about exam

[zenith]

our sent up is going to held from 23rd june but the routine isn't
out..just heard from teachers.. So we should start revising..shikar
sir ,u told us that u'l provide us index brief about the chapters
which will help us in studying. so have you completed it or not.. i am
just trying to make you recall about it... thank you..zenith

[sikhar]

Hi Zenith & all, here I send
Media Research review notes for CampComm Group. I will attach the word
file somewhere on the home page, so that you can read it with greater
ease. Try this one too.


1. Methods of knowing: Four (Revelation/Intution, Authorities/Experts,
Tradition/Tenacity and Science/Research). (Read class notes for
details)
2. Advantages of Scientific Method/Research:
a. Science relies on evidence and adds up knowledge in a series of
steps.
b. The set of rules are more or less shared by all sciences.
c. Conclusions are based on factual observations rather than opinions
or other subjective interpretations.
d. If new observations indicate that previous conclusions are
incorrect, those conclusions must be revised on the basis of new
evidence.
e. The requirements of science stress validity and reliability in the
knowledge that is generated. The alternative sources of knowledge--
revelation, authority, and tradition--are not committed to these
requirements.
3. Characteristics of the scientific method
a. public,
b. empirical, etc

4. Aims/purposes of research - to explore, to explain, to....

5. Definitions of research - The word research derives from Middle
French; its literal meaning is 'to investigate thoroughly'. It is
a. An attempt to discover something (Wimmer & Dominick, 2006)
b. A set of procedures for gathering reliable information under
controlled conditions of observation (DeFleur/Dennis, 1993),
c. An active, diligent, and systematic process of inquiry aimed at
discovering, interpreting, and revising facts (Wikipedea). (Read from
your notes too).
6. Why research the media - Media surround us and are part of our
public and private life. Mass Media: Radio, television, newspapers,
books, computers, the Internet, recorded music, magazines, and more.
Research is necessary to respond to,
a. public concern
b. theory building
c. practical solutions
d. add on ....
7. Elements of Research
a. Concept - has a name and a definition. E.g. Media, TV, Readership,
Exposure to Ads, TV violence. A concept is a term that expresses an
abstract idea formed by generalizing from particulars and summarizing
related observations. Researchers can simplify research by using
concepts that helps them formulate a general and inclusive term.
b. Construct - a combination of concepts, e.g authoritarianism, lots
of different simple concepts put together make what we define as
authoritarianism. It is something the researcher constructs for
investigation.
c. Variables - Age, height, education, reading habit, TV appeal, TV
violence, etc, that vary among the members under study. Variables are
used to describe the phenomena and events that can be measured in
empirical world. The researcher chooses the independent variables and
observes how the dependent variables vary. E.g. In a hypothesis like
"the more the journalism students watch the TV news, the more they
want to read the newspaper" watching TV news is an independent
variable, the researcher chooses it to be so. "Wanting to read
newspaper" depends in this case on how long you watch the TV, so this
is what the researcher wants to find out about. Researchers can
observe the phenomena or events by a clear statement of what is to be
observed, called an operational definition.
d. Measurement is an assignment of numerals to persons, objects, or
characteristics. The nominal measurement simply assigns numerals to
the objects without mathematical significance. The ordinal level
ranks objects according to certain orders, such as from smallest to
largest. The scale is at the interval level when the intervals
between adjacent points are equal. The ratio level, the highest level
of measurement, has all the properties of interval scales and plus a
true zero point. Measurement of some variables requires scales.
e. Scales -- Read scales useful in media research from notes.
f. Reliability and Validity
* A measurement must be both reliable and valid. A reliable measure
consistently gives the same answer. Reliability consists of three
components: stability, internal consistency, and equivalency. For
example, inter-coder reliability is tested before carrying out the
* A valid measure measures what it is supposed to measure. Four major
types of validity are: face validity, predictive validity, concurrent
validity, and construct validity.
8. The Research Process
a. At the heart of the research process is a research question and a
systematic attempt to find an answer to that question. This is often
the case when the researcher wants to explore less studied areas. When
some literature is already there, you might a hypothesis instead of
the research question. Simply put, a hypothesis is a statement about
the possible relationship between two or more variables. E.g "Is
newspaper circulation declining because of the increasing use of
Internet?" is a research question, which of course needs to be
polished and made precise for a real research. The hypothesis about
these variables, newspaper circulation and use of Internet would be
something like: The newspaper circulation is declining because of the
increasing use of Internet. The alternative hypothesis would be: The
newspaper circulation is not declining because of the increasing use
of Internet. The null hypothesis rules out the relationship between
the variables.
b. There are many different methods to arrive at the answer to the
research question. The method you choose depends on your research
purpose and design.
c. Research Design is an overall map that guides the researcher
throughout the process. It has two distinct aspects: the steps of
research and the strategies of research.
d. Strategies of Research: Getting the research done in practical
terms, writing proposals and letters, calling people and so on
e. Steps of Research/Research Procedures/ Research Process: Discuss
one of the three lists in class notes. .
Eight steps of research:
o select a problem;
o review previous studies;
o develop hypotheses or research questions;
o determine research design;
o collect data;
o analyze and interpret the results
o present the results;
o replicate the study.
9. Where do you get the research ideas/topics?
a. professional (academic) journals, magazines and periodicals,
b. research summaries,
c. archive data,
d. the Internet, and
e. everyday situations
10. What are the basic questions to ask while deciding on a topic to
study?
a. Is the research feasible?
b. Is it socially significant?
c. Is the approach to study the topic valid? Scientific research must
be internally and externally valid. Intervening variables may ruin
internal validity. External validity means the results of the study
should be generalizable across populations and settings.
d. Is it ethical?
e. Is it replicable? Studies should be replicated a number of times to
establish scientific facts.
11. What domains do researchers study of the Mass Media?
Researchers have generally studied three domains of the Mass Media:
a. Media organizations and media production,
b. Media content
c. Media consumption and media audiences
12. What approaches do researchers adopt to study these things?
Generally studies of media can be grouped under two broad categories -
qualitative and quantitative. Some researchers use a mixed methods
approach, integrating the qualitative with the quantitative.
13. What is the main difference between qualitative and quantitative
methods? The questioning approach.
a. Qualitative research uses a flexible questioning approach. The
researcher can change questions and ask follow up questions any time.
b. Quantitative research uses a static or standardized set of
questions. All respondents are asked the same questions. Although
follow-up questions and skips can be designed into a questionnaire,
they must be included in the questionnaire or measurement instrument
before the research
14. Discuss the differences between qualitative and quantitative
research.
a. Qualitative research develops theory whereas quantitative tests
theory as well
b. Qualitative research describes meaning or discovery whereas
quantitative establishes relationship or causation
c. In qualitative research the researcher is explicitly a part of the
data gathering process whereas in quantitative, the researcher is
formally an independent entity
d. Qualitative research uses communication and observation whereas
quantitative uses instruments
e. Qualitative research uses unstructured data collection whereas
quantitative uses structured data collection

