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Karmen Mcarthun
Ogilby established Ireland's first theatre in Werburgh Street, Dublin, and following the Restoration, that country's first Theatre Royal. Ogilby played a significant part in arrangements for the coronation of King Charles II. Following the Great Fire of 1666, Ogilby's large-scale map of the City of London was founded on precise survey work, and his Britannia is the first road atlas of England and Wales to be based on surveys and measurements, and drawn to scale.
John Ogilby's birthplace and parentage are historically uncertain; most early biographies of Ogilby rely on the notes of his assistant John Aubrey that were made for Aubrey's Brief Lives, a collection of biographies of Ogilby and others.[2] The accuracy of Aubrey's account is questionable;[3] Aubrey noted Ogilby was evasive about his origins,[4] saying only he was born "near Edinburgh" in 1600 "of a gentleman's family".[5] Later scholarship has discovered in 1653, Ogilby consulted the noted astrologer Elias Ashmole,[6] and that Ashmole subsequently included Ogilby's horoscope in a personal collection of his horoscopes of notable people.[7] The horoscope required precise data; Ashmole gives the exact location of Ogilby's birth as "Killemeure" (Kirriemuir near Dundee[a][b]) and the exact date and time as 17 November 1600 at 04:00.[1]
Ogilby believed himself to be at least a half-brother to James Ogilvy, 1st Earl of Airlie,[9][c] given at birth to John Ogilby (senior), a well-off gentleman's tailor in Edinburgh, to be adopted.[9][d] He was most likely educated at the Merchant Taylors' grammar school in London.[13][e] At eleven years old, Ogilby was indentured as an apprentice to John Draper, one of just three licensed dance masters in London.[16] At the time, a dancing master had expertise in "grammar (elocution), rhetoric, logic, philosophy, history, music, mathematics and in other arts":[17] ability to dance in "Old Measures" was considered an essential skill for the upper classes.[18] In 1617, Draper became a barrister at Gray's Inn and released Ogilby, who by then was highly accomplished as a dancer and a teacher, from the apprenticeship, allowing him to set up as a master in his own right and to take part in theatrical performances.[19] A fall while dancing in a masque in February 1619 (aged 18), however, lamed him for life and ended his career as a dancer, though not as a teacher.[1]
In August 1633, Thomas Wentworth, 1st Earl of Strafford, the newly appointed Lord Deputy of Ireland, invited Ogilby to Ireland to be dancing tutor to his wife and children, and a member of his troop of guards.[24][25] While in Dublin, Ogilby established Ireland's first theatre, the Werburgh Street Theatre.[26] In 1637, as a consequence of this enterprise and to discourage competitors, Wentworth appointed Ogilby Master of the Revels for Ireland, with power to permit and forbid performances.[27] The theatre remained open for four years; it had mixed success but it had to be closed as a result of the Irish Rebellion of 1641.[28] With theatre and dancing ruled out, Ogilby spent his time learning Latin and then translating the complete works of Virgil.[29]
Ogilby returned to England in January 1647, being shipwrecked on his homeward journey.[30][31] The manuscript of his Virgil translation, which he had carefully placed in waterproof wrapping,[32] survived the incident and was published in October 1648 with the sponsorship of Royalist gentlefolk and nobility.[33]
In 1650, Ogilby married rich heiress Christian Hunsdon,[34] a widow in her sixties and about 17 years Ogilby's senior.[35] The following year, he published the first edition of his work The fables of Aesop paraphras'd in verse, and adorn'd with sculpture[f] and illustrated with annotations, which was illustrated by Francis Cleyn.[36][37] Ogilby's version of the text was very successful, running to five editions in the following 15 years.[38]
During the next few years, Ogilby learnt Greek with the intention of creating and publishing a new translation of Homer's Iliad; he planned it to be a magnificent undertaking with an estimated production cost of 5,000.[39][g] The venture required sponsorship to pay for the engraved illustrations, each of which would cost about 10,[h] but he secured only 47 sponsors. When the work published in March 1660, it had 600 pages but was substantially less illustrated than Ogilby had planned.[40] With his known Royalist sympathies,[41] Ogilby was a risk to potential patrons who needed to avoid offending the Puritan Commonwealth government.[42]
A year later, Ogilby was again made Master of the Revels in Ireland,[45] and he started building a new theatre in Smock Alley, Dublin.[46] The libretto of Katherine Philips' musical play Pompey, which was performed at Smock Alley in 1663, credits Ogilby as the composer of the tunes.[47] His second sojourn in Ireland was short-lived; in July 1664, he returned to plague-stricken London, leaving his step-son to take his place.[48] In 1665, he published a second, revised edition of The Fables of Aesop, which was this time illustrated with prints by Wenceslaus Hollar.[37]
