Intercultural Business Communication Gibson.pdf
Eden Alvardo
The essential guide for working in diverse teams and across cultures today.
This practical self-help guide will optimize the performance of individuals and teams working in an intercultural environment. By increasing awareness of the nature and impact of diversity in the workplace and national cultural differences, it demonstrates how to use the power of difference to achieve positive results for all.
Learn how to mitigate unconscious bias to create inclusive organizations and how to use key cultural dimensions to communicate and cooperate in intercultural teams. Addressing the unique challenges of influencing across cultures and managing international transformation projects, this is an indispensable toolkit for a key competence in business.
Leading interculturalist Robert Gibson challenges conventional ideas and makes new connections between culture, diversity and neuroscience in this modern guide for anyone working virtually or together in a diverse team or international business. Use these simple and proven approaches for better communication, collaboration, leadership and decision making in today's globalised workplace.
Robert Gibson is an interculturalist with over 30 years' experience of intercultural competence development in business and education.
A former Vice-President of the Society for Intercultural Education, Training and Research (SIETAR Europa) and a founder and Member of the Advisory Board of SIETAR Deutschland he was head of intercultural training at Siemens AG for 18 years during which time he designed and implemented an award-winning Diversity and Inclusion initiative for over 230,000 employees worldwide.
He has run projects in Germany, Austria, Poland and Hungary for the Council of Europe and UNESCO. Originally a school teacher in England he has lectured at the University of Munich, Ingolstadt School of Management, University of the Arts in Berlin and the Business School of the University of Bologna, teaching Intercultural Management on Global MBA and MA programs as well as advising on vocational education to the Bavarian Ministry of Education.
His publications include Gibson (2002) Intercultural Business Communication and over 70 articles on Intercultural Communication for the magazine Business Spotlight. He grew up in London and studied at the Universities of Oxford and Exeter in the UK before moving to Germany in 1985. He is currently based in Munich and works as a freelance consultant, facilitator and trainer.
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Before delving further into intercultural competence, some limitations to our current understanding of intercultural competence must be acknowledged. First, our present understanding of intercultural competence is strongly influenced by research emerging from economically developed parts of the world, such as the United States and parts of Europe and Oceania. Interpretivists would suggest that the (cultural) perspectives from which the topic is approached inevitably influence the outcomes of research. Second, there is a strong social scientific bias to the cumulative body of research in intercultural competence so far; as such, the findings are subject to the strengths and weaknesses of this epistemology. Third, because many of the current models of intercultural competence (or intercultural communication competence) focus on the individual, and because individual cultural identities are arguably becoming more blended in multicultural societies, we may be quickly approaching a point where traditional definitions of intercultural communication (and by association, intercultural competence) need to be refined. While this is not an exhaustive list of limitations, it identifies some of the parameters within which current conceptualizations of intercultural competence must be viewed.
The following sections discuss intercultural competence, as we know it, starting with what it is and what it is not. A brief discussion of well-known theories of ICC follows, then some of the variables associated with ICC are identified. One of the topics of repeated query is whether ICC is culture-general or culture-specific. This is addressed in the section following the discussion of variables associated with ICC, followed by a section on assessment of ICC. Finally, before delving into research directions for the future and a historiography of research in ICC over the years, the question of whether ICC can be learned is addressed.
The multiplicity in nomenclature of intercultural competence has been one of the factors that have irked researchers who seek conceptual clarity. In a meta-analysis of studies in intercultural communication competence, Bradford, Allen, and Beisser (2000) attempted to synthesize the multiple labels used in research; they concluded that intercultural effectiveness is conceptually equivalent to intercultural communication competence. Others have proposed that intercultural sensitivity is conceptually distinct from intercultural competence (Chen & Starosta, 2000). Others have demonstrated that, while there are multiple labels in use, there is general consensus as to what intercultural competence is (Deardorff, 2006).
In communication literature, it is fair to note that intercultural competence and intercultural communication competence are used interchangeably. In literature in other disciplines, such as medicine and health sciences, cultural competence is the label with which intercultural competence is described. Some have also proposed the phrase cultural humility as a deliberate alternative to cultural competence, suggesting that cultural humility involves life-long learning through self-awareness and critical reflection (Tervalon & Murray-Garcia, 1998).
The nature of an abstract concept is such that its reality is defined by the labels assigned to it. Unlike some concepts that have been defined and developed over many years within the parameters of a single discipline, intercultural competence is of great interest to researchers in multiple disciplines. As such, researchers from different disciplines have ventured to study it, without necessarily building on findings from other disciplines. This is one factor that has contributed to the multiple labels by which intercultural competence is known. This issue might not be resolved in the near future. However, those seeking conceptual clarity could look for the operationalization of what is being studied, rather than going by the name by which it is called. In other words, if what is being studied is effectiveness and appropriateness in intercultural communication (each of these terms in turn need to be unpacked to check for conceptual equivalency), then one can conclude that it is a study of intercultural competence, regardless of what it is called.
Many theories of intercultural (communication) competence have been proposed over the years. While it is fair to say that there is no single leading theory of intercultural competence, some of the well-known theories are worth noting.
There are a couple of theories of ICC that are identified as covering laws theories (Wiseman, 2002), namely Anxiety Uncertainty Management (AUM) theory and Face Negotiation theory. Finding its origins in Berger and Calabrese (1975), AUM theory (Gudykunst, 1993, 2005) proposes that the ability to be mindful and the effective management of anxiety caused by the uncertainty in intercultural interactions are key factors in achieving ICC. Gudykunst conceptualizes ICC as intercultural communication that has the least amount of misunderstandings. While AUM theory is not without its critics (for example, Yoshitake, 2002), it has been used in a number of empirical studies over the years (examples include Duronto, Nishida, & Nakayama, 2005; Ni & Wang, 2011), including studies that have extended the theory further (see Neuliep, 2012).
A number of variables have been identified as contributors to intercultural competence. Among these are mindfulness (Gudykunst, 1993), self and other awareness (Deardorff, 2006), listening skills (Ting-Toomey & Kurogi, 1998), positive attitude toward other cultures, and empathy (Arasaratnam & Doerfel, 2005), to name a few. Further, flexibility, tolerance for ambiguity, capacity for complexity, and language proficiency are also relevant. There is evidence to suggest that personal spiritual wellbeing plays a positive role in intercultural competence (Sandage & Jankowski, 2013). Additionally, there is an interesting link between intercultural competence and a biological variable, namely sensation seeking. Evidence suggests that, in the presence of a positive attitude towards other cultures and motivation to interact with people from other cultures, there is a positive relationship between sensation seeking and intercultural competence (Arasaratnam & Banerjee, 2011). Sensation seeking has also been associated with intercultural friendships (Morgan & Arasaratnam, 2003; Smith & Downs, 2004).
This is, by no means, an exhaustive list of variables that influence intercultural competence, but it is representative of the many individual-centered variables that influence the extent to which one is effective and appropriate in intercultural communication. Contextual variables, as noted in the next section, also play a role in ICC. It must further be noted that many of the ICC models do not identify language proficiency as a key variable; however, the importance of language proficiency has not been ignored (Fantini, 2009). Various models of intercultural competence portray the way in which (and, in some cases, the extent to which) these variables contribute to intercultural competence. For an expansive discussion of models of intercultural competence, see Spitzberg and Chagnoun (2009).
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