15. What methods within the two approaches are popular in the design
of mass media research?
a. Qualitative observational studies -
# Field observation (participant observation)
# Focus groups
# Intensive interviews
# Case studies
# Ethnography
b. Content analysis (Quantitative) / Textual analysis (Qualitative)
c. Surveys (Quantitative)
d. Experiments (Quantitative)
16. Discuss the paradigms used in or philosophies behind qualitative
and quantitative research methods?
a. Basic paradigms used in research: positivist, interpretive, and
critical.
b. The positivist paradigm favors quantitative research methods. It
involves such concepts as quantification, hypotheses, and objective
measurements.
c. The interpretive paradigm favors qualitative methods. It concerns
how people create meaning in everyday lives and try to interpret the
world.
d. The critical paradigm is interested in understanding the
distribution of power in society.
17. What is qualitative research?
a. Qualitative research is one of the two major approaches to research
methodology in social sciences.
b. Qualitative research involves an in depth understanding of human
behaviour and the reasons that govern human behaviour.
c. Unlike quantitative research, qualitative research relies on
reasons behind various aspects of behaviour. Simply put, it
investigates the why and how of decision making, as compared to what,
where, and when of quantitative research. Hence, the need is for
smaller but focused samples rather than large and random samples.
18. How are qualitative reports presented?
a. The process of qualitative research in mass media is described in
terms of data analysis, reliability, and validity in qualitative data.
b. There is no single approach to writing a qualitative research
report because there are so many variations of the method.
c. However, most qualitative reports include an introduction (an
overview of the project), methods (data collection approach), the
research setting, sampling procedures, data collection procedures,
findings, and conclusion.
19. Discuss content analysis.
a. Popular mass media research
b. An efficient way to investigate the content of the media
c. Developed from research by the military in World War II.
d. Early content analysis studied propaganda in newspapers and
radio.
e. Mass media researchers in academic areas adopted this method to
analyze content on cultural products, such as magazine, newspaper,
radio, and TV.
20. What is content analysis useful for? Content analysis is useful
for:
a. describing communication content;
b. testing hypotheses of message characteristics;
c. comparing media content to the "real world"
d. assessing the image of particular groups in society;
e. establishing a starting point for studies of media effects
21. What are its limitations?
a. Content analysis alone cannot serve as a basis for making
statements about the effects of content on an audience. That is, a
certain amount of exposure to a TV commercial is not equal to the same
amount of product purchasing by the audience.
b. Different researchers may use varying definition to measure a
single concept;
c. Many topics or characters receive little exposure in the mass
media;
d. Content analysis is frequently time-consuming and expensive
22. What steps are followed in content analysis? Content analysis is
conducted in several discrete stages:
a. formulating the research question or hypothesis
b. defining the population in question;
c. selecting an appropriate sample from the population;
d. selecting and defining a unit of analysis
e. constructing the categories of content to be analyzed;
f. establishing a quantification system;
g. training coders and conducting a pilot study;
h. coding the content according to establishing definitions;
i. analyzing the collected data;
j. drawing conclusions and searching for indications.
23. What is inter-coder reliability? In content analysis, reliability
and validity checks are very important before researchers begin the
main data collection phase of their project. There are several ways by
which coders are asked to code the variables and units of analysis and
the accuracy, reliability and validity of these processes are
measured. This kind of reliability computed by using different coders
to code the same thing is called intercoder reliability.
24. Discuss Internet as a potential area to conduct content analysis.
Internet research as related to content analysis is becoming common.
a. There are many areas to investigate
# the content of banner or pop-up ads
#chat room discussions
# personal web pages, email
#homepages of commercial media,
# political campaign websites,
# online news coverage
b. But the reliability may be questioned because there is no sampling
frame and the content of existing sites is constantly changing.
c. Internet research provides content analysts with many challenges
25. What are the main media policy issues in modern nation states?
Discuss.
a. Media Ownership
Who owns? How many outlets can you own? Battles are waged in various
fora as regards media ownership. We have seen it here in Nepal in
debates about whether foreign investment in media is allowed, whether
one organization can run so many news outlets and so on.
b. Local Newspaper Ownership
What are the policy measures that can be put in place that would
foster local ownership of local newspapers? Studies can be designed to
review different models for creating and sustaining viable journalism
at the local level into the digital era, from community-owned to
journalist owned papers.
c. Universal Access
As access to broadband services becomes a condition of full
participation in economic, social and cultural life, strategies for
expanding access have evolved. Public utility approach to access is
being talked about. Lessons from these and other experiments in access
will help shape the meaning of social inclusion in the coming days.
d. Radio Spectrum
Radio spectrum covers a growing range of telephony, data, and location-
based services, making it a basic natural resource for the information
society. Policy debates over the use and regulation of spectrum are
wide ranging, touching on questions of public access, technological
innovation, media diversity and privacy.
e. Media Representation and Media Justice
Media content and media representations have been key points of entry
for public interest in media policy and a longstanding subject of
concern for media research. The relationship between contemporary
justice concerns--including racial and gender inequalities--and the
content of the media can be explored under this heading.
f. Public Access TV and New Media (Technology)
It is being recognized that access TV possesses an invaluable
infrastructure of organizations and funding. We can consider how that
could be better connected to media like wi-fi, Internet video, and
content management systems.
g. Network Neutrality and Internet Regulation
'Network neutrality' is one of a handful of regulatory issues with the
potential to reshape the Internet. The network neutrality debate in
2006 was heated and marked by many conflicting accounts of what was at
stake. As this debate continues, there is a need to clarify the stakes
and coordinate research that can support the participatory, democratic
characteristics of the Internet.
Some past questions (Elaborate on the points depending the marks the
questions carry, more for long and less for short, right?)
 What are the approaches to media research? Discuss.
Broadly two--qualitative and quantitative.
 Qualitative approach, under interpretive paradigm, includes methods
of:
 field observation,
 focus groups,
 intensive interviews,
 case study
 and ethnography
 Quantitative approach, under positivist paradigm, often includes
 content analysis,
 surveys
 and experiments.
A number of studies of media have analysed content by using both
qualitative and quantitative techniques.
 Describe the participant observation method.
Participant observation studies have produced great insights about
news production. This is a qualitative approach to researching mass
media. It is also known as field observation, which was rarely used
before 1980.
Field observation is useful for collecting data and for generating
hypotheses and theories. Like all qualitative techniques, it is
concerned more with description and explanation than with measurement
and quantification. Field observations are classified along two
dimensions: 1. The degree to which the researcher participates in the
behavior under observation, and 2. The degree to which the observation
is concealed.
In overt observation, the researcher is identified when the study
begins, and those under observation are aware that they are being
studied. The researcher's role is only to observe, refraining from
participation in the process under observation.
In overt participation, those being observed know the researcher, but
unlike in overt observation, the researcher goes beyond the observer
role and becomes a participant in the situation. For example, a
researcher working at the news desk of a daily.
In between, the research role may be limited to that of observer, but
those under observation are not aware that they are being studied.
The last arrangement may be such that the researcher participates in
the process being studied but is not identified as a researcher.
The choice of technique depends upon the research problem, the degree
of cooperation available from the group or individual observed, and
ethical considerations. One the one hand, covert participation may
affect subjects' behavior and raise the ethical question of deception.
On the other hand, the information gathered may be more valid if
subjects are unaware of being scrutinized. (Go back to the handout for
details, examples, advantages and disadvantages of participant
observation)
 Basic use of laboratory approach in media research?
The experimental method is the oldest approach in mass media research.
It involves both manipulation and observation. Some basic techniques
of this method are laboratory experiment, quasi-experimental designs
and field experiments (remember, they are not field observations).
There are several reasons why we use the laboratory experiments in
mass media research.
 1. Evidence of causality: Experiments help establish cause and
effect. Although some researchers argue whether we can ever really
prove a cause-and-effect link between two variables, the experiment is
undoubtedly the best social science research method for establishing
causality. The researcher controls the time order of the presentation
of two variables and thus makes sure that the cause actually precedes
the effect.
 2. Control: Researchers have control over the environment, the
variables, and the subjects. In a lab setting, test situations can be
kept separate from other competing influences. The setting, sounds,
lights and so on, can be arranged and altered in a lab.
 3. Costs: In relative terms, the cost of an experiment can be
low.
 4. Replication: Typically, the conditions of the study are
clearly spelled out in the description of an experiment, which makes
it easier for others to replicate it.
((Disadvantages. YOU DON'T NEED THEM UNLESS ASKED))
 1. Artificiality - the whole thing is artificial.
 2. Researcher bias--more room for the researcher to introduce his/
her preferences
 3. Limited scope--some research questions cannot be answered by
experiments when we are concerned with the collective behavior of
millions of people.

 Explain the meaning of quantitative research in media studies.
 Mass media research, like all research, can be qualitative or
quantitative.
 Quantitative research involves several methods of data collection
 such as telephone surveys
 mail surveys and,
 Internet surveys.
 In these methods, the questioning is static or standardized--all
respondents are asked the same questions. Quantitative research
requires that the variables under consideration be measured. Its main
advantage is that the use of numbers allows greater precision in
reporting results.
 Explain how research has changed some specific communication
theories?
 Hypodermic needle theory, for example, was rejected after
researchers started looking at how the same message meant different
things to different people.
 It was replaced by two-stage and multi-stage flow of communication
messages. (You can discuss the Theory of Opinion Leadership)
 You can also discuss the many theories of media effects such as
* uses and gratifications,
* agenda-setting,
* cultivation analysis
 What is the importance of review of literature in communication
research? Researchers first consult available literature to learn:
 what has been done,
 how it was done, and
 what results were found.
 Lit. review is one important step in the research process. Before
attempting any project, researchers should ask:
 What type of research has been done in the area?
 What has been found in previous studies?
 What suggestions do other researchers make for further study?
 What has not been investigated?
 How can the proposed study add to our knowledge of the area?
 What research methods were used in previous studies?
Answers to these questions will usually help define a specific
hypothesis or research question. After all we don't want to re-
discover the wheel.
 What are the steps in determination of a research topic relevance?
(Mind you topic relevance, relevance is the key word here) Once a
basic research idea has been chosen or assigned, the next step is to
ensure that the topic has merit. This demands answers to eight basic
questions.
 1. Is the topic too broad? You are not analyzing the entire field in
one study, e.g. the effects of television violence on children
 2. Can the problem really be investigated? When the question being
asked has no answer, or cannot be answered with the facilities and
information available, e.g. it is difficult to find 'people who have
never come across any media' if we are interested in studying how they
behave in everyday interpersonal communication.
 3. Can the data be analysed? That is, are our measurements valid
and reliable?
 4. Is the problem significant? That is, to determine if the study
has practical or theoretical value.
 5. Can the results of the study be generalized? That is, it must be
possible to generalize the results of the study to other situations.
 6. What cost and time are involved in the analysis? It does not make
sense if a project, howsoever well-designed it may be, is cancelled
because of lack of funds and time.
 7. Is the planned approach appropriate to the project? The simplest
research approach is always the best.
 8. Is there any potential harm to the subjects? Researchers must
carefully analyse whether their project may cause physical or
psychological harm to the subjects under evaluation.
 Describe the interpretation of data with example.
The type of data collected will depend on the purpose of research and
the methodology used. Regardless of the method, however, the
researcher must consider why the data were collected in the first
place. Without a careful consideration of the assumptions underlying
the data, it will be impossible to use the data effectively or to know
the limits beyond which they cannot be used. We don't just report the
"facts" in a research study. All facts must be interpreted, and it is
the choice of interpretations, as well as the choice of facts, that
will form the basis of analysis. Analysis and interpretation may take
from several days to several months. Some take less time. For example,
a radio station may be interested in finding out its listeners'
perceptions of the morning show team. After a survey is conducted, the
question may be answered by summarizing only one or two items on the
questionnaire. This may not take more than some minutes.
In most cases, we must first process the data before analyzing and
interpreting them. If the data are quantifiable, for example, we
usually need to prepare them for computer. If they are field notes,
they must be organized and categorized. Computer assisted telephone
interviewing or CATI method allows answers to survey questions to be
directly entered into the computer.
The next step is at the heart of the research report. The researcher
asks two questions here: Are the results internally and externally
valid? Are the results accurate? An externally valid study is one
whose results can be generalized to the population. To assess internal
validity, we ask: Does the study really investigate the proposed
research question?
In quantitative studies, this section has the tables in it. The tables
must be readily accessible or understandable for the readers. They
have to move across the analysis trying to address all the theoretical
issues raised by the research problem.
In a field study, the analysis section offers the findings of the
study in relation to the research problem. There are no hard,
numerical "facts" in such a study. So the findings must be interpreted
and presented in a convincing manner.
Data interpretation and analysis need to be highly focused. We don't
report every finding. We don't move from one point to the next without
a clear sense of which findings are more important and more central to
the purpose of our study. If the evidence does not support our
hypothesis, we report that. Negative findings can be as interesting as
positive ones.

