[Physiology Of Normal Puerperium Pdf 14
Melvin Amey
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Valvular function, assessed by Doppler technique, has not been extensively investigated during normal pregnancy. To prospectively study this feature, 18 normal pregnant women were followed during their pregnancies and puerperium, with serial clinical and pulsed-continuous Doppler echocardiographic examinations. In four gestational periods and the puerperium, we analysed: (a) ventricular and atrial dimensions, as well as valve annular diameters; (b) prevalence and characteristics of trivial valvular regurgitations. During pregnancy, slight but significant increases of the four cardiac chamber dimensions and valve annular diameters were observed, except for the aortic ring. The prevalence of physiologic valvular regurgitation in early pregnancy (mitral, 0%; tricuspid, 38.9%; pulmonary, 22.2%; aortic, 0%), was similar to a control group of 18 healthy non-pregnant women. As pregnancy evolved, there was a progressive and significant increase of multivalvular regurgitation, maximal at full-term (mitral, 27.8%; tricuspid, 94.4%; pulmonary, 94.4%, P < 0.05 vs. early pregnancy). Aortic regurgitation was not detected in any stage of pregnancy. In the puerperium, mitral regurgitation resolved, but tricuspid and pulmonary regurgitation were still significantly prevalent (83.3% and 66.7%, respectively, P < 0.05 vs. early pregnancy). It is concluded that physiologic multivalvular regurgitation is frequent in pregnancy, mainly involving right-sided valves in late gestational periods, occasionally persisting in the early puerperium. Chamber enlargement, valve annular dilatation, and increased prevalence of trivial valve regurgitation are time-related events during normal pregnancy, resulting from a reversible cardiac remodeling process induced by physiologic volume overload. These aspects should be considered for a correct interpretation of Doppler echocardiographic findings in pregnant women with suspected heart disease.
There is generalized physical fatigue immediately after delivery. The pulse rate may be elevated a few hours after childbirth due to excitement or pain and usually normalizes on the second day. The blood pressure could be elevated due to pain or excitement but is generally in the normal range.[3] A significant decrease (> 20% below baseline) in blood pressure could be a sign of postpartum hemorrhage or septic shock.[4] Conversely, high blood pressure could be a sign of pain or pre-eclampsia.[5]
The temperature is slightly elevated up to 37.2C (99F) along with increased shivering, sweating, or diaphoresis in the first 24 hours and normalizes within 12 hours.[3][6] The temperature rise is attributable to the systemic absorption of metabolites accumulated due to muscle contractions. There could be a transient temperature rise (by 0.5C) on the third or fourth day due to breast engorgement. The respiratory rate also begins to fall back to the pre-pregnancy level within 2 to 3 days. A rise of temperature beyond the third day or over the upper limit is usually a sign of infection.[7][8][9][7] There is a weight loss of 5 to 6 kg due to the expulsion of products of gestation and accompanying blood loss. Further weight loss of 2 to 3 kg can be attributed to the brisk diuresis. The weight loss due to diuresis may continue up to 6 months after delivery.
Involution, a part of postpartum physiology, is the term given to the process of reproductive organs returning to their prepregnant state. Immediately following the delivery, the uterus, and the placental site contracts rapidly to prevent further blood loss. This rapid uterine contraction can lead to abdominal pain or cramps after childbirth. At this point, the uterus has an increased tone, feels firm, and weighs 1000 gms, and at the end of the first week, it weighs 500 gms, and by six weeks, it weighs approximately 50 gms. The female may complain. Initially, the contraction of the uterus is due to a substantial reduction in myometrial cell size; it constricts the blood vessels and limits the bleeding. The subsequent decrease in size is due to autolysis and infarction of uterine blood vessels.[10][11][12] The withdrawal of estrogen and progesterone leads to an increase in the activity of uterine collagenase and other proteolytic enzymes, accelerating the process of autolysis.[13] The intima and elastic tissues in the uterine blood vessels also undergo fibrosis and hyaline degeneration, leading to infarction and shedding of more uterine cells, which are removed by macrophages. The superficial and basal layers of the endometrium become necrotic and sloughed.[14] The endometrium is usually fully restored within 2 to 3 weeks.[15]
The lochia is the vaginal discharge that originates from the uterus, cervix, and vagina. The lochia is initially red and comprised of blood and fragments of decidua, endometrial tissues, and mucus and lasts 1 to 4 days. The lochia then changes color to yellowish or pale brown, lasting 5 to 9 days, and is comprised mainly of blood, mucus, and leucocytes. Finally, the lochia is white and contains mostly mucus, lasting up to 10 to 14 days. The lochia can persist up to 5 weeks postpartum. The persistence of red lochia beyond one week might be an indicator of uterine subinvolution. The presence of an offensive odor or large pieces of tissue or blood clots in lochia or the absence of lochia might be a sign of infection.[16][17][18] The cervix and vagina may be edematous and bruised in the early postpartum period and gradually heal back to normal.[19]
