Kurt Fischer
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ceily
Sep 16, 2010, 10:35:29 PM9/16/10
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http://www.uknow.gse.harvard.edu/learning/video-learn002b-uk_kf_growthcyc.html
Video: Skills and the brain grow together
HGSE Professor Kurt Fischer
Video 1: In this video clip, Kurt Fischer, from HGSE's Mind, Brain,
and Education program, talks about exciting research findings that
relate growth in skills to growth in brain activity. He provides an
overview of this work, describing growth spurts in brain and cognitive
development that occur within the same age periods during the school
years.
"Hi, I'm Kurt Fischer. I study cognitive development and learning, and
how they connect to brain development. In research over the years, we
came up with a remarkable surprise, which is a discovery of a close
connection between the growth cycles of cognition, how we develop new
capacities, and the growth cycles of brain activity. I'm going to tell
you about that today.
So in cognitive development, there's a series of capacities that
emerge during the childhood and adolescent years. And these changes,
these emerging capacities can be seen very simply when you look at the
best performance that children show. You look at how they solve
problems or how they learn in situations where they're given support
by a good teacher, by a parent, by a good textbook, helping them to do
their best in the task or problem.
http://www.uknow.gse.harvard.edu/learning/learning002a.html
What's the brain got to do with it?
HGSE Professor Kurt Fischer
What does the brain have to do with learning? HGSE professor Kurt
Fischer offers a powerful explanation: behavior and the brain change
in a repeating pattern that appears to involve common growth cycles.
From birth until about age 30, new capacities for thinking and
learning coincide with these growth cycles in the brain.
Summary
What does it mean for the brain to go through a growth cycle? Consider
the brain's outer layers, known as the cortex, which supports
reasoning and thinking skills through its massive network of
connections with the rest of the brain. Whenever neurons fire, a small
amount of electrical energy is released, which can be measured using
EEG (electroencephalogram) technology. The amount of electrical
activity in the cortex, and the strength of connections between its
parts, show periodic spurts. Fischer noticed that these spurts occur
at the same time as news skills emerge, say in musical performance or
spatial reasoning. So, during each cycle, spurts of electrical
activity and growth in connections support a new level of development.
Just as physical growth shows dramatic spurts, learning also jumps in
fits and starts, often even falling back temporarily during the
learning process. This doesn't mean that learning is fast or easy: it
can take months or years for children to master new skills.
Development involves a recurring growth cycle. A child doesn't learn
skills and concepts just once – he or she relearns them at
successively more mature levels.
Cognitive spurts in clusters of skills only show up when children
enjoy optimal learning conditions, such as the support of a good
teacher or mentor. The figure below shows how students' ability to
think abstractly differs depending on whether support is available. A
child's ability even in a single skill can vary depending on the
support available. Removing instructional help, such as when a teacher
shifts from working with a student to having the student work alone,
leads to a natural, rapid drop in performance.
In other words: don't count on your cortex to do the work for you.
Sustaining the highest level of performance supported by brain
development takes practice and help from others.
Fischer, K. W., & Rose, S. P. (1998). Growth cycles of brain and mind.
Educational Leadership, 56(3), 56-60.
By Maria Fusaro, doctoral student in Human Development and Psychology
at HGSE
And when you look at that best performance, you see rapid jumps in
performance at certain ages, as you can see in this graph. At about
four years, seven years, 11, 15 and 20, you see jumps in performance
under optimal conditions, the best that a child can do. When you look
at ordinary performance on the other hand, you see slow, continuous
growth at a much lower level as you can see in the bottom curve in the
graph.
Now it turns out that brain activity, the electrical activity that can
be recorded from the cortex, shows a similar growth curve. What we're
going to show you is the energy in the brain wave and how it changes
over time with age. In this graph, you can see that there's a series
of jumps in the energy in the brain wave that looks a lot like the
series of jumps that you saw before in cognitive performance under
optimal conditions.
And if we then take that graph and change it into different scores
where we subtract last year's performance from this year's
performance, so we see the change from year to year, then you can see
that even more dramatically that there's a series of spurts that are
closely tied to age. And these ages relate very nicely to the ages
when cognitive performance occurs.
So a surprising discovery is that cognitive growth and brain activity
growth occur in parallel with the capacities to think and solve
problems, developing in spurts at particular ages. And the brain
activity growth occurring at spurts at the same ages. So brain growth
and cognitive growth are going hand-in-hand in the development of new
capacities during childhood and adolescence."