 Define content analysis? (These are definitions not just points for
discussion. Use them whenever and wherever you can) There are many
definitions of content analysis:
 Walizer and Wiener (1978) define it as any systematic procedure
devised to examine the content of recorded information.
 Krippendorf (1980) defines it as a research technique for making
replicable and valid references from data to their context.
 Kerlinger's (2000) definition is fairly typical: Content analysis is
a method of studying and analyzing communication in a systematic,
objective and quantitative manner for the purpose of measuring
variables.
 Systematic, because the content is selected according to explicit
and consistently applied rules. Only one set of guidelines is used for
evaluation throughout the study.
 Objective, because the analysis should yield the same results if
another researcher replicates the study.
 Quantitative, because the goal of content analysis is an accurate
representation of a body of messages. Quantification is important to
fulfill that goal.
 What is case study method? The case study method is a common
qualitative research technique. It uses as many data sources as
possible to systematically investigate
 individuals,
 groups,
 organizations,
 or events
Case studies are conducted when a researcher needs to understand or
explain a phenomenon. E.g. case studies of the cable TV industries.
 Yin (1994) defines a case study as an empirical inquiry that uses
multiple sources of evidence to investigate a contemporary phenomenon
within its real-life context, in which the boundaries between the
phenomenon and its context are not clearly evident. This definition
highlights how a case study differs from other research strategies.
For example, an experiment separates a phenomenon from its real-life
context. The survey technique tries to define the phenomenon under
study narrowly enough to limit the number of variables to be examined.
 Merriam (1988) lists four essential characteristics of case study
research:
 1. Particularistic: That is, it focuses on a particular situation,
event, program or phenomenon.
 2. Descriptive: The final product of a case study is a detailed
description of the topic under study.
 3. Heuristic: A case study helps people to understand what is being
studied. New interpretations, new perspectives, new meaning, and fresh
insights are all goals of a case study.
 4. Inductive: Depend on inductive reasoning. Principles and
generalizations emerge from the data.
Example of the method: Crabtree and Malhotra (2000) studied the
introduction of commercial television in India. In their case study,
they interviewed business personnel, observed practices at a
commercial TV operation, monitored the content of commercial TV, and
examined organizational documents.
 What do you understand by Focus Groups?
 The focus group, or group interviewing, is a research strategy for
understanding audience attitudes and behaviour. From 6 to 12 people
are interviewed simultaneously, with a moderator leading the
respondents in a relatively unstructured discussion about the focal
topic.
 The focus group method also can be used as a pilot study to gather
preliminary information about some phenomena.
 The role of the moderator in this method is crucial.
 A focus group is appropriate to answer why or how questions instead
of how much or how many.
 Defining characteristics (Krueger and Casey, 2000):
 Focus groups involve people
 The people possess certain characteristics and are recruited to
share a common quality or characteristics of interest to the
researcher. For example, all may be beer drinkers or Maruti car owners
or females 18-34 who listen to certain type of music on radio.
 Focus groups provide qualitative data. Data from focus groups are
used to enhance understanding and to reveal a wide range of opinions,
some of which the researcher might not expect. In most cases, they are
not used to test hypothesis or to generalize to a population. If
several focus groups are held, the sample size could be satisfactory.
 As the name implies, focus groups have focused discussion. Most of
the questions to be asked are predetermined, the sequence of questions
is established, and the questions are structured to further the goal
of the research. However, the moderator is free to depart from the
structure if relevant information is presented by the participants.
 What are the advantages and disadvantages of focus groups?
 Advantages:
 1. Allow for collection of preliminary information about a topic or
a phenomenon, which may be used in pilot studies to detect ideas to
investigate further by using another research method.
 2. Can be collected very quickly, most time is spent in recruiting
respondents.
 3. Usually costs less
 4. Allows flexibility in question design and follow up. Moderator
works from a list of broad questions as well as more refined probe
questions. The ability to help clear up confusing responses from
subjects makes focus groups valuable in the research process.
 5. In extended focus group, respondents are required to complete a
written questionnaire before the group session begins. This forces
them to "commit" to a particular answer or position. You have got
something from even those who do not want to offer an opinion.
 6. More complete and less inhibited than individual interviews.
 Disadvantages:
 1. A self-appointed group leader monopolises conversation. Resented
by others, the person has adverse effects on group
 2. Inappropriate to gather quantitative data unless enough groups
are conducted
 3. Heavily depend on the skills of the moderator--one sarcastic or
inappropriate comment may have a chilling effect.
 4. Group of volunteers do not necessarily represent the population.
 What methodology is followed in focus groups? There are seven steps
in the method of focus groups:
 1. Define the problem
 2. Select a sample, e.g. buyers of 10 CDs a week
 3. Determine the number of groups necessary
 4. Prepare the study mechanics
 5. Prepare the focus group materials
 6. Conduct the session
 7. Analyse the data and prepare the summary report
 Describe how media research developed in the twentieth century.
 OR, Describe the stages of development of modern media research.
 OR Describe the stages of media research history.
Answer to stages of development of media research
Mass media research has evolved in definable steps, and similar
patterns have been followed in each medium's needs for research.
In Phase I of research,
 there is an interest in the medium itself
 What is it?
 How does it work?
 What technology does it involve?
 How is it similar to or different from what we already have?
 What functions or services does it provide?
 Who will have access to the news medium?
In Phase II,
 once the medium is developed, such questions are asked
 How do people use the medium in real life?
 What do they use it for?
 Do children use it? Do adults use it?
 What gratifications does the new medium provide? What uses are
evident other than those that were predicted from initial research?
Phase III
 interest is in the effects of the medium.
 How much time do people spend with the medium?
 Does it change people's perspectives about anything?
 What do the people want from the medium?
 Does the medium or the technology do any harm?
 Can it be made more useful?
In Phase IV,
 how to improve the medium in its use or technological developments
becomes the concern
 Once the medium is developed, research may be conducted
simultaneously in all four phases as well.
 One more concern seen in the private sector research is: how to
make money.

