotype
+
+== References ==
+
=======================================
--- /dev/null
+++ /trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Bilateral descent Mon Jun 11 05:34:01
2012
@@ -0,0 +1,17 @@
+
+Bilateral descent is a system of family lineage in which the relatives on
the mother's side and father's side are equally important for emotional
ties or for transfer of property or wealth. It is a family arrangement
where descent and inheritance are passed equally through both parents.
Families who use this system trace descent through both parents
simultaneously and recognize multiple ancestors, but unlike with cognatic
descent it is not used to form descent groups.
+
+While bilateral descent is increasingly the norm in Western culture,
traditionally it is only found among relatively few groups in West Africa,
India, Australia, Melanesia and Polynesia. Anthropologists believe that a
tribal structure based on bilateral descent helps members live in extreme
environments because it allows individuals to rely on two sets of families
dispersed over a wide area.
+
+Under bilateral descent, every tribe member belongs to two clans, one
through the father (a patriclan) and another through the mother (a
matriclan). For example, among the Himba, clans are led by the eldest male
in the clan. Sons live with their father's clan and when daughters marry
they go to live with the clan of their husband. However inheritance of
wealth does not follow the patriclan but is determined by the matriclan
i.e. a son does not inherit his father's cattle but his maternal uncle's
instead.
+
+Javanese people, the largest ethnic group in Indonesia, also adopt a
bilateral kinship system .
+
+==References==
+==See also==
+
+* List of sociology topics
+* Sociology
+
+
+
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+++ /trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Black sheep Mon Jun 11 05:34:01 2012
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+
+
+In the English language, black sheep is an idiom used to describe an odd
or disreputable member of a group, especially within a family. The term has
typically been given negative implications, implying waywardness. It
derived from the atypical and unwanted presence of other black individuals
in flocks of white sheep.
+
+In psychology, the "black sheep effect" refers to the tendency of group
members to judge likeable ingroup members more positively and deviant
ingroup member more negatively than comparable outgroup members.
+
+== Idiomatic usage ==
+
+The term originated from the occasional black sheep which are born into a
flock of white sheep due to a genetic process of recessive traits. Black
wool was considered commercially undesirable because it could not be dyed.
In 18th and 19th century England, the black color of the sheep was seen as
the mark of the devil. In modern usage, the expression has lost some of its
negative connotations, though the term is usually given to the member of a
group who has certain characteristics or lack thereof deemed undesirable by
that group.
+
+The idiom is also found in other languages, e.g., French, Serbian,
Bulgarian, Hebrew, Portuguese, Bosnian, Greek, Turkish, Dutch, Afrikaans,
Swedish, Danish, Spanish, Czech, Slovak, Romanian and Polish. The same
concept is illustrated in some other languages by the phrase "white crow":
for example "belaya vorona" (белая ворона) in Russian and "kalag-e sefid"
(کلاغ سفید) in Persian. A variant form of black sheep, "the red sheep of
the family", was used by Jessica Mitford to describe herself, a communist
in a family of aristocratic fascists.
+
+=== Biological origin ===
+
+In sheep, a white fleece is not albinism but a dominant gene that actively
switches color production off, thus obscuring any other color that may be
present. As a result, a black fleece in most sheep is recessive, so if a
white ram and a white ewe are each heterozygous for black, in about 25% of
cases they will produce a black lamb. In fact in most white sheep breeds
only a few white sheep are heterozygous for black, so black lambs are
usually much rarer than this. Some breeds of sheep (such as the Hebridean,
Ouessant, Black Welsh Mountain and Karakul) are normally black.