<view video> (requires RealPlayer)
Video 2: Kurt Fischer elaborates on measuring the growth in brain
activity from childhood through early adulthood. He describes how EEG
(electroencephalogram) techniques can be used to detect developmental
patterns in brain connections. Animated graphics help to illustrate
how connections among different brain regions appear to grow in
cyclical patterns around the cortex.
"When we talk about brain growth, what is growing? And how do we know
the way it grows? The way we figure that out is by looking at what's
happening in brain activity. And the best measure right now is the
electroencephalogram, the EEG, which measures the electric activity in
the cortex primarily.
The levels that we talked about where there are spurts in electrical
activity, measure the energy in the activity. There's another way that
we can use brainwaves which lets us examine how connections grow in
the brain. It turns out there's a really nicely systematic and
surprising pattern of growth of connections moving around the cortex
and association with each of the developmental levels.
So for each level of growth, we start out with front to back
connections, then move to connections growing primarily in the right
hemisphere where they gradually become more local within the right
hemisphere. Then they move to primarily the front of the brain
briefly, then over to the left hemisphere where they move from being
local to more global. And then the whole thing starts over again.
We have front to back growth of connections, moving over into the
right hemisphere where they gradually become more local, then to the
front of the brain briefly, then moving over into the left hemisphere,
and then starting over again.
So over the time of development from early infancy to the mid-20s, as
you move through the ten developmental levels of growth, we presumably
have this growth of connections in the neural network repeating each
time for each level."
<view video> (requires RealPlayer)
Video 3: Learners of all ages build more complex understandings of the
world and of people from their earlier, simpler concepts. In this
clip, Kurt Fischer uses the example of children's social role
understanding to illustrate how simple representations are reorganized
into more complex representations and then into abstract concepts.
These new skills that emerge in children's best performance are
closely associated with growth spurts of brain activity.
"Let's say a little more – unpack – how cognitive development occurs.
Cognitive development proceeds through ten levels from early infancy
into the middle 20s. And the levels move through a growth cycle,
beginning with actions, becoming more and more complex during the
infant years, building to representations, which then become more and
more complex during the childhood years. And finally abstractions
emerge around the beginning of adolescence and they become more and
more complex on into early adulthood.
So we have a growth cycle moving from actions to representations to
abstractions. The diagram shows this cycle for representations and
abstractions. Starting about two years, children can build single
representations like a building block, such as the concept of mother.
They understand what a mother does. That gets combined with other
social categories like what a child does. So right about four years,
they can connect mother role to child role, understanding how mother
and child interact.
Then a couple years later, at about six or seven, they build a system
where each person can occupy several roles. So a mother can also be a
teacher with her child who's also a student or learner. This complex
representational system then builds further to create the emergence of
a new way of thinking, a radically new way of thinking which is an
abstraction, a kind of intangible concept, something like executive or
introverted person or principal understood as the leader of a school,
as opposed to merely the boss of students and teachers.
Then the abstraction goes through the same cycle as you can see in the
diagram. So single abstractions move into abstract mappings,
connecting abstractions to each other in simple ways, then abstract
systems that build complex relations among several abstractions. And
then eventually the abstractions can become coordinated about the age
of 25 at the earliest to form principles integrating abstract
systems."
<view video> (requires RealPlayer)
The flexible brain
HGSE Professor Kurt Fischer
Professor Kurt Fischer answers some fundamental questions about
learning and the brain: Do new brain cells grow after childhood?
What's the truth about right-brain versus left-brain thinking? Drawing
on a broad range of research, from studies on rats to studies on
children living with only one brain hemisphere, Dr. Fischer shares
neuroscience perspectives on these issues and more, in this HGSE News
interview.
http://www.gse.harvard.edu/news/features/fischer08012004.html
Learning and the Brain
An Interview with Bigelow Professor Kurt Fischer
Harvard Graduate School of Education
August 1, 2004
Send this page to a friend
Subscribe to e-Updates
To Learn More...
View a presentation with Bigelow Professor Kurt Fischer about using
technology to train educators in the use of cognitive science to
inform educational practice
(from the Workshop on the Use of Teachnology in Teaching and Learning;
courtesy of the Office of the Provost, Harvard University)
by Abigail Bucuvalas
Bigelow Professor Kurt Fischer
(Karlyn Morissette photo)
Kurt Fischer is a student of human development from birth through
adulthood. His work focuses on the organization of behavior and the
ways it changes. His dynamic-skill theory approach provides a
framework for combining the many organismic and environmental factors
that create the rich variety of development and learning across and
within people, including both cultural and individual variation.