 What Events & social forces contributing to the growth of mass media
research
 1. World War I prompted a need to understand the nature of
propaganda. Researchers working from the stimulus-response point of
view attempted to uncover the effects of the media on people (Laswell,
1927) (add from Early claims to great power)
 2. Realisation by advertisers in 1950's and 1960's that research
data can be used to persuade people to buy products and services
 3. Increasing interest of citizens in the effects of the media on
the public
 4. Increased competition among the media for advertising dollars.
 What is media effects research?
 Researchers have looked at
 antisocial and prosocial effects of specific media content,
 uses and gratifications
 agenda setting by the media
 cultivation of perceptions of social reality
 the social impact of the Internet.
These theories come under media effects research.
Much of this research has been conducted at colleges and universities.
The academic research tends to be more theoretical in nature whereas
private sector research is generally more applied. Below we will look
at the history, methods, and theoretical development of five research
areas in communication.
For more than three decades, the effect of antisocial and prosocial
content have been popular topics on college and university. Over the
years there has been a certain amount of friction between academic
researchers and industry executives. Content analysis, laboratory
experiments, surveys, field experiments, observations, and panels are
popular methods for media researchers to describe, explain, and
predict antisocial and prosocial phenomenon related to media.
The uses and gratifications perspective examines how people use the
media and the gratifications they seek and receive from their media
behaviors. Uses and gratifications researchers assume that audience
members are aware of and can articulate their reasons for consuming
various media content. Researchers studying this perspective have
relied heavily on the survey method to collect their data. As a first
step, researchers have conducted focus groups or have asked
respondents to write essays about their reasons for media
consumption.
The agenda setting theory is concerned with the public agenda or the
kinds of things people discuss, think, and worry about and how they
are shaped and directed by what the news media choose to publicize.
Agenda setting research mainly examines the relationship between media
priorities and audience priorities in the relative importance of news
topics. Researchers who study agenda setting use content analysis to
define the media agenda, and surveys are used to collect data on the
audience agenda. Since determining the media agenda and surveying the
audience are not done simultaneously, a longitudinal dimension is
present. More recently, some studies have used the experimental
approach.
Cultivation analysis has concentrated on how the media affect audience
perceptions of the real world. The basic assumption is that repeated
exposures to consistent media portrayals and themes influence
audiences' perceptions toward the real world as the media depict it.
There are two discrete steps in performing a cultivation analysis.
First, descriptions of the media world are obtained from periodic
content analyses of large blocks of media content. The second step
involves surveying audiences about their television exposure, dividing
the sample into heavy and light viewers and comparing their answers to
the questions that differentiate the television world from the real
world.
The social impact of the Internet: Most of the Internet studies relate
to audience characteristics, functions and uses, and social effects.
They point out that it is too early to come to any specific
conclusions about the social impact of the Internet.
 Explain the differences in methods of research application in
respect of the print, electronic, and advertising communication.
 PRINT Media Research
 Early research: qualitative
 With increased importance of readership, quantitative. Also because,
* There was growing availability of basic data
* More sophisticated research tools were developed; and,
* Institutional support for research increased
* Since 1960, newspapers and magazines were competing with other media
such as television and radio
* Private sector research grew. In the USA, for example, most
newspapers with a circulation of at least 100,000 now have an in-house
research department. With the advent of diverse media in a market, the
importance of research in newspaper and magazine companies is
increasing as they try to get more profits from their market.
Moreover, the advent of online newspapers and magazines has prompted a
busy new research area as traditional newspaper and magazines try to
assess the competition from the Internet and examine how on-line
versions relate to the traditional papers.
 Newspaper and magazine researchers conduct six basic types of
studies:
 1) readership research: finding who reads a publication, what items
are read, and what gratification the readers get from their choices.
The types of studies are,
* reader profiles, item-selection studies, reader-nonreader studies,
uses and gratifications studies, and editor-reader comparisons.
Readership research provides a newspaper company with data about
 2) circulation;
* Circulation studies examine the penetration levels of newspapers and
magazines in various markets as well as various aspects of the
delivery and pricing systems. It also investigates the effect on
readership or subscription rates or variables that are unrelated to a
publication's content.
 3) management;
* Due to expanded holdings in newspaper companies, media competition
in a market, and labor-intensive characteristic in this industry,
management research has been a growing area. Through management
research, newspaper companies obtain valuable data on management,
organizational structure, employee job satisfaction, and effects of
competition and ownership on newspaper content and quality.
 4) typography/makeup;
* Typography and make up research measures the effects of news design
elements--particularly typeface and page makeup. By means of this
approach, researchers have tested the effects of different typography
and makeup elements, including amount of white space, presence of
paragraph headlines, size and style of type.
 5) readability; and,
* The readability research is the sum total of all the elements and
their interactions that affect the successes of a piece of printed
material. Several formulas (Flesch reading ease formula, Fog Index,
SMOG Grading, Cloze procedure, and PMOSE/IKIRSCH) provide researchers
with valuable information the extent to which readers understand the
piece.
 6) online media use.
* On-line newspapers and magazines are relatively recent phenomenon.
Diverse approaches are needed to get more information about online
versions of printed media.
 ELECTRONIC Media Research
 Since radio became a popular mass medium in the 1930s, broadcast
research has developed dramatically in sophistication and volume.
 When commercials began airing on radio stations and radio began to
attract large audiences, advertisers naturally wondered how many
listeners were exposed to their messages and how effective the
messages were. It became the responsibility of broadcasters to provide
empirical data about the size and characteristics of their audience.
 However, they could not get accurate information about audience size
and lifestyle patterns so advertisers and broadcasters quickly
realized that more information and precise data were needed.
 Ratings Research:
* To respond to this demand, two companies (Nielsen Media Research &
Arbitron) provided local television stations, local cable systems,
advertisers, their agencies, and radio stations with ratings data by
means of several methods of data collection:
* audimeter,
* diary,
* telephone coincidental, and
* the people meter.
There are some controversies about broadcast ratings because of many
uncertainties about measurements of audience size and their
characteristics. However, until further refinements are made, ratings
as they currently exist will remain the primary decision-making tool
in programming and advertising.
 The non-ratings research (as well as ratings research)
* is important for broadcasters, production companies, advertisers,
and broadcast consultants to understand audience likes and dislikes,
as well as different types of programming, demographic and lifestyle
information about the audience, etc.
* The non-rating methods include:
* 1) Program test that gathers preliminary reactions to a planned
project;
* 2) Music research that provides radio station's listeners with music
they like to hear--radio programmers use auditorium tests and call-out
research;
* 3) Performer questionnaire that provides producers with performers
and entertainers' familiarity and appeal scores in order to determine
what performer or group of performers give the show the greatest
appeal;
* 4) Focus groups that help to develop questionnaires for further
research and to provide preliminary information on a variety of topics
such as format and programming changes, personalities, station images,
and lifestyle characteristics of the audience.
 ADVERTISING Research: Three main advertising research methods
include:
 copy testing,
* Copy testing consists of three dimensions (cognitive, affective, and
conative) of impact in the persuasion process.
* The cognitive dimension involves studying attention, awareness,
exposure, recognition, comprehension, and recall of advertisement.
* The affective dimension usually involves research into whether a
consumer's attitudes toward a particular product have changed because
of exposure to an ad or a campaign. The techniques used to study the
affective dimension include projective tests, theater testing,
physiological measures, semantic differential scales, and rating
scales.
* The conative dimension mainly focuses on actual consumer behavior.
The two main categories of behavior usually measured are buying
predisposition and actual purchasing behavior.
 media research, and
* In media research related to advertising, two terms are very
important:
* 1) reach--the total number of households or persons that will be
exposed to a message in a particular medium at least once over a
certain period (usually four weeks); and,
* 2) frequency--the number of exposures to the same message that each
household receives.
* Media research falls into three general categories:
* studies of the size and composition of an audience of particular
medium,
* studies of the relative efficiency of advertising exposures provided
by various combinations of media, and
* studies of the advertising activities of competitors.

* Advertisers are always looking for information about the media
choices of their competitors to avoid making the mistakes of less
successful competitors and to imitate the strategies of more
successful competitors.
 campaign assessment
* To assess campaigns, two kinds of measures are used:
* 1) pretest/posttest--measurement both before and after the campaign;
and,
* 2) tracking studies--following the impact of the campaign by
measuring effects at several times during the progress of the
campaign.
Some advice about advertising research. Although many people outside
the advertising community mention that all business and their
advertising agencies use the cutting edge forms of advertising, its
effectiveness is questionable. In reality, people pay less attention
to ads in their daily life than advertisers assume.
 What is Communication Perspective?
 It is a way of seeing.
 The concept is to look at any given form of human activity with the
lens of what we call communication.
 This perspective does not take communication as a subset of human
activity.
 In this perspective, society comes into being because humans
communicate.

 What is linear paradigm of communication?
 The linear paradigm treats communication as an act whereas other
concepts define it as a process.
 The mass communication model operating in developing countries is a
Linear Model. One example is that the government controls the mass
media, such as in India and Nepal, to inform, educate and entertain
the people. The government is the sender and the people are intended
to be the receivers of the development messages. In this model of mass
communication, there is one-way (that is, linear) flow of messages
with little or no possibilities for the receivers to respond to the
senders or the media. The information flows from top to bottom and is
hierarchical.
 One of the earliest models of communication was implied in the
rhetoric of the classical Greeks, most notably by Aristotle. According
to Aristotle, the speaker, the speech and the audience were the
elements of a communication act. The idea was: the 'communicator'
actively transmitted the message and the audience passively received
it. Beltran (1976) described this 'one way' concept of communication
as a 'vertical' model. Models of Laswell (remember 'who says, what,
....) and Shannon and Weaver (that is, communication is transmission of
information) employed this 'one way' concept. Wilbur Schramm described
communication as an act of establishing contact between a sender and a
receiver, with the help of a message (S--M--R model). Westley and Berlo
added the element of 'feedback' to the model.
 This linear notion of communication was very influential in the
early days. The linear paradigm of communication had been identified
with mass media communication. Katz and Lazarsfeld offered 'two step
flow' and Rogers offered 'multi step flow' hypotheses to improve the
vertical top-down model.
Still, the main criticisms of the models remained to be addressed. The
critics said:
 1. Linear models treated information like a physical substance
 2. Individual minds were like separate entities, and
 3. Sources were subjects who communicated to produce changes in
receivers as if they were mere objects
 How are models of communication developed?
 In the last five decades or so, there has been a great model hunt in
the field of communication. The definition of communication has
changed. The models have changed. The S-R model of 40's developed into
linear models of S-M-R; S-M-C-R and S-M-C-R-E by 50's. Research
influenced the communication model evolution.
 A model is a representation of a real world phenomenon in abstract
terms. In the field of communication, a model provides a simple and
generalized picture to help us explain and understand the
communication process. Communication models have developed in four
distinct stages: Action, Interaction, Transaction and Convergence.
 Action models of communication were the first to develop. Their
ideas were drawn from linear mechanics between 1890's and 1930's. The
first attempts to study the way people communicate focused primarily
on what the sender of a message must do, how he should speak or act to
persuade his listeners. In this sender-oriented model, speaker is
active but listening is passive, it just happens. The early linear
models were action models.
 Interaction models of communication sought to improve upon the
action models by emphasizing the relatedness, or relationship, between
the source and receivers, speakers and listeners. The concern was how
the receivers receive the messages and what effect this has on the
senders. The sender would act on the cues, the feedback from the
receivers, to adjust future messages.
 Transactional models developed to explain interpersonal
communication by putting both senders and receivers in the
communication situation simultaneously. They are mutually perceiving
each other and are engaged in the process of creating meaning in a
relationship. (You are doing some kind of transaction, a give and take
here)
 Convergence models are based on the principles of cybernetics. In
this model, effective feedback creates convergence and ineffective
feedback creates divergence. The participants converge or diverge on
their relative positions over time to reach mutual understanding of
the reality. The goal here is mutual understanding.
 Describe communication in the dominant paradigm and new paradigm of
development.
Research has revealed that communication plays a significant role in
development. The role changes with the change in development model.
The dominant paradigm of development called for modernization,
industrialization, economic growth, automation and technology.
Communication scholars Lerner, Schramm and Rogers worked in line with
the dominant paradigm in the 1950's. They emphasized the role of mass
media for development; for information dissemination, and for
technological and social change. It was believed media exposure would
help change traditional beliefs and attitudes. Klapper concluded that
media has little or no direct effect on people. Rather media
reinforced the existing attitudes and behavior. Working in this
paradigm, many scholars believed the task of the media was to alter
people's way of thinking and inform them about skills necessary for
modern society. None of them, however, took the media as educator or
motivator.
In the dominant paradigm, the communication flow was one-way, top-
down, vertical, from the authorities to the people. The task of the
media was to mobilize people for development. The audience was given a
passive role as accepting the social change. Dissanayke pointed out
that the emphasis was on the communicator, the mass media and the
manipulation of messages. The paradigm showed little regard for the
receiver or the social structure.
Other models came up in keeping with the new theories and models of
development. Concepts of new international information order,
ideological domination of the dependent developing countries by
independent developed countries, transnational corporations
controlling global media, and their western bias began to draw debates
in the 1970's.
Communication in basic minimum needs model in 1980's intended to
create awareness about the needs of people. Government in developing
countries provided community TV sets, radio and newspapers to help the
poor access media. Still the problems remained. Elites and high caste
groups in India, for example, did not allow the poor and low-caste
groups to enjoy the full benefits.
The new paradigm of development of the 1970's had put much emphasis on
participation. In this paradigm, the role of communication also
changed. The new game was to discover what forms of participation
occurred in particular contexts in existing social, economic and
political conditions. The communication model was interactive, top-
down, bottom-up, and bottom-bottom (Don't worry, you will find what
that top, bottom is when you go further down). The audience here is
active and participatory. Internationally it talks about culture
specific model of communication.

