Urinalysis Answer Key

[Ogier Dudley]

Urinalysiswas the first laboratory test performed in medicine and has been in use for several thousand years. Today, urinalysis continues to be an important means of obtaining crucial information for diagnostic purposes in medicine. Covering a range of screening tests, it may be used to screen for or help diagnose a number of common diseases.

We have highlighted three areas in which our solutions significantly enhance the value of urinalysis in clinical decision making: urinary tract infections (UTIs), chronic kidney disease and bladder cancer. In the articles below, we explain the nature and challenges of these diseases. We also discuss how our solutions support laboratory professionals and clinicians in providing improved patient care.

This compact, fully automated urine particle analyser is 30% smaller than our flagship UF-5000 model and perfect for small to medium-sized labs. With proven fluorescence flow cytometry technology, the UF-1500 provides reliable, standardised results at a throughput of up to 60 samples an hour while reducing time-consuming manual steps. Learn more about what makes the UF-1500 an asset to your lab.

Fast and reliable urine particle analysis: rely on thousands of particles counted and classified from native urine. Analysing native urine without centrifugation or pre-treatment avoids common sources of error and makes the analysis even more standardised.

Urine concentration: It's normal for urine to have a stronger odor first thing in the morning. After a night's sleep, urine is more concentrated and odorous as well as brighter yellow in color.

Dehydration also increases urine concentration, causing stronger smelling urine. Have your husband try drinking more water to see if the odor lessens. Hot weather or intense physical activities can contribute to dehydration, too. Concentrated urine, without any other symptoms, generally isn't harmful.

Urinary tract infection: Foul-smelling urine is a symptom of a urinary tract infection. Other symptoms are cloudy urine, an urgent need to urinate, or a burning sensation while urinating. The foul smell may be the only symptom of a urinary tract infection. With a persistent foul smell from the urine, your husband should see a physician for a urinalysis and diagnosis. A urinary tract infection needs to be treated with antibiotics to prevent kidney infection and kidney damage.

Diabetes: Strong sweet-smelling urine is a sign of advanced diabetes, which can be diagnosed with urinalysis. With advanced diabetes, sugar and ketones, which are normally absent, can accumulate in the urine and create a strong odor. According to the American Diabetes Association, an estimated 5.7 million people have undiagnosed diabetes. If the odor in your husband's urine persists, I'd suggest he see a physician for a simple urine test.

One other consideration is urine leakage/incontinence. When this occurs, the smell may seem stronger than usual because it clings to clothing. Temporary or chronic incontinence has many possible causes.

Causes of chronic incontinence can involve prostate and bladder disorders, including enlargement of the prostate and a weakened bladder. If incontinence is contributing to the smell, your husband should talk with his primary care doctor to determine the cause and develop a treatment plan.

By the late 12th-century, a French scholar named Gilles de Corbeil taught and classified 20 different types of urine, recording differences in urine sediment and color. De Corbeil also introduced the "matula," a glass vessel in which a physician could assess color, consistency, and clarity.[5] In 1630, Nicolas Fabricius de Peiresc, a French astronomer and naturalist, did the first microscopic description of urine crystals as "a heap of rhomboidal bricks." [6] Posteriorly, in the early-mid 1800s, Richard Bright, an English physician, pioneered the field of kidney research leading him to be ultimately recognized as the "father of nephrology." These few examples illustrate how urinalysis was the first laboratory test developed in the history of medicine, how it has been persistently used for several thousand years, and how it continues to be a formidable and cost-effective tool to obtain crucial information for diagnostic purposes.[7]

There are two methods to obtain a urine specimen: non-invasive and invasive techniques. Spontaneous voiding is the main non-invasive technique, although other strategies may be used in children who cannot yet control their voiding (i.e., bag urine). In contrast, urethral catheterization and suprapubic bladder puncture are the two invasive procedures described to date. The fundamental principle of either technique is to obtain a specimen without external contamination.