Q: Many people assume that brain growth, and especially the
development of new neurons, ceases during childhood. Is there any
truth supporting this assumption?
A: When I went to graduate school, there was a belief that you did not
form new neurons or new synapses after infancy. But researchers have
discovered that new synapses form in adult rats. If an adult rat
learns a new motor response (i.e., pushing its paw against a lever),
you can actually trace the formation of a new synapse in the brain of
that rat.
The belief that new neurons could not grow in adults was first refuted
by studies of songbirds that took place about 30 years ago. It was
discovered that new neurons would grow when certain songbirds learned
a new song. And now, there is clear evidence demonstrating that new
neurons grow in adult monkeys, in cats, and in other mammals. This
neuron growth takes place in at least two regions of the brain, namely
the hippocampus and the olfactory cortex. The hippocampus is extremely
important for memory functions, such as turning short-term memories
into long-term memories. In adult monkeys, it seems that new neurons
are growing and moving into the hippocampus on a regular basis.
Comparable to the songbirds that need new neurons to learn new songs,
monkeys—and, most likely, other primates—apparently need new neurons
to develop at least some of their new memories.
Learning is not just figuring out how to do something; it is also
the process of figuring out how not to do something.
Q: The loss of brain tissue is almost always associated with
degenerative illness and/or brain damage. When does losing brain
tissue actually help us during the learning processes?
A: We now know that most loss of brain tissue in infants and children—
and even in adults—is positive. It is the pruning away of the
connections and neurons that aren’t very effective. In short, it is
impractical to maintain millions of neurons that are not very useful,
so these extra neurons die off. This discovery completely
revolutionized the understanding of how the brain works.
A major part of learning is the process of getting rid of what doesn’t
work very well. Learning is not just figuring out how to do something;
it is also the process of figuring out how not to do something.
Q: How accurate is the conception that our brain functions are
extremely localized? And how does this relate to the notion that an
individual may be either left-brained or right-brained?
A: There are many beliefs about brain localization that are quite
inaccurate. For instance, language is not located entirely in the left
hemisphere, and spatial skills are not found only in the right
hemisphere. In reality, both functions are present in both
hemispheres.
At the same time, there is some localization of function, so you are
more likely to have the sound analysis of particular musical pieces
done primarily in the left hemisphere, while you are more likely to
have the global analysis of the meaning of a sentence done primarily
in the right hemisphere. But even these examples, that demonstrate a
certain degree of localization, are not functions that reside entirely
in one hemisphere.
We work with a few kids who actually have only one hemisphere, and
they are veritable left- or right- hemisphere people because of
surgery that they’ve undergone for epilepsy. For most of us, however,
understanding where specific brain functions take place is extremely
complex, and they are not limited to one hemisphere or the other.
Q: What do the realities of learning and the brain indicate for the
recuperation of people who have been abused or had other traumatic
experiences?
A: There has been an enormous amount of work on traumatic experiences
and learning in animals, including the study of particular neural
changes that happen within the brain after a traumatic experience.
This work has clearly demonstrated that specific circuits exist for
remembering trauma, and that we seem to have a special way of
remembering our traumatic experiences. We can vividly recall trauma
after one experience, whereas we typically require several experiences
to remember something that is not traumatic.
I do some work with abused children. It is important to recognize that
there are many different patterns of abuse, and the effects these
patterns have on the children can vary enormously, depending on the
kind of abuse. In order to help an abused individual, you must
carefully consider his or her particular experience. Most of the time,
studies of the brain are too coarse to provide immediately useful
insight into a specific case. Finding distinct brain activation
patterns in abused children, for example, is very interesting but does
not necessarily help for the treatment of one child.
It is, therefore, far more important, when working with abuse victims,
to try to understand each person’s particular adaptation to the abuse.
Once children have been severely abused, they will probably never get
rid of the effects of the abuse. But they can learn to behave in
specific adaptive ways that will allow them to function quite well
most of the time, such that they can build stable and good lives.
http://www.uknow.gse.harvard.edu/learning/video-learn002b-uk_kf_growthcyc.html
Video: Skills and the brain grow together
HGSE Professor Kurt Fischer
Video 1: In this video clip, Kurt Fischer, from HGSE's Mind, Brain,
and Education program, talks about exciting research findings that
relate growth in skills to growth in brain activity. He provides an
overview of this work, describing growth spurts in brain and cognitive
development that occur within the same age periods during the school
years.