((Just in case you need, read below))
Theory of Opinion Leadership
Theory of Opinion Leadership is a concept that arose out of the theory
of two-step flow of communication propounded by Paul Lazarsfeld and
Elihu Katz. This theory is one of several models that try to explain
the diffusion of innovations and ideas.
In this theory, opinion leaders are active media users who interpret
the meaning of media messages or content for lower-end media users.
People turn to opinion leaders for information and advice on issues
for which they have less information exposure through informal social
relationships. Typically, they hold the opinion leaders, who often
conform to the group norms and are of similar status, in high esteem.
Opinion leadership tends to be subject-specific. An opinion leader in
one field may be a follower in another field. An example of an opinion
leader in the field of computer technology might be a neighborhood
computer service technician. The technician has access to far more
information on this topic than the average consumer and has the
requisite background to understand the information. Narula argues
village Opinion Leadership was essential for development communication
and encouraging people to participate in development. In urban areas,
she says, these links are missing.
(Do you have examples where you have asked knowledgeable members of
your family, friends and acquaintances to be sure of something the
media said? They are opinion leaders for you. The recent warning about
the possibility of a quake caused a kind of panic. But what did we do
to get reassured? We asked knowledgeable family members and friends
what they thought about it. Remember we discussed Orson Welle's radio
show. You can cite other examples, if you like.)

The hypodermic needle model
The hypodermic needle model is a model of communications also referred
to as the magic bullet perspective. Essentially, this model holds that
an intended message is directly received and wholly accepted by the
receiver. The model emerged from the Marxist Frankfurt School of
intellectuals in the 1930s to explain the rise of Nazism in Germany.
The most famous example of what would be considered the result of the
magic bullet or hypodermic needle model was the 1938 broadcast of The
War of the Worlds and the subsequent reaction of its mass American
audience. (see handouts for details)
The phrasing "hypodermic needle" is meant to give a mental image of
the direct, strategic, and planned infusion of a message into an
individual. This view entails a conceptually fatal flaw in that it
tends to ignore matters such as interpretation which are crucial
aspects to the communicative process.
Two-step flow of communication
In 1960's, researchers began to probe the role of informal contacts--
the personal influence on other people as an important set of
variables to determine the effects of mass media. It was discovered
that a very few people have first hand exposure to certain mass media
messages. The research suggested that information moved through two
stages, firstly, from media to relatively few will informed
individuals and secondly, from them to others who were not directly
exposed to the media via interpersonal channels. This is the two-step
flow of communication theory, which is a more modern version of the
magic bullet model. The two-step flow model was propounded by Paul
Lazarsfeld and Elihu Katz. Unlike the hypodermic needle model which
considers mass media effects to be direct, the two-step flow model
stresses human agency.
According to Lazarsfeld and Katz, mass media information is channeled
to the "masses" through opinion leadership. The people with most
access to media, and having a more literate understanding of media
content, explain and diffuse the content to others. Their 'personal
influence' was regarded as an important variable.
Two-step flow model laid the foundation for diffusion of innovations.

Diffusion of innovations
The study of the diffusion of innovation is the study of how, why, and
at what rate new ideas and technology spread through cultures.
(We looked at Everett Roger's theories of Innovation diffusion. You
have the handout. If you are not clear, read below)
Diffusion of innovations theory was formalized by Everett Rogers in a
1962 book called Diffusion of Innovations. In this view, the role of
communication was to transfer the objects of technology to the masses
as planned by the authorities, policy makers, etc. Rogers stated that
adopters of any new innovation or idea could be categorized as
innovators (2.5%), early adopters (13.5%), early majority (34%), late
majority (34%) and laggards (16%), based on a bell curve. Each
adopter's willingness and ability to adopt an innovation would depend
on their awareness, interest, evaluation, trial, and adoption. Some of
the characteristics of each category of adopter include:
1. Innovators-- they are venturesome, educated, multiple info
sources, greater propensity to take risk,
2. Early adopters - social leaders, popular, educated
3. Early majority - deliberate, many informal social contacts
4. Late majority - skeptical, traditional, lower socio-economic
status
5. Laggards - neighbours and friends are main info sources, fear
of debt
Rogers also proposed a five stage model for the diffusion of
innovation:
Knowledge - learning about the existence and function of the
innovation
Persuasion - becoming convinced of the value of the innovation
Decision - committing to the adoption of the innovation
Implementation - putting it to use
Confirmation - the ultimate acceptance (or rejection) of the
innovation

Theories of communication -- Agenda-setting theory -- Content analysis
-- Conversation analysis -- Critical theory -- Cultivation theory --
Cultural studies -- Cybernetics -- Diffusion of innovations --
Elaboration likelihood model -- Ethnomethodology -- Framing --
Hermeneutics -- Hypodermic needle model -- Heuristic-Systematic Model
-- Information theory -- Knowledge gap hypothesis -- Media ecology --
Network analysis -- Nonviolent Communication -- Opinion leadership --
Political economy -- Priming -- Scheme -- Social learning theory --
Social construction of reality -- Social Identity Deindividuation
Effect model -- Social Information Processing Theory -- Social
Penetration Theory -- Spiral of silence -- Strength of Weak Ties --
Structuralism -- Symbolic interactionism -- Technology acceptance
model -- Theory of cognitive dissonance -- Theory of Planned Behavior
-- Theory of Reasoned Action -- Third-person effect -- Two-step flow
of communication -- Uses and gratifications -- Uncertainty reduction
theory



History of media research
Scientific research is a relatively new source of knowledge. The
research on individual and social behaviour extends back no more than
a century. And although it has long been recognized that communication
is a fundamental form of behaviour, the history of media research is
only some sixty years old.

Arguments as to whether the mass media provide beneficial or harmful
influences began early in the nineteenth century. The elite press of
the eighteenth century had few critics. Its contents sometimes upset
kings or governors, but it didn't alarm the majority of citizens. When
the mass press arrived, it was far more controversial. It wanted to
attract as many readers as possible by way of emphasizing crime and
other exciting and sensational stories. Thoughtful people were
concerned about the consequences of new mass press. What frightened
many was the assumed power of such newspapers to influence the ideas
and actions of their numerous readers, whom many regarded as little
more than a potentially dangerous mob. At the same time journalists
defended their newspapers. They claimed that they were serving the
common people by providing essential protections against possible
abuse by the wealthy and the politically powerful.

A great debate broke out. On one side were those who feared the
effects of the new medium. The treasured idea of the freedom of the
press, they pointed out, had not been formulated to protect newspapers
that emphasized crime and sin to gain more readers. If the newspapers
were actually harming people and society, then the mass press should
be controlled, regardless of earlier thinking about the First
Amendment.

On the other side were those who were convinced that for all of their
faults, the newspapers were (at least to some extent) raising the
political awareness and participation of large numbers of people for
the first time in history. If this was true, they argued, the mass
press's influences were beneficial and it should be protected under
the First Amendment. The debate continues.

A great deal of modern research into the influence of mass
communication has been directed toward the issue of whether its
content is harmful or beneficial.

Early claims of great power
One major concern was that the newspapers were leading youngsters into
a life of sin. A nineteenth century criminologist followed the rise of
the mass press and said juvenile delinquency increased in France
between 1860 and 1890. The respected American concluded: "It is the
trashy and malicious press, scandal mongering, riddled with court
cases, that awaits the student when he leaves school. The little
newspaper, supplementing the little drink, alcoholises his heart." He
claimed, "Pornography and slander have become the two breasts
nourishing the newspaper."

