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Donkey Kong[a] is a video game series and media franchise created by the Japanese game designer Shigeru Miyamoto for Nintendo. The franchise follows the adventures of Donkey Kong, a large, powerful gorilla. Donkey Kong games include the original arcade game trilogy by Nintendo R&D1; the Donkey Kong Country series by Rare and Retro Studios; and the Mario vs. Donkey Kong series by Nintendo Software Technology. Various studios have developed spin-offs in other genres such as edutainment, puzzle, racing, and rhythm. The franchise also incorporates animation, printed media, theme parks, and merchandise.
Donkey Kong is one of Nintendo's bestselling franchises, with more than 65 million units sold by 2021. The original game was Nintendo's first major international success and established it as a prominent force in the video game industry. The franchise has pioneered or popularized concepts such as in-game storytelling and pre-rendered graphics, inspired other games (including clones), and influenced popular culture.
In the late 1970s, the Japanese company Nintendo shifted its focus from producing toys and playing cards to arcade games. This followed the 1973 oil crisis having increased the cost of manufacturing toys and the success of Taito's Space Invaders (1978). In 1980, Nintendo released Radar Scope, a Space Invaders-style shoot 'em up.[1] It was a commercial failure and put the newly established subsidiary Nintendo of America in a financial crisis. Its founder, Minoru Arakawa, asked his father in-law, the Nintendo CEO Hiroshi Yamauchi, to provide a new game that could salvage the unsold Radar Scope cabinets.[2] Most of Nintendo's top developers were preoccupied, so the task went to Shigeru Miyamoto, a first-time game designer.[3][4]
Donkey Kong was one of the earliest platform games,[b] following Mario as he ascends a construction site to rescue Pauline from Donkey Kong.[10] It was released in July 1981 and became Nintendo's first major international success. The windfall of $280 million rescued Nintendo of America from its financial crisis and established it as a prominent brand in America.[11][12] Donkey Kong achieved further success in 1982, when Nintendo released a Game & Watch version and licensed it to Coleco for ports to home consoles.[13][14] It grossed $4.4 billion across various formats, making it one of the highest-grossing games of all time.[15] In 1982, Universal City Studios filed a lawsuit alleging Donkey Kong violated its trademark of King Kong. The lawsuit failed when Nintendo's lawyer, Howard Lincoln, discovered that Universal had won a lawsuit years prior by declaring that King Kong was actually in the public domain. The victory cemented Nintendo as a major force in the video game industry.[16][17]
Miyamoto and his team used game mechanics and levels that could not be included in Donkey Kong as the basis for a sequel. Miyamoto wanted to make Donkey Kong the protagonist, but the sprite was too big to easily maneuver, so he created a new character, Donkey Kong Jr. The team still wanted Donkey Kong on top of the screen, so they conceived a plot in which Mario had caged him and Donkey Kong Jr. had to save him.[18] To develop Donkey Kong Jr. (1982), Nintendo reverse-engineered Ikegami's Donkey Kong code, making it the first game that Nintendo developed without outside help. Following Donkey Kong Jr.'s release, Ikegami sued Nintendo for copyright infringement. In 1990, the Tokyo High Court ruled in favor of Ikegami, and the companies reached a settlement.[8]
The franchise went on an extended hiatus,[20] while the spin-off Mario franchise found success on the NES, cementing Mario as Nintendo's mascot.[4] Donkey Kong's appearances in the years following Donkey Kong 3 were limited to cameos in unrelated games.[24] The 1987 Official Nintendo Player's Guide advertised a Donkey Kong revival for the NES, Return of Donkey Kong, which was never released.[20] In 1994, the first original Donkey Kong game in more than 10 years, Donkey Kong (often referred to as Donkey Kong '94), was released for the Game Boy. It begins as a remake of the 1981 game before introducing over 100 puzzle-platforming levels that incorporate elements from Donkey Kong Jr. and Super Mario Bros. 2 (1988).[25][26]
Nintendo granted the Stampers permission to use the Donkey Kong intellectual property;[36] some sources indicate that the Stampers obtained the license after Nintendo offered them its catalog of characters and they chose Donkey Kong,[30][32] though the designer Gregg Mayles recalled that it was Nintendo that requested a Donkey Kong game.[33] Nintendo figured licensing Donkey Kong posed minimal risk due to the franchise's dormancy.[36] Rare's reboot, Donkey Kong Country, featured side-scrolling gameplay that Mayles based on the Super Mario series.[33] It was the first Donkey Kong game neither directed nor produced by Miyamoto,[37] though he provided support and contributed design ideas.[33]