"Hi, I'm Kurt Fischer. I study cognitive development and learning, and
how they connect to brain development. In research over the years, we
came up with a remarkable surprise, which is a discovery of a close
connection between the growth cycles of cognition, how we develop new
capacities, and the growth cycles of brain activity. I'm going to tell
you about that today.
So in cognitive development, there's a series of capacities that
emerge during the childhood and adolescent years. And these changes,
these emerging capacities can be seen very simply when you look at the
best performance that children show. You look at how they solve
problems or how they learn in situations where they're given support
by a good teacher, by a parent, by a good textbook, helping them to do
their best in the task or problem.
http://www.uknow.gse.harvard.edu/learning/learning002a.html
What's the brain got to do with it?
HGSE Professor Kurt Fischer
What does the brain have to do with learning? HGSE professor Kurt
Fischer offers a powerful explanation: behavior and the brain change
in a repeating pattern that appears to involve common growth cycles.
From birth until about age 30, new capacities for thinking and
learning coincide with these growth cycles in the brain.
Summary
What does it mean for the brain to go through a growth cycle? Consider
the brain's outer layers, known as the cortex, which supports
reasoning and thinking skills through its massive network of
connections with the rest of the brain. Whenever neurons fire, a small
amount of electrical energy is released, which can be measured using
EEG (electroencephalogram) technology. The amount of electrical
activity in the cortex, and the strength of connections between its
parts, show periodic spurts. Fischer noticed that these spurts occur
at the same time as news skills emerge, say in musical performance or
spatial reasoning. So, during each cycle, spurts of electrical
activity and growth in connections support a new level of development.
Just as physical growth shows dramatic spurts, learning also jumps in
fits and starts, often even falling back temporarily during the
learning process. This doesn't mean that learning is fast or easy: it
can take months or years for children to master new skills.
Development involves a recurring growth cycle. A child doesn't learn
skills and concepts just once – he or she relearns them at
successively more mature levels.
Cognitive spurts in clusters of skills only show up when children
enjoy optimal learning conditions, such as the support of a good
teacher or mentor. The figure below shows how students' ability to
think abstractly differs depending on whether support is available. A
child's ability even in a single skill can vary depending on the
support available. Removing instructional help, such as when a teacher
shifts from working with a student to having the student work alone,
leads to a natural, rapid drop in performance.
In other words: don't count on your cortex to do the work for you.
Sustaining the highest level of performance supported by brain
development takes practice and help from others.
Fischer, K. W., & Rose, S. P. (1998). Growth cycles of brain and mind.
Educational Leadership, 56(3), 56-60.
By Maria Fusaro, doctoral student in Human Development and Psychology
at HGSE
And when you look at that best performance, you see rapid jumps in
performance at certain ages, as you can see in this graph. At about
four years, seven years, 11, 15 and 20, you see jumps in performance
under optimal conditions, the best that a child can do. When you look
at ordinary performance on the other hand, you see slow, continuous
growth at a much lower level as you can see in the bottom curve in the
graph.
Now it turns out that brain activity, the electrical activity that can
be recorded from the cortex, shows a similar growth curve. What we're
going to show you is the energy in the brain wave and how it changes
over time with age. In this graph, you can see that there's a series
of jumps in the energy in the brain wave that looks a lot like the
series of jumps that you saw before in cognitive performance under
optimal conditions.
And if we then take that graph and change it into different scores
where we subtract last year's performance from this year's
performance, so we see the change from year to year, then you can see
that even more dramatically that there's a series of spurts that are
closely tied to age. And these ages relate very nicely to the ages
when cognitive performance occurs.
So a surprising discovery is that cognitive growth and brain activity
growth occur in parallel with the capacities to think and solve
problems, developing in spurts at particular ages. And the brain
activity growth occurring at spurts at the same ages. So brain growth
and cognitive growth are going hand-in-hand in the development of new
capacities during childhood and adolescence."
<view video> (requires RealPlayer)
Video 2: Kurt Fischer elaborates on measuring the growth in brain
activity from childhood through early adulthood. He describes how EEG
(electroencephalogram) techniques can be used to detect developmental
patterns in brain connections. Animated graphics help to illustrate
how connections among different brain regions appear to grow in
cyclical patterns around the cortex.