Another area of concern was the press's influence on the political
process. Many believed newspapers controlled public opinion. It seemed
without question that if a large and popular newspaper endorsed a
candidate or advised the public on a political issue, its readers
would comply with the paper's position. Example William Randolph
Hearst: "Please remain. You furnish the pictures and I'll furnish the
war."

The legacy of fear was given considerable reinforcement following
World War I. Between 1913 and 1918, governments on both sides used
their newspapers to try to marshal civilian approval and support for
their war efforts. The British in particular were masters of the art
of propaganda. A special branch of their secret service released
stories to the country's newspapers. The British wanted the Americans
to enter the war and fight against the Germans. "Eyewitness accounts"
appeared in British newspapers of how the Germans had chopped off
hands of all male children in a Belgian village, cut off the breasts
of a captured English nurse, crucified a captured Canadian soldier
against a barn door, and even sent their battlefield dead to a
rendering plant to be boiled down for oils to make soap.

The legacy of fear received additional confirmation in the years
before and during WWII. In the 1920s, the movies were widely accused
of destroying moral values, promoting the use of alcohol, enticing
young people to emulate actors who portrayed gangsters and actresses
who dressed in scandalous manner. The older generation was not ready
for "flaming youth," speakeasies, fast cars, loose morals, and easy
money, as portrayed on the screen.

Radio was a source of both delight and fear. Its popular music was
regarded as making youth delinquent. TV was suddenly a national
medium, eclipsing its rivals. Questions: violence, aggression, crime,
focus on political personalities and slogans rather than platforms and
issues, preoccupation with trivial game shows, soap operas, sports,
and formulaic comedies.

Some examples of negative media influence
* In Justice: Many famous trials about celebrities such as Michael
Jackson or Mike Tyson have, whatever the outcome of the trials, ended
in such bad publicity and negative depictions of the people involved
that their reputation was damaged forever. The general public had
already formed their opinion even before the trials were held. Even if
the celebrity remained out of jail or was proven not guilty his career
or popularity could have turned out for the worse due to this.
* In politics: Joseph McCarthy's hunt for communist infiltrations in
the US was broadcast frequently on television and other media.
Therefore influencing the negative attitude of Americans towards
communism, without a neutral viewpoint.
* The election of many politicians since the 1960s, most notably John
F. Kennedy in the US have been influenced enormously by media
exposure, such as television. Kennedy's victory in the presidential
race of 1960 against Richard Nixon has been described as the result of
his more handsome and good looking appearance on television,
especially when compared with Nixon.
* Also Ronald Reagan and Arnold Schwarzenegger whose fame as actors
helped them to gain more media attention and eventually the victory in
their elections as governor or president. This trend however, can be
seen internationally.
* In Music: In 1969 Charles Manson and his cult killed several people,
inspired by songs of The Beatles (Piggies, Helter Skelter). This was
not the first time the negative influence of rock 'n roll was
discussed, but it was the first serious case.
* In 1980 former Beatle John Lennon was shot. His killer, Mark David
Chapman was inspired by Lennon's music and the book The Catcher in the
Rye by J.D. Salinger.
* In the eighties criticism of rock and especially heavy metal
increased. Several cases where fans of metal, gothic or other extreme
rock committed murder or suicide were held up by Christian and other
pression groups to censor these acts or their music.
One of the rock musicians who spoke against government censorship in
the music industry was Frank Zappa who stated that according to the
theories about the media influence on people one might say that
"everyone who ever listened to The Beatles or The Beach Boys is a
potential murderer, because those were the favourite groups of Charles
Manson. Most songs are about love, so if people were really influenced
by music: we would all love each other." In the end the Parental
Advisory stickers were established.
* When Nirvana singer Kurt Cobain committed suicide in 1994 this
resulted in several copy cat suicides by fans, which again raised the
question if certain rock music should be prevented from release.
* In Film: Stanley Kubrick's film A Clockwork Orange (1971) caused
controversy on its release due to the violent content of fights, rape
and murder which are presented through the eyes of the gangs who
commit them. The controversy about the film increased when some gangs
and youths started to copycat the violence and rape. Kubrick then
withdrew the film from syndication in England until his death.
Interestingly, "A Clockwork Orange" tells the story of how Alex is
cured of his violent behaviour by aversion therapy. Alex is given a
nausea inducing drug and is then forced to watch video footage of
violent behaviors. After sucessive pairings Alex becomes physically
ill when presented with such stimuli and so avoids these behaviors all
together.
* In 1981 president Ronald Reagan was shot by John Hinckley Jr.. The
president survived and Hinckley was arrested. Just like Lennon's
killer Mark David Chapman he had J.D. Salinger's "The Catcher in the
Rye" with him. Hinckley claimed to have committed his crime to impress
actress Jodie Foster, like he had seen in the movie Taxi Driver by
Martin Scorsese.
* In 1987 a man who dressed himself up as Rambo shot 16 people and
wounded 15 others in the British village Hungerford. Afterwards he
committed suicide. Although later investigations concluded that he had
never seen the film, he did have a collection of other violent movies,
which may have inspired him in the killings.
* In 1993 ten year olds Robert Thompson and Jon Venables kidnapped,
abused and murdered the two year old Jamie Bulger in Merseyside
England. The two boys were arrested and instantly the story had mass
of coverage, soon after, it was discovered that the two boys had
recently seen the film "Child's Play 3", the media instantly took hold
of this and film was seen as the cause of the murder of Jamie Bulger.
During the trial, the judge suggested that the film was to blame for
the two boys' actions.
* In 1999 two boys shot several students to death in Columbine High
School in Colorado. Afterwards they committed suicide. Accusations
were made that they were influenced by violent videogames and/or films
or goth music. (See Columbine High School Massacre)
* In Cartoons: In the seventies several classic cartoons were censored
when broadcast on television because they were considered a bad
influence on children. Some of them because of racist or stereotypical
references, but others for their violent content. Especially Looney
Tunes and Tom & Jerry were singled out because the cartoons often
showcased explosions, gunshots, physical deformations and weapons.
Cartoon characters however always survive these actions which, in the
eyes of critics, is an unrealistic message to children who might
believe when you hurt or kill someone he will remain unharmed.
Many classic cartoons were showed in a censored way where all the
violent actions were cut out. Animation fans and the animators
themselves criticized this censorship because the pictures became
increasingly short and dull, due to the missing of many funny gags.
They pointed out that since the 1940s nearly everyone in the country
had grown up watching these cartoons without any negative effects
while growing up. Also, the censorship didn't consider the
entertainment value of the cartoons.
* In the early '90s a boy was assumed to set fire to his little
sisters' bed because he saw a similar scene in an episode of Beavis &
Butthead. Controversy arose, but it turned out the boy didn't have
cable. MTV did however schedule the program on a later hour.
The hypodermic needle model is a theory that has been held by media
theorists since the early 19th century and suggests that the media can
be seen as an 'intravenous injection' of message. In other words, any
message conveyed by the media is willingly and unquestioningly
accepted for its preferred reading by the audience. Certain events
support this theory, such as the 1938 radio play of The War of the
Worlds by Orson Welles that was broadcast in the United States, its
realistic tone and execution inciting panic within the audience and
causing riots in towns. However, this theory is discredited by common
sense observation. If this theory is nomothetic as it suggests, then
we would all respond immediately to any media text we consume.
Therefore, the theory's flaw lies in the vast number of intervening
variables that alter a person's perception of media messages.
Another example of a passive audience theory is the Inoculation model
which is a long term effect model. This states that upon being exposed
to a media message, the audience becomes immediately 'immune' to them.
So, for example, long term exposure to a violent message will result
in a desensitization to that degree of violence. This theory was used
to explain the case of James Bulger, in which two boys murdered a
child. This invoked a moral panic that saw the film Child's Play 3
being blamed for the violent behaviour. However, there was no evidence
that the Inoculation effect had led to this. In fact, there was little
to suggest that boys had even seen the film. However, this theory
suffers from the same shortfalls as the Hypodermic syringe effect. It
sees the audience as entirely passive and impressionable. Therefore,
it is commonly discredited by media theorists.
It has been suggested that the extent to which an audience engages
with a media text can be roughly split into three degrees. The first
of these is primary involvement, in which the audience is solely
concentrating on consuming the media text. For example, they are
sitting down solely to watch their favourite programme on television.
Secondary involvement is when an audience's concentration is split
between the media text and another distraction. For example, working
on the computer while watching television. Tertiary involvement is
when the media text is merely in the background, with no real
concentration upon it at all. For example, glancing at a newspaper on
a crowded train. While this theory is somewhat simplistic, it provides
a clear and probable explanation as to the changes in audience
reception.
Perhaps the most widely accepted theory on audience reception is Denis
McQuail's Uses and Gratifications model. This places emphasis on why
audiences consume media. The first reason outlined in the model are
the need to reinforce your own behaviour by identifying with roles and
values presented in the media. Secondly, we need to feel some kind of
interaction with other people; this is offered by text such as soap
operas and lifestyle magazines. The third reason is the need for
security in our lifes. Media offer us a window to the world that
allows education and the acquisition of information. The final reason
is the need for entertainment through both escapism and the need for
emotional release, such as laughter. A strength of this theory is the
emphasis on the audience as active in the reception of media. However,
this would suggest no passivity within the audience whatsoever. A
person may, for example, be too lazy to turn off their television and
so consume any media that is available. This theory also pays little
attention to the short term and long term effects of media on the
audience.
Depictions of media influence in popular culture
* Comedian Bill Hicks made a wellknown conference about rock music
influencing suicidal tendencies.
* The movie South Park: Bigger, Longer and Uncut showed how the kids
watch a movie about Terrance and Philip and start copying their curses
and swearing. Concerned parents try to censor the film, but ultimately
start a war with Canada for creating the film.
* Itchy & Scratchy, the cartoon duo in The Simpsons is a satire on
violent cartoons like Tom & Jerry and their influence on children who
watch it. In the Simpsons episode Itchy and Scratchy and Marge Maggie
hits Homer on the head with a hammer because she saw it in an Itchy &
Scratchy cartoon. Marge then starts a campaign to protest against the
violence in the cartoons. In Itchy & Scratchy Land the influence of
violent cartoons is satrized again when Bart and Lisa wonder if all
this violence makes them immune to real violence? When a robotic
Scratchy falls on the ground nearby and starts squirting fake blood
they decide to go eat some ice cream.
* In The Simpsons' episode Homer Badman Homer is wrongfully accused of
sexual harassment. The episode satirizes how the media puts things out
of context and blows them up to enormous proportions thereby
influencing people's opinions before closer investigations. A large
part of the episode shows how news reporters manipulate broadcasts,
search for sensationalism and how huge media attention contributes to
the false accusations made about Homer.
* Michael Moore's documentary Bowling For Columbine investigates the
influence of several suggested inspirations for the Columbine High
School Massacre and focuses on the role of the media in creating mass
hysteria.