Once the ovarian function resumes, rugae start to appear in the vagina, usually by the third week in females that are not breastfeeding. Similarly, the postpartum vaginal epithelium, which appears atrophic under the microscopic exam, is restored in 6 to 10 weeks, but the recovery delays in breastfeeding females due to low estrogen levels. The patient may develop perineal edema, lacerations, tears, or undergo an episiotomy in the immediate postpartum period that may lead to discomfort and pain.[20][21]
The secretion from the breasts called colostrum increases after childbirth. Colostrum is rich in protein, vitamins and immunoglobulins, and other humoral factors (lactoferrin) and provides an immunological defense to the newborn.[22] The mammogenesis or preparation of breasts for lactation starts during pregnancy and entails ductal and lobuloalveolar hyperplasia and hypertrophy.[23] The high levels of estrogen and progesterone make the breast tissue unresponsive to prolactin. Still, as their levels decrease the following childbirth dramatically, the prolactin begins its milk secretory activity in mammary glans. The lactogenesis or milk secretion starts the third or fourth day postpartum. The neural arch of lactation involves ascending afferent impulses from nipple and areola, activated by suckling or stimulation of nipples, which pass via thoracic sensory nerves to the paraventricular and supraoptic nuclei of the hypothalamus, promoting the synthesis and secretion of Oxytocin from the posterior pituitary. Oxytocin affects the contraction of myoepithelial cells, leading to galactokinesis or milk expression from the mammary ducts. This release is also known as "milk ejection," or milk let down reflex." The milk ejection reflex can be inhibited by pain, anxiety, depression, breast engorgement, or depression. Prolactin maintains galactopoiesis, defined as the maintenance of effective and continuous lactation. A healthy mother secretes 500-800 ml of milk per day, which requires 700kcal/ day. The fat stores of up to 5 kg gained during pregnancy can provide enough calories to make up for any nutritional deficit during lactation. It is not unusual to develop nipple soreness, mastitis during this phase.[24][25]
The onset of the first menstrual period following delivery is variable and depends if the mother is lactating or not. If the mother is not breastfeeding, then the menstrual function returns by the sixth to eighth week postpartum in most of the cases. The duration of anovulation depends on the frequency and intensity of breastfeeding and is attributed to high serum prolactin levels associated with suckling.[24] Elevated serum prolactin levels inhibit the ovarian response to the follicular stimulating hormone, suppress the release of luteinizing hormone, suppressing the secretion of gonadotropins even further. This approach offers a natural method of contraception to the lactating female. In lactating females, menstruation usually reappears in 4 to 5 months, and in some cases, can be as late as 24 months. However, ovulation can commence in the absence of menstruation, and pregnancy can occur.[25][26][27] Non-lactating mothers should use contraceptive measures after three weeks, and lactating mothers after three months of delivery.[28] The level of human chorionic gonadotropin that mimics stimulating thyroid hormone falls dramatically after delivery. Consequently, the thyroid gland volume regresses to the pre-pregnant state by 12 weeks, and the thyroid function returns to normal by four weeks postpartum.[29][30] The diabetogenic effects of pregnancy are due to the production of placental insulinase, corticotropin-releasing hormone, and human placental lactogen.[31] The insulin sensitivity begins to increase after delivery and becomes restored within 2 to 3 days following delivery.[32] However, in obese females, postpartum normalization of insulin sensitivity may take 15 to 16 weeks.[33]
The bladder wall may become edematous, hyperemic, and the bladder might be overdistended without the urge to pass urine.[34] The retention of urine in the first few days after labor may be due to the laxity of the abdominal musculature, tone of pelvic floor muscles, atony of bladder, compression of urethra by edema or hematoma, reflex inhibition of micturition due to genitourinary trauma.[35][1][35] Conversely, urinary incontinence, especially urge incontinence, affects 30% of postpartum females and is attributed most commonly to psychological stress associated with childbirth.[36] The mother may complain of painful micturition or dysuria that could be due to tears, laceration of the cervix or vagina, or episiotomy. During pregnancy, the compressive forces of the gravid uterus and the progesterone-induced decrease in ureteral tone, peristalsis, and contraction pressure lead to the dilation of the calyceal system, increasing the volume of kidneys by 30% from the pre-pregnant state.[37][38][37] The dilated ureters and renal pelvis usually return to the pre-pregnant state within four-eight weeks. There is an increased risk of developing urinary tract infections. It is important to counsel the mother to void every 3 to 4 hours.[39]