"When we talk about brain growth, what is growing? And how do we know
the way it grows? The way we figure that out is by looking at what's
happening in brain activity. And the best measure right now is the
electroencephalogram, the EEG, which measures the electric activity in
the cortex primarily.
The levels that we talked about where there are spurts in electrical
activity, measure the energy in the activity. There's another way that
we can use brainwaves which lets us examine how connections grow in
the brain. It turns out there's a really nicely systematic and
surprising pattern of growth of connections moving around the cortex
and association with each of the developmental levels.
So for each level of growth, we start out with front to back
connections, then move to connections growing primarily in the right
hemisphere where they gradually become more local within the right
hemisphere. Then they move to primarily the front of the brain
briefly, then over to the left hemisphere where they move from being
local to more global. And then the whole thing starts over again.
We have front to back growth of connections, moving over into the
right hemisphere where they gradually become more local, then to the
front of the brain briefly, then moving over into the left hemisphere,
and then starting over again.
So over the time of development from early infancy to the mid-20s, as
you move through the ten developmental levels of growth, we presumably
have this growth of connections in the neural network repeating each
time for each level."
<view video> (requires RealPlayer)
Video 3: Learners of all ages build more complex understandings of the
world and of people from their earlier, simpler concepts. In this
clip, Kurt Fischer uses the example of children's social role
understanding to illustrate how simple representations are reorganized
into more complex representations and then into abstract concepts.
These new skills that emerge in children's best performance are
closely associated with growth spurts of brain activity.
"Let's say a little more – unpack – how cognitive development occurs.
Cognitive development proceeds through ten levels from early infancy
into the middle 20s. And the levels move through a growth cycle,
beginning with actions, becoming more and more complex during the
infant years, building to representations, which then become more and
more complex during the childhood years. And finally abstractions
emerge around the beginning of adolescence and they become more and
more complex on into early adulthood.
So we have a growth cycle moving from actions to representations to
abstractions. The diagram shows this cycle for representations and
abstractions. Starting about two years, children can build single
representations like a building block, such as the concept of mother.
They understand what a mother does. That gets combined with other
social categories like what a child does. So right about four years,
they can connect mother role to child role, understanding how mother
and child interact.
Then a couple years later, at about six or seven, they build a system
where each person can occupy several roles. So a mother can also be a
teacher with her child who's also a student or learner. This complex
representational system then builds further to create the emergence of
a new way of thinking, a radically new way of thinking which is an
abstraction, a kind of intangible concept, something like executive or
introverted person or principal understood as the leader of a school,
as opposed to merely the boss of students and teachers.
Then the abstraction goes through the same cycle as you can see in the
diagram. So single abstractions move into abstract mappings,
connecting abstractions to each other in simple ways, then abstract
systems that build complex relations among several abstractions. And
then eventually the abstractions can become coordinated about the age
of 25 at the earliest to form principles integrating abstract
systems."
<view video> (requires RealPlayer)
The flexible brain
HGSE Professor Kurt Fischer
Professor Kurt Fischer answers some fundamental questions about
learning and the brain: Do new brain cells grow after childhood?
What's the truth about right-brain versus left-brain thinking? Drawing
on a broad range of research, from studies on rats to studies on
children living with only one brain hemisphere, Dr. Fischer shares
neuroscience perspectives on these issues and more, in this HGSE News
interview.
http://www.gse.harvard.edu/news/features/fischer08012004.html
Learning and the Brain
An Interview with Bigelow Professor Kurt Fischer
Harvard Graduate School of Education
August 1, 2004
Send this page to a friend
Subscribe to e-Updates
To Learn More...
View a presentation with Bigelow Professor Kurt Fischer about using
technology to train educators in the use of cognitive science to
inform educational practice
(from the Workshop on the Use of Teachnology in Teaching and Learning;
courtesy of the Office of the Provost, Harvard University)
by Abigail Bucuvalas
Bigelow Professor Kurt Fischer
(Karlyn Morissette photo)
Kurt Fischer is a student of human development from birth through
adulthood. His work focuses on the organization of behavior and the
ways it changes. His dynamic-skill theory approach provides a
framework for combining the many organismic and environmental factors
that create the rich variety of development and learning across and
within people, including both cultural and individual variation.