 What is "Vidura"?": A journal discussing journalism and a software.

"Vidura" is two things as it pertains to mass media research: it is an
important software developed for Desktop Publishing Programme by the
National Centre for Software Technology (NCST), Bombay. The Vidura
Software provides transliteration facility involving scripts, namely,
Bengali, Oriya and Tamil. A sound exposure of the system to the
researcher and computer professional could be of great value to the
mass media researchers working on media messages.

Secondly, "Vidura" is a journal discussing journalism which is
published by the Press Institute of India. Nothing can be more
appealing to journalists than a journal discussing their own trade,
like Vidura or Journal of Communication Studies published by the
Makhanlal Chaturvedi Rashtriya Patrakarita Vishwavidyalaya.

A recent issue of "Vidura" was devoted to Media Review. It carried
such articles as 'Reporting the Issues That Matter', 'New Challenges
for the Old Media' 'Editors and Leaders', 'Development and Shashi
Tharoor's Media Priorities' and 'Deaths in Journalism'--not a
comforting article incidentally to read.

Can one believe it--but in one year, 2005 alone, as many as 150
journalists died in the line of duty of whom 89 were especially killed
by criminals, political extremists and sinister paramilitary groups
operating on the fringes of society? One journalist, Mohammad Harun
Hassan, was gunned down in Baghdad in an unspeakably violent manner.

Over to other articles. Does an editor have time? He can't be sitting
whole day and night in the office looking at copy and correcting it or
chucking it out. That is the job of a News Editor. And News Editors
come to the job the hard way. But, to go back to Vidura, for
journalists it should be the Bible for its excellent presentation of
timely and relevant articles. It tells one what is going on in the
field of journalism in India as no one else does. Even its obits are
well written. The latest is about a doyen of Hindi journalism in
Rajasthan and founder of Rajasthan Patrika group, Karpur Chand Kulish.
He was 80 when he passed away on January 17. But what a great
institution did he set up!


 Indian experiment using Television in Distance Education (ISRO,
SITE)

Television has been widely used in education in India. It has the
unique feature of combining audio and visual technology, and thus
considered to be more effective than audio media. It serves multiple
purposes of entertainment, information and education. Besides
performing motivational function it helps in providing discovery
learning and cognitive development of its viewers. Because of its
better accessibility, it can bring learning materials to the masses in
more direct, effective and personal way than other educational media
(Vyas, Sharma & Kumar) A significant land mark in the history of
television in India was the one year Satellite Instructional
Television Experiment (SITE) launched on August 1, 1975 involving 2330
villages..... (SS Chaudhary). Since then television has been widely used
to impart formal and non formal education to a variety of audience
from primary school children, teachers, extension workers and
Panchayat Raj Members. Satellite communications technology offers
unique capability of being able to simultaneously reach out to very
large numbers spread over large distances even in the most remote
corners of the country. Currently there are over 2400 receiving
terminals used exclusively for distance education and Interactive
Training Programmes (ITPs) in the country. (Sampreshan 2004)


In order to understand the user experience and the impact of this new
method of delivering content to the viewers the PrinTV System was
integrated into an ongoing training programme. PrinTV was integrated
into the SatCom based Gram Panchayat Member training programme
conducted by the, State Institute of Rural Development. Abdul Nazir
Sab-State Institute of Rural Development (ANS-SIRD), Mysore,
Karnataka, India has been the SatCom centre and nodal agency for
Karnataka TDCC (Training and Development Communication Channel)
network for over five years. The TDCC network is set up by the
Development and Educational Communication Unit (DECU), ISRO (Indian
Space Research Organisation) to promote the use of space technology
for developmental purposes.


History of media research

Scientific research is a relatively new source of knowledge. The
research on individual and social behaviour extends back no more than
a century. And although it has long been recognized that communication
is a fundamental form of behaviour, the history of media research is
only some sixty years old.

Arguments as to whether the mass media provide beneficial or harmful
influences began early in the nineteenth century. The elite press of
the eighteenth century had few critics. Its contents sometimes upset
kings or governors, but it didn't alarm the majority of citizens. When
the mass press arrived, it was far more controversial. It wanted to
attract as many readers as possible by way of emphasizing crime and
other exciting and sensational stories. Thoughtful people were
concerned about the consequences of new mass press. What frightened
many was the assumed power of such newspapers to influence the ideas
and actions of their numerous readers, whom many regarded as little
more than a potentially dangerous mob. At the same time journalists
defended their newspapers. They claimed that they were serving the
common people by providing essential protections against possible
abuse by the wealthy and the politically powerful.

A great debate broke out. On one side were those who feared the
effects of the new medium. The treasured idea of the freedom of the
press, they pointed out, had not been formulated to protect newspapers
that emphasized crime and sin to gain more readers. If the newspapers
were actually harming people and society, then the mass press should
be controlled.

On the other side were those who were convinced that for all of their
faults, the newspapers were (at least to some extent) raising the
political awareness and participation of large numbers of people for
the first time in history. If this was true, they argued, the mass
press's influences were beneficial and it should be protected. The
debate continues.


Early claims of great power
One major concern was that the newspapers were leading youngsters into
a life of sin. A nineteenth century criminologist followed the rise of
the mass press and said juvenile delinquency increased in France
between 1860 and 1890. The respected American concluded: "It is the
trashy and malicious press, scandal mongering, riddled with court
cases, that awaits the student when he leaves school. The little
newspaper, supplementing the little drink, alcoholises his heart." He
claimed, "Pornography and slander have become the two breasts
nourishing the newspaper."

Another area of concern was the press's influence on the political
process. Many believed newspapers controlled public opinion. It seemed
without question that if a large and popular newspaper endorsed a
candidate or advised the public on a political issue, its readers
would comply with the paper's position. Example William Randolph
Hearst: "Please remain. You furnish the pictures and I'll furnish the
war."

The legacy of fear was given considerable reinforcement following
World War I. Between 1913 and 1918, governments on both sides used
their newspapers to try to marshal civilian approval and support for
their war efforts. The British in particular were masters of the art
of propaganda. A special branch of their secret service released
stories to the country's newspapers. The British wanted the Americans
to enter the war and fight against the Germans. "Eyewitness accounts"
appeared in British newspapers of how the Germans had chopped off
hands of all male children in a Belgian village, cut off the breasts
of a captured English nurse, crucified a captured Canadian soldier
against a barn door, and even sent their battlefield dead to a
rendering plant to be boiled down for oils to make soap.

The legacy of fear received additional confirmation in the years
before and during WWII. In the 1920s, the movies were widely accused
of destroying moral values, promoting the use of alcohol, enticing
young people to emulate actors who portrayed gangsters and actresses
who dressed in scandalous manner. The older generation was not ready
for "flaming youth," speakeasies, fast cars, loose morals, and easy
money, as portrayed on the screen.

Radio was a source of both delight and fear. Its popular music was
regarded as making youth delinquent. TV was suddenly a national
medium, eclipsing its rivals. Questions: violence, aggression, crime,
focus on political personalities and slogans rather than platforms and
issues, preoccupation with trivial game shows, soap operas, sports,
and formulaic comedies.