+
+== Black sheep effect (Psychology) ==
+
+=== Overview ===
+
+In 1988, Marques, Yzerbyt and Leyens conducted an experiment where Belgian
students rated the following groups according to trait-descriptors (e.g.,
sociable, polite, violent, cold): unlikealbe Belgian students, unlikealbe
North African students, likealbe Belgian students, and likealbe North
African students. The results provided support that the favourability is
the highest for likeable ingroup members and the lowest for unlikeable
ingroup members, whereas the favourability of unlikeable and likeable
outgroup members is between the both former ones. These extreme judgements
of likeable and unlikeable (i.e., deviant) ingroup members, relatively to
comparable outgroup members is called “black sheep effect”. This effect has
been shown in various intergroup contexts and under a variety of
conditions, and in many experiments manipulating likeability and norm
deviance (e.g., Branscombe, Wann, Noel, & Coleman, 1993; Coull, Yzerbyt,
Castano, Paladino, & Leemans, 2001; Khan & Lambert, 1998; Pinto, Marques,
Levine, & Abrams, 2010).
+
+=== Explanations ===
+
+A prominent explanation of the black sheep effect derives from the social
identity approach (see social identity theory, Tajfel & Turner, 1979; and
self-categorization theory, Turner, Hogg, Oakes, Reicher, & Wetherell,
1987). Group members are motivated to sustain a positive and distinctice
social identity and, as a consequence, group members emphasize likeable
members and evaluate them more positve than outgroup members, bolstering
the positive image of their ingroup (see ingroup bias). Furthermore, the
positive social identity may be threatened by group members who deviate
from a relevant group norm. To protect the positive group image, ingroup
members derogate ingroup deviants more harshly than deviants of an outgroup
(Marques, Abrams, Páez, & Hogg, 2001).
+In addition, Eidelman and Biernat (2003) have shown that personal
identities are also threatened through deviant ingroup members. They argue
that devaluation of deviant members is an individual response
of "interpersonal" differentiation. Khan and Lambert (1998) suggest that
cognitive processes like assimilation and contrast, which may underline the
effect, should be examined.
+
+=== Limitations ===
+
+Even though there is widely support for the black sheep effect, the
opposite pattern has been found, for example, that White participants judge
unqualified Black targets more negative than comparable White targets
(e.g., Feldman, 1972; Linville & Jones, 1980). Consequentely, there are
several factors which influence the black sheep effect. For instance, the
higher the identification with the ingroup, and the higher the entitativity
of the ingroup, the more the black sheep effect emerges (e.g., Castano,
Paladino, Coull, & Yzerbyt, 2002; Lewis & Sherman, 2010). Even situational
factors explaining the deviance have an influence whether the black sheep
effect occurs (De Cremer & Vanbeselaere, 1999).
+
+== See also ==
+* Black swan theory
+* Glossary of sheep husbandry: see entry for "black wool".
+* Scapegoat
+* The Ugly Duckling
+
+== References ==
+== External links ==
+* Exploration of the etymology of the phrase "black sheep of the family"
+
+
+
+
+
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--- /dev/null
+++ /trunk/Clade/data/socpsy-pages/Blame Mon Jun 11 05:34:01 2012
@@ -0,0 +1,58 @@
+
+Blame is the act of censuring, holding responsible, making negative
statements about an individual or group that their action or actions are
socially or morally irresponsible, the opposite of praise. When someone is
morally responsible for doing something wrong their action is blameworthy.
By contrast, when someone is morally responsible for doing something right,
we may say that his or her action is praiseworthy. There are other senses
of praise and blame that are not ethically relevant. One may praise
someone's good dress sense, and blame the weather for a crop failure.
+
+==Sociology and psychology==
+
+We constantly consciously and unconsciously make judgments about other
people. Our basis for judging others may be partly ingrained, negative and
rigid indicating some degree of grandiosity.
+
+Blaming is also a way of devaluing others. The end result is that the
blamer feels superior. Others are seen as less worthwhile making the
blamer "perfect". Off-loading blame means putting the other person down by
emphasizing his or her flaws.
+
+===Self-blame===
+Victims of manipulation and abuse frequently feel responsible for causing
negative feelings in the manipulator/abuser towards them and the resultant
anxiety in themselves. This self-blame often becomes a major feature of
victim status.
+
+The victim gets trapped into a self-image of victimization. The
psychological profile of victimization includes a pervasive sense of
helplessness, passivity, loss of control, pessimism, negative thinking,
strong feelings of guilt, shame, remorse, self-blame and depression. This
way of thinking can lead to hopelessness and despair.
