Photosynthesis Starts With Worksheet Answer Key Pdf 1
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All animals and most microorganisms rely on the continual uptake of large amounts of organic compounds from their environment. These compounds are used to provide both the carbon skeletons for biosynthesis and the metabolic energy that drives cellular processes. It is believed that the first organisms on the primitive Earth had access to an abundance of the organic compounds produced by geochemical processes, but that most of these original compounds were used up billions of years ago. Since that time, the vast majority of the organic materials required by living cells have been produced by photosynthetic organisms, including many types of photosynthetic bacteria.
Biochemical and genetic evidence strongly suggest that chloroplasts are descendants of oxygen-producing photosynthetic bacteria that were endocytosed and lived in symbiosis with primitive eucaryotic cells. Mitochondria are also generally believed to be descended from an endocytosed bacterium. The many differences between chloroplasts and mitochondria are thought to reflect their different bacterial ancestors, as well as their subsequent evolutionary divergence. Nevertheless, the fundamental mechanisms involved in light-driven ATP synthesis in chloroplasts are very similar to those that we have already discussed for respiration-driven ATP synthesis in mitochondria.
Chloroplasts are the most prominent members of the plastid family of organelles. Plastids are present in all living plant cells, each cell type having its own characteristic complement. All plastids share certain features. Most notably, all plastids in a particular plant species contain multiple copies of the same relatively small genome. In addition, each is enclosed by an envelope composed of two concentric membranes.
As discussed in Chapter 12 (see Figure 12-3), all plastids develop from proplastids, small organelles in the immature cells of plant meristems (Figure 14-33A). Proplastids develop according to the requirements of each differentiated cell, and the type that is present is determined in large part by the nuclear genome. If a leaf is grown in darkness, its proplastids enlarge and develop into etioplasts, which have a semicrystalline array of internal membranes containing a yellow chlorophyll precursor instead of chlorophyll. When exposed to light, the etioplasts rapidly develop into chloroplasts by converting this precursor to chlorophyll and by synthesizing new membrane pigments, photosynthetic enzymes, and components of the electron-transport chain.
It is important to realize that plastids are not just sites for photosynthesis and the deposition of storage materials. Plants have also used their plastids to compartmentalize their intermediary metabolism. Purine and pyrimidine synthesis, most amino acid synthesis, and all of the fatty acid synthesis of plants takes place in the plastids, whereas in animal cells these compounds are produced in the cytosol.
Chloroplasts carry out their energy interconversions by chemiosmotic mechanisms in much the same way that mitochondria do. Although much larger (Figure 14-34A), they are organized on the same principles. They have a highly permeable outer membrane; a much less permeable inner membrane, in which membrane transport proteins are embedded; and a narrow intermembrane space in between. Together, these membranes form the chloroplast envelope (Figure 14-34B,C). The inner membrane surrounds a large space called the stroma, which is analogous to the mitochondrial matrix and contains many metabolic enzymes. Like the mitochondrion, the chloroplast has its own genome and genetic system. The stroma therefore also contains a special set of ribosomes, RNAs, and the chloroplast DNA.
There is, however, an important difference between the organization of mitochondria and that of chloroplasts. The inner membrane of the chloroplast is not folded into cristae and does not contain electron-transport chains. Instead, the electron-transport chains, photosynthetic light-capturing systems, and ATP synthase are all contained in the thylakoid membrane, a third distinct membrane that forms a set of flattened disclike sacs, the thylakoids (Figure 14-35). The lumen of each thylakoid is thought to be connected with the lumen of other thylakoids, thereby defining a third internal compartment called the thylakoid space, which is separated by the thylakoid membrane from the stroma that surrounds it.
The structural similarities and differences between mitochondria and chloroplasts are illustrated in Figure 14-36. The head of the chloroplast ATP synthase, where ATP is made, protrudes from the thylakoid membrane into the stroma, whereas it protrudes into the matrix from the inner mitochondrial membrane.
Thus, the formation of ATP, NADPH, and O2 (which requires light energy directly) and the conversion of CO2 to carbohydrate (which requires light energy only indirectly) are separate processes (Figure 14-37), although elaborate feedback mechanisms interconnect the two. Several of the chloroplast enzymes required for carbon fixation, for example, are inactivated in the dark and reactivated by light-stimulated electron-transport processes.
We have seen earlier in this chapter how cells produce ATP by using the large amount of free energy released when carbohydrates are oxidized to CO2 and H2O. Clearly, therefore, the reverse reaction, in which CO2 and H2O combine to make carbohydrate, must be a very unfavorable one that can only occur if it is coupled to other, very favorable reactions that drive it.
The actual reaction in which CO2 is fixed is energetically favorable because of the reactivity of the energy-rich compound ribulose 1,5-bisphosphate, to which each molecule of CO2 is added (see Figure 14-38). The elaborate metabolic pathway that produces ribulose 1,5-bisphosphate requires both NADPH and ATP; it was worked out in one of the first successful applications of radioisotopes as tracers in biochemistry. This carbon-fixation cycle (also called the Calvin cycle) is outlined in Figure 14-39. It starts when 3 molecules of CO2 are fixed by ribulose bisphosphate carboxylase to produce 6 molecules of 3-phosphoglycerate (containing 6 3 = 18 carbon atoms in all: 3 from the CO2 and 15 from ribulose 1,5-bisphosphate). The 18 carbon atoms then undergo a cycle of reactions that regenerates the 3 molecules of ribulose 1,5-bisphosphate used in the initial carbon-fixation step (containing 3 5 = 15 carbon atoms). This leaves 1 molecule of glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate (3 carbon atoms) as the net gain.
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