Q: Many people assume that brain growth, and especially the
development of new neurons, ceases during childhood. Is there any
truth supporting this assumption?
A: When I went to graduate school, there was a belief that you did not
form new neurons or new synapses after infancy. But researchers have
discovered that new synapses form in adult rats. If an adult rat
learns a new motor response (i.e., pushing its paw against a lever),
you can actually trace the formation of a new synapse in the brain of
that rat.
The belief that new neurons could not grow in adults was first refuted
by studies of songbirds that took place about 30 years ago. It was
discovered that new neurons would grow when certain songbirds learned
a new song. And now, there is clear evidence demonstrating that new
neurons grow in adult monkeys, in cats, and in other mammals. This
neuron growth takes place in at least two regions of the brain, namely
the hippocampus and the olfactory cortex. The hippocampus is extremely
important for memory functions, such as turning short-term memories
into long-term memories. In adult monkeys, it seems that new neurons
are growing and moving into the hippocampus on a regular basis.
Comparable to the songbirds that need new neurons to learn new songs,
monkeys—and, most likely, other primates—apparently need new neurons
to develop at least some of their new memories.
Learning is not just figuring out how to do something; it is also
the process of figuring out how not to do something.
Q: The loss of brain tissue is almost always associated with
degenerative illness and/or brain damage. When does losing brain
tissue actually help us during the learning processes?
A: We now know that most loss of brain tissue in infants and children—
and even in adults—is positive. It is the pruning away of the
connections and neurons that aren’t very effective. In short, it is
impractical to maintain millions of neurons that are not very useful,
so these extra neurons die off. This discovery completely
revolutionized the understanding of how the brain works.
A major part of learning is the process of getting rid of what doesn’t
work very well. Learning is not just figuring out how to do something;
it is also the process of figuring out how not to do something.
Q: How accurate is the conception that our brain functions are
extremely localized? And how does this relate to the notion that an
individual may be either left-brained or right-brained?
A: There are many beliefs about brain localization that are quite
inaccurate. For instance, language is not located entirely in the left
hemisphere, and spatial skills are not found only in the right
hemisphere. In reality, both functions are present in both
hemispheres.
At the same time, there is some localization of function, so you are
more likely to have the sound analysis of particular musical pieces
done primarily in the left hemisphere, while you are more likely to
have the global analysis of the meaning of a sentence done primarily
in the right hemisphere. But even these examples, that demonstrate a
certain degree of localization, are not functions that reside entirely
in one hemisphere.
We work with a few kids who actually have only one hemisphere, and
they are veritable left- or right- hemisphere people because of
surgery that they’ve undergone for epilepsy. For most of us, however,
understanding where specific brain functions take place is extremely
complex, and they are not limited to one hemisphere or the other.
Q: What do the realities of learning and the brain indicate for the
recuperation of people who have been abused or had other traumatic
experiences?
A: There has been an enormous amount of work on traumatic experiences
and learning in animals, including the study of particular neural
changes that happen within the brain after a traumatic experience.
This work has clearly demonstrated that specific circuits exist for
remembering trauma, and that we seem to have a special way of
remembering our traumatic experiences. We can vividly recall trauma
after one experience, whereas we typically require several experiences
to remember something that is not traumatic.
I do some work with abused children. It is important to recognize that
there are many different patterns of abuse, and the effects these
patterns have on the children can vary enormously, depending on the
kind of abuse. In order to help an abused individual, you must
carefully consider his or her particular experience. Most of the time,
studies of the brain are too coarse to provide immediately useful
insight into a specific case. Finding distinct brain activation
patterns in abused children, for example, is very interesting but does
not necessarily help for the treatment of one child.
It is, therefore, far more important, when working with abuse victims,
to try to understand each person’s particular adaptation to the abuse.
Once children have been severely abused, they will probably never get
rid of the effects of the abuse. But they can learn to behave in
specific adaptive ways that will allow them to function quite well
most of the time, such that they can build stable and good lives.
ceily
Sep 16, 2010, 10:45:22 PM9/16/10
to EDU 429 GROUPWORK
Newry
Oct 12, 2010, 10:28:18 PM10/12/10
to EDU 429 GROUPWORK
call me tomorrow please and email me your stuff, i have uploaded the
power point for you to see
502-6355 or 466- 7830
Newry
power point for you to see
502-6355 or 466- 7830
Newry
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