Some examples of negative media influence
* In Justice: Many famous trials about celebrities such as Michael
Jackson or Mike Tyson have, whatever the outcome of the trials, ended
in such bad publicity and negative depictions of the people involved
that their reputation was damaged forever. The general public had
already formed their opinion even before the trials were held. Even if
the celebrity remained out of jail or was proven not guilty his career
or popularity could have turned out for the worse due to this.
* In politics: Joseph McCarthy's hunt for communist infiltrations in
the US was broadcast frequently on television and other media.
Therefore influencing the negative attitude of Americans towards
communism, without a neutral viewpoint.
* The election of many politicians since the 1960s, most notably John
F. Kennedy in the US have been influenced enormously by media
exposure, such as television. Kennedy's victory in the presidential
race of 1960 against Richard Nixon has been described as the result of
his more handsome and good looking appearance on television,
especially when compared with Nixon.
* Also Ronald Reagan and Arnold Schwarzenegger whose fame as actors
helped them to gain more media attention and eventually the victory in
their elections as governor or president. This trend however, can be
seen internationally.
* In Music: In 1969 Charles Manson and his cult killed several people,
inspired by songs of The Beatles (Piggies, Helter Skelter). This was
not the first time the negative influence of rock 'n roll was
discussed, but it was the first serious case.
* In 1980 former Beatle John Lennon was shot. His killer, Mark David
Chapman was inspired by Lennon's music and the book The Catcher in the
Rye by J.D. Salinger.
* In the eighties criticism of rock and especially heavy metal
increased. Several cases where fans of metal, gothic or other extreme
rock committed murder or suicide were held up by Christian and other
pression groups to censor these acts or their music.
One of the rock musicians who spoke against government censorship in
the music industry was Frank Zappa who stated that according to the
theories about the media influence on people one might say that
"everyone who ever listened to The Beatles or The Beach Boys is a
potential murderer, because those were the favourite groups of Charles
Manson. Most songs are about love, so if people were really influenced
by music: we would all love each other." In the end the Parental
Advisory stickers were established.
* When Nirvana singer Kurt Cobain committed suicide in 1994 this
resulted in several copy cat suicides by fans, which again raised the
question if certain rock music should be prevented from release.
* In Film: Stanley Kubrick's film A Clockwork Orange (1971) caused
controversy on its release due to the violent content of fights, rape
and murder which are presented through the eyes of the gangs who
commit them. The controversy about the film increased when some gangs
and youths started to copycat the violence and rape. Kubrick then
withdrew the film from syndication in England until his death.
Interestingly, "A Clockwork Orange" tells the story of how Alex is
cured of his violent behaviour by aversion therapy. Alex is given a
nausea inducing drug and is then forced to watch video footage of
violent behaviors. After sucessive pairings Alex becomes physically
ill when presented with such stimuli and so avoids these behaviors all
together.
* In 1981 president Ronald Reagan was shot by John Hinckley Jr.. The
president survived and Hinckley was arrested. Just like Lennon's
killer Mark David Chapman he had J.D. Salinger's "The Catcher in the
Rye" with him. Hinckley claimed to have committed his crime to impress
actress Jodie Foster, like he had seen in the movie Taxi Driver by
Martin Scorsese.
* In 1987 a man who dressed himself up as Rambo shot 16 people and
wounded 15 others in the British village Hungerford. Afterwards he
committed suicide. Although later investigations concluded that he had
never seen the film, he did have a collection of other violent movies,
which may have inspired him in the killings.
* In 1993 ten year olds Robert Thompson and Jon Venables kidnapped,
abused and murdered the two year old Jamie Bulger in Merseyside
England. The two boys were arrested and instantly the story had mass
of coverage, soon after, it was discovered that the two boys had
recently seen the film "Child's Play 3", the media instantly took hold
of this and film was seen as the cause of the murder of Jamie Bulger.
During the trial, the judge suggested that the film was to blame for
the two boys' actions.
* In 1999 two boys shot several students to death in Columbine High
School in Colorado. Afterwards they committed suicide. Accusations
were made that they were influenced by violent videogames and/or films
or goth music. (See Columbine High School Massacre)
* In Cartoons: In the seventies several classic cartoons were censored
when broadcast on television because they were considered a bad
influence on children. Some of them because of racist or stereotypical
references, but others for their violent content. Especially Looney
Tunes and Tom & Jerry were singled out because the cartoons often
showcased explosions, gunshots, physical deformations and weapons.
Cartoon characters however always survive these actions which, in the
eyes of critics, is an unrealistic message to children who might
believe when you hurt or kill someone he will remain unharmed.
Many classic cartoons were showed in a censored way where all the
violent actions were cut out. Animation fans and the animators
themselves criticized this censorship because the pictures became
increasingly short and dull, due to the missing of many funny gags.
They pointed out that since the 1940s nearly everyone in the country
had grown up watching these cartoons without any negative effects
while growing up. Also, the censorship didn't consider the
entertainment value of the cartoons.
* In the early '90s a boy was assumed to set fire to his little
sisters' bed because he saw a similar scene in an episode of Beavis &
Butthead. Controversy arose, but it turned out the boy didn't have
cable. MTV did however schedule the program on a later hour.
The hypodermic needle model is a theory that has been held by media
theorists since the early 19th century and suggests that the media can
be seen as an 'intravenous injection' of message. In other words, any
message conveyed by the media is willingly and unquestioningly
accepted for its preferred reading by the audience. Certain events
support this theory, such as the 1938 radio play of The War of the
Worlds by Orson Welles that was broadcast in the United States, its
realistic tone and execution inciting panic within the audience and
causing riots in towns. However, this theory is discredited by common
sense observation. If this theory is nomothetic as it suggests, then
we would all respond immediately to any media text we consume.
Therefore, the theory's flaw lies in the vast number of intervening
variables that alter a person's perception of media messages.
Another example of a passive audience theory is the Inoculation model
which is a long term effect model. This states that upon being exposed
to a media message, the audience becomes immediately 'immune' to them.
So, for example, long term exposure to a violent message will result
in a desensitization to that degree of violence. This theory was used
to explain the case of James Bulger, in which two boys murdered a
child. This invoked a moral panic that saw the film Child's Play 3
being blamed for the violent behaviour. However, there was no evidence
that the Inoculation effect had led to this. In fact, there was little
to suggest that boys had even seen the film. However, this theory
suffers from the same shortfalls as the Hypodermic syringe effect. It
sees the audience as entirely passive and impressionable. Therefore,
it is commonly discredited by media theorists.
It has been suggested that the extent to which an audience engages
with a media text can be roughly split into three degrees. The first
of these is primary involvement, in which the audience is solely
concentrating on consuming the media text. For example, they are
sitting down solely to watch their favourite programme on television.
Secondary involvement is when an audience's concentration is split
between the media text and another distraction. For example, working
on the computer while watching television. Tertiary involvement is
when the media text is merely in the background, with no real
concentration upon it at all. For example, glancing at a newspaper on
a crowded train. While this theory is somewhat simplistic, it provides
a clear and probable explanation as to the changes in audience
reception.
Perhaps the most widely accepted theory on audience reception is Denis
McQuail's Uses and Gratifications model. This places emphasis on why
audiences consume media. The first reason outlined in the model are
the need to reinforce your own behaviour by identifying with roles and
values presented in the media. Secondly, we need to feel some kind of
interaction with other people; this is offered by text such as soap
operas and lifestyle magazines. The third reason is the need for
security in our lifes. Media offer us a window to the world that
allows education and the acquisition of information. The final reason
is the need for entertainment through both escapism and the need for
emotional release, such as laughter. A strength of this theory is the
emphasis on the audience as active in the reception of media. However,
this would suggest no passivity within the audience whatsoever. A
person may, for example, be too lazy to turn off their television and
so consume any media that is available. This theory also pays little
attention to the short term and long term effects of media on the
audience.
Depictions of media influence in popular culture
* Comedian Bill Hicks made a wellknown conference about rock music
influencing suicidal tendencies.
* The movie South Park: Bigger, Longer and Uncut showed how the kids
watch a movie about Terrance and Philip and start copying their curses
and swearing. Concerned parents try to censor the film, but ultimately
start a war with Canada for creating the film.
* Itchy & Scratchy, the cartoon duo in The Simpsons is a satire on
violent cartoons like Tom & Jerry and their influence on children who
watch it. In the Simpsons episode Itchy and Scratchy and Marge Maggie
hits Homer on the head with a hammer because she saw it in an Itchy &
Scratchy cartoon. Marge then starts a campaign to protest against the
violence in the cartoons. In Itchy & Scratchy Land the influence of
violent cartoons is satrized again when Bart and Lisa wonder if all
this violence makes them immune to real violence? When a robotic
Scratchy falls on the ground nearby and starts squirting fake blood
they decide to go eat some ice cream.
* In The Simpsons' episode Homer Badman Homer is wrongfully accused of
sexual harassment. The episode satirizes how the media puts things out
of context and blows them up to enormous proportions thereby
influencing people's opinions before closer investigations. A large
part of the episode shows how news reporters manipulate broadcasts,
search for sensationalism and how huge media attention contributes to
the false accusations made about Homer.
* Michael Moore's documentary Bowling For Columbine investigates the
influence of several suggested inspirations for the Columbine High
School Massacre and focuses on the role of the media in creating mass
hysteria.

Hence we have a legacy of fear, which has had a powerful influence on
shaping research on mass communication.

Obviously what we need is an independent and objective source of
trustworthy answers about the nature and consequences of mass
communication. The only source could be research based on the methods
of science.

If the same question is asked this way, 'Describe the stages in the
growth of mass media,' answer like this.
There are four stages in the growth or evolution of a medium.
1. At first stage, any new medium is viewed as a 'toy'.
2. At the second stage, the interest and involvement of the people
are in the techniques of the phenomenon, i.e. how it works, and people
marvel at its operation and effects.
3. Third stage of media usage is the artistic stage. At this
point, the medium is institutionalized, has survived its critics and
has legitimized its functions.
4. At fourth stage, the medium becomes so much part of the scheme
of things and daily life that the public becomes unaware of how it
came to be dependent on it. Fear of being disconnected becomes a major
concern.


(I have given you a table on models of communication photocopied from
Narula's book, page 64-65. Go over it to see the linear, relational
and convergence models at a glance.)

[zenith]

is this the complete syllabus? oh my god, i tried to copy it and find
it very long.. i thought it was more than what we have in our note
copies.. thank you so much for makin such a syllabus. i hope it will
help us alot in our reading methods..once again thank you..zenith.