Donkey Kong Country was one of the first games for a mainstream home video game console to use pre-rendered graphics,[32] achieved through a compression technique that allowed Rare to convert 3D models into SNES sprites with little loss of detail.[33] Because Donkey Kong did not have much of an established universe, Rare was free to expand it, introducing Donkey Kong's sidekick Diddy Kong (who replaced Donkey Kong Jr.) and the antagonistic Kremlings.[33][38] After 18 months of development,[32] Donkey Kong Country was released in November 1994 to acclaim, with critics hailing its visuals as groundbreaking.[39][40][41][42] It was a major success,[35] selling 9.3 million copies and becoming the third-bestselling SNES game.[34][43] It reestablished Donkey Kong as a major Nintendo franchise and heralded Donkey Kong's transition from villain to hero.[44] Following the success, Nintendo purchased a large minority stake in Rare.[35]
Rare began developing concepts for a Donkey Kong Country sequel during production,[45] and Nintendo green-lit the project immediately after the success.[44] Donkey Kong Country 2: Diddy's Kong Quest, released in 1995, features Diddy rescuing a kidnapped Donkey Kong and introduces Diddy's girlfriend Dixie Kong. Diddy's Kong Quest was designed to be less linear and more challenging,[46][47] with a theme reflecting Mayles' fascination with pirates.[47] Like its predecessor, Diddy's Kong Quest was a major critical and commercial success, and is the sixth-bestselling SNES game.[48] Following Diddy's Kong Quest, the Donkey Kong Country team split in two, with one half working on Donkey Kong Country 3: Dixie Kong's Double Trouble! (1996).[49] Featuring Dixie and a new character, Kiddy Kong, as protagonists, the Dixie Kong's Double Trouble! team sought to incorporate 3D-esque gameplay and Zelda-inspired role-playing elements. Although it was released late in the SNES's lifespan and after the launch of the Nintendo 64, Dixie Kong's Double Trouble! sold well.[50]
Separate Rare teams developed the Game Boy games Donkey Kong Land (1995), Donkey Kong Land 2 (1996), and Donkey Kong Land III (1997), which condensed the Country series' gameplay for the handheld game console.[34] Rare's Game Boy programmer, Paul Machacek, chose to develop Land as an original game rather than as a port of Country after convincing Tim Stamper it would be a better use of resources.[51] A port of Country was eventually released for the Game Boy Color in 2000.[52] Rare also developed a tech demo for a Virtual Boy Donkey Kong game, but it never progressed due to the system's commercial failure.[34]
The first Donkey Kong game for the Nintendo 64, Diddy Kong Racing, was released as Nintendo's major 1997 Christmas shopping season product.[53] Rare originally developed it as a sequel to its NES game R.C. Pro-Am (1988), but added Diddy Kong to increase its marketability.[54] Diddy Kong Racing received favorable reviews and sold 4.5 million copies.[54][55] Two of Diddy Kong Racing's playable characters, Banjo the Bear and Conker the Squirrel, would go on to star in the Banjo-Kazooie and Conker franchises.[56]
Rare began working on Donkey Kong 64, the first Donkey Kong game to feature 3D gameplay, in 1997.[57] They conceived it as a linear game similar to the Country series, but switched to a more open-ended design using the game engine from their 1998 game Banjo-Kazooie after 18 months.[34][58] Donkey Kong 64 was released in November 1999, accompanied by a US$22 million marketing campaign.[59] It was Nintendo's bestselling game during the 1999 Christmas season and received positive reviews,[60][61] though critics felt it did not match the revolutionary impact of Donkey Kong Country.[62][63][64]
At E3 2001, Nintendo and Rare announced three Donkey Kong projects: the GameCube game Donkey Kong Racing and the Game Boy Advance (GBA) games Donkey Kong Coconut Crackers and Diddy Kong Pilot.[65][66][67] However, development costs were increasing and Nintendo opted not to acquire Rare.[68] In September 2002, Microsoft acquired Rare for $375 million,[69] making Rare a first-party developer for Xbox.[30] Nintendo retained the rights to Donkey Kong under the terms of the acquisition.[70] Donkey Kong Racing was canceled,[65] and Rare reworked Donkey Kong Coconut Crackers and Diddy Kong Pilot into It's Mr. Pants (2004) and Banjo-Pilot (2005).[71][72]
After Microsoft acquired Rare, Nintendo relegated Donkey Kong to spin-offs and guest appearances in other franchises, such as Mario Kart, Mario Party, and Super Smash Bros.[73][74] In 2003, Nintendo and Namco released Donkey Konga (2003), a spin-off rhythm game. It was designed for the DK Bongos, a GameCube peripheral that resembles bongo drums.[75] Nintendo of America executive Reggie Fils-Aim opposed releasing Donkey Konga, concerned it would damage the Donkey Kong brand, but it sold well and received positive reviews.[76][77] It was followed by Donkey Konga 2 (2004) and the Japan exclusive Donkey Konga 3 (2005).[74]
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