During the Great Fire of London in 1666, Ogilby's house in Shoe Lane, together with its printing works and most of his stock, was destroyed; he estimated he had lost 3,000.[49][i] After the Great Fire, the Corporation of London appointed Ogilby and his wife's grandson William Morgan as "sworn viewers", members of a group of four trustworthy gentlemen directed by Robert Hooke,[50] to plot disputed property in the city.[51] Ogilby later made what he called "the most accurate Survey of the City of London and Libertyes therof that has ever been done".[52] By 1668, he had a new house in Whitefriars, and was ready to resume his printing and publishing work.[53]
Ogilby's next major venture was a series of atlases of China, Japan, Africa, Asia and America. The first of these was An Embassy from the East India Company of the United Provinces, to the Grand Tartar Cham Emperor of China, which was published in 1689. This book was substantially a translation of Johan Nieuhof's Dutch publication of the same name with English copies of the Dutch engravings.[54] Ogilby's Africa appeared in 1670 and was followed in rapid succession by Atlas Japanennsis (1670), America (1671), Atlas Chinensis (1671) and Asia (1673).[55] In 1671, in response to his proposal to make a detailed survey and atlas of Great Britain, the King appointed Ogilby Royal Cosmographer.[56][j] Thus, at about the age of 70 and with the scientific advice of Robert Hooke,[58] Ogilby began work on Britannia, the project for which he is best known among cartographers.[59][60]
twice only ... has there been such [measurement of roads]: that of John Ogilby, in 1671-5, and that of John Cary, quite at the end of the following century. In neither case, singularly enough, did the Government take any steps for the publication of the results of the survey, everything being left, in this respect, to private and commercial enterprise.[65]
Ogilby died in September 1676 and was buried in the vault of St Bride's Church, one of Sir Christopher Wren's new London churches.[66] In his will, dated 27 February 1675, Ogilby bequeathed his entire estate to "my deare wife Christian Ogilby and to William Morgan, her grandchild".[67] The value of his estate is not recorded but the British Museum has a copy of an announcement by Robert Morden, a factor, of a sale of "undisposed" books and maps from Ogilby's collection with an asserted value of 517.50 (equivalent to about 115,000 today).[68]
In the years that followed his death, Ogilby's reputation as a poetic translator suffered from attacks made on him by John Dryden in his satirical work MacFlecknoe, and by Alexander Pope in The Dunciad. Following their lead, Scottish philosopher David Hume used Ogilby's work to illustrate the idea that common sense frequently appeals to a "standard of taste" in aesthetic matters:
Whoever would assert an equality of genius and elegance between Ogilby and [John] Milton, or [John] Bunyan and [Joseph] Addison, would be thought to defend no less an extravagance, than if he had maintained a mole-hill to be as high as Teneriffe [sic], or a pond as extensive as the ocean.[69]
The chief merit of his Homer consists in a commendable and uniform fidelity to the sense of his author. As a poet, his pretensions to praise of any kind can scarcely be supported: he has neither animation of thought, accuracy of taste, sensibility of feeling, nor ornament of diction.[70]
Such judgements stuck, and it is only since the mid-20th century that Ogilby's work has again been given scholarly attention, particularly his versions of Aesop's Fables.[71][72][73] These, according to a short biography published by Theophilus Cibber in 1753, were "generally confessed to have exceeded whatever hath been done before in that kind".[74] They renewed interest in the fable as a literary medium and arguably initiated suggestions of their adaptation to the troubled politics of the time.[75][76]
Peoples settled in what is now Texas thousands of years before European explorers arrived in North America. Some American Indian oral histories recount how their ancestors traveled to the area by water or land. A large amount of stone artifacts made at least 16,000 years ago have been found in Central Texas. For many years, scientists believed that the first Americans came from Asia 13,000 years ago. The discovery of these artifacts suggests that humans came to the Americas much earlier.
Pre-Cloves Projectile Point. Courtesy Gault School of Archaeological Research, San Marcos, Texas
More than 5000 years ago in present-day Texas, New Mexico, and Arizona, people began to grow corn, beans, and squash. The switch from a nomadic hunter-gatherer life style to horticulture contributed to more reliable food sources and settled lifestyles. Populations grew and cultures flourished.
Varieties of maize found near Cuscu and Machu Pichu at Salineras de Maras on the Inca Sacred Valley in Peru, June 2007. Courtesy Smithsonian Institute, photographer credit Fabio de Oliveira Freitas