+
+There are two main types of self-blame:
+* behavioral self-blame – undeserved blame based on actions. Victims who
experience behavioral self-blame feel that they should have done something
differently, and therefore feel at fault.
+* characterological self-blame – undeserved blame based on character.
Victims who experience characterological self-blame feel there is something
inherently wrong with them which has caused them to deserve to be assaulted.
+
+Behavioral self-blame is associated with feelings of guilt within the
victim. While the belief that one had control during the abuse (past
control) is associated with greater psychological distress, the belief that
one has more control during the recovery process (present control) is
associated with less distress, less withdrawal, and more cognitive
reprocessing.
+
+Counseling responses found helpful in reducing self-blame are supportive
responses, psychoeducational responses (learning about rape trauma syndrome
for example) and those responses addressing the issue of blame. A helpful
type of therapy for self-blame is cognitive restructuring or cognitive–
behavioral therapy. Cognitive reprocessing is the process of taking the
facts and forming a logical conclusion from them that is less influenced by
shame or guilt.
+
+===Victim blaming===
+
+Victim blaming is holding the victims of a crime, an accident, or any type
of abusive maltreatment to be entirely or partially responsible for the
unfortunate incident that has occurred in their life.
+
+===Blame shifting===
+
+Blaming others can lead to a "kick-the-dog effect" where individuals in a
hierarchy blame their immediate subordinate, and this propagates down the
hierarchy until the lowest rung (the "dog"). A 2009 experimental study has
shown that blaming can be contagious even for uninvolved onlookers.
+
+===As a propaganda technique===
+Blame is closely associated with labeling theory, in that when intentional
actors act out to continuously blame an individual for nonexistent
psychological traits, and for nonexistent variables, the actors aim to
induce irrational guilt at an unconscious level. It is a propaganda tactic,
to use repetitive blaming behaviors, innuendos, and hyperbole in order to
assign negative status to normative humans. When innocent people are blamed
fraudulently for nonexistent psychological states and nonexistent
behaviors, and there is no qualifying deviance for the blaming behaviors,
the intention is to create a negative valuation of innocent humans to
induce fear, by using fear mongering. Blaming in the form of demonization
has been used by governments for centuries to influence public perceptions
of various other governments, to induce feelings of nationalism in the
public. Blame can be utilized to objectify people, groups, and nations,
which can typically negatively influence the intended subjects of
propaganda, compromising their objectivity. Blame is utilized as a social
control technique.
+
+=== In organizations ===
+
+Some systems theorists and management consultants, such as Gerald
Weinberg, held that the flow of blame in an organization was itself one of
the most important indicators of that organization's robustness and
integrity. Blame flowing upwards in a hierarchy, he argued, proved that
superiors were willing to take responsibility for their orders to their
inferiors, and supplying them with the resources required to do their jobs.
But blame flowing downwards, from management to staff, or laterally between
professionals, were signs of organizational failure. In a blame culture,
problem-solving is replaced by blame-avoidance. Weinberg emphasizes that
blame coming from the top generates “fear, malaise, errors, accidents, and
passive-aggressive responses from the bottom”, with those at the bottom
feeling powerless and in lack of emotional safety.
+
+A "no-blame culture" has been widely considered as a means to increase
safety, in particular in areas where the consideration of possible human
error is important, for instance in hospitals and aviation. Together with
questions of accountability, this has also been subsumed under the concept
of creating a "Just culture".
+
+==See also==
+* Psychological projection
+* Praise
+* Scapegoating
+
+==References==
+==Further reading==
+* Douglas, T. Scapegoats: Transferring Blame (1995)
+* Wilcox, C.W. Scapegoat: Targeted for Blame (2009)
+
+==External links==
+
+* Blaming
+* New World Encyclopaedia – Praise and blame
+* Moral Responsibility (also on praise and blame), in the Stanford
Encyclopedia of Philosophy
+* Praise and Blame, in the Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy
+
+
+
=======================================
***Additional files exist in this changeset.***
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