Subsequently, the patient should first void a small amount of urine into the toilet and afterward position the container mid-stream in the flow of urine. Approximately, only 15 mL to 30 mL of urine is sufficient for accurate analysis, so, in most cases, patients should be advised not to fill the containers to their full capacity. Finally, the container is closed with careful precautions not to contaminate its lid or rim, and the patient may finish urinating in the toilet, bedpan, etc. The sample must be labeled before or immediately following collection, and it should not be on the lid.[7][8]

Invasive urine collection is warranted when patients cannot cooperate, have urinary incontinence or external urethral ulceration that increases contamination risk. Both of these techniques pose a risk for the inoculation of pathogens, thus causing urinary tract infections.

Urethral catheterization involves a small French urinary catheter passed through the urethral meatus after the previous cleansing with proper equipment. Depending on the catheter, personnel may or may not need a sterile syringe. In cases where patients already have a urinary catheter placed, the specimen should never be taken from the catheter bag as it is considered contaminated.

Suprapubic needle aspiration of the bladder is both the most invasive and uncomfortable procedure of all previously mentioned and may generate false-positive results (protein, red and white cells) as a consequence of blood contamination. They are generally reserved for situations where samples may not be obtained or are persistently contaminated through previous methods, which usually occurs in small children. The main advantage is that, by bypassing the urethra, it minimizes the risk of obtaining a contaminated sample.

Before the procedure, trained personnel must identify the bladder by examination. If not distinguished, it is recommended to hydrate the patient and wait until correct identification or use ultrasound guidance if available. After proper cleaning with an antiseptic solution and anesthetizing the skin located approximately 5 cm above the pubic symphysis, a small needle (i.e., 22-gauge spinal needle x 10 cm in adults) is inserted approximately at 60 degrees at the point identified previously. The needle is directed slightly caudal or cephalic in adults or children, respectively, according to the anatomic location. Usually, the needle will enter the abdominal bladder after advancing it approximately 5 cm in adults. Finally, attempt to aspirate using a sterile syringe. If a sample is not obtained, advance the needle applying continuous suction on the syringe. If unsuccessful after an additional 5 cm in adults, withdraw the needle and repeat the procedure. If unsuccessful, personnel should seek help from a specialist or use ultrasound guidance if not previously done.[7][8][10]

The urinary specific gravity (USG) and osmolality are of special importance because they indicate the kidney's capacity to dilute or concentrate urine. USG is defined as the ratio between the density of urine and the density of an equal volume of pure distilled water. Normal values are lab-dependent since there are multiple methods to calculate this parameter (hydrometer, dipstick reagent pad, refractometer, and harmonic oscillation or urinometry). As it depends primarily on mass, it is not a truly reliable measure for quantifying the exact number of solute particles. Thus, USG is commonly used to rapidly estimate screen urine concentration, employing the term hyposthenuric and hypersthenuric depending on whether the USG is diminished, or elevated. Isosthenuria connotes urine with a fixed specific gravity and portends renal disease. Conversely, osmolality is a measure of the sum of all dissolved particles in urine. It is more reliable and accurate than USG for evaluating kidney function. Urine osmolality ranges from 50-1200 mOsmol/kg; the key is to always compare to serum osmolality to establish a pathological condition. Both parameters directly correlate; for example, a USG of 1.010 approximates to a urine osmolality of 300 mOsm/kg.[7][15]

Urine pH is a vital piece of information and provides insight into tubular function. Normally, urine is slightly acidic because of metabolic activity. A urinary pH greater than 5.5 in the presence of systemic acidemia (serum pH less than 7.35) suggests renal dysfunction related to an inability to excrete hydrogen ions. On the contrary, the most common cause of alkaline urine is a stale urine sample due to the growth of bacteria and the breakdown of urea releasing ammonia. Determination of urinary pH is helpful for the diagnosis and management of urinary tract infections and crystals/calculi formation.[7][11][14]

Glycosuria occurs when the filtered load of glucose exceeds the tubular cells' ability to reabsorb it, which normally happens at a glucose serum concentration of around 180 mg per dL. Furthermore, nitrites are not normally found in urine, and it is highly specific for urinary tract infection. However, due to its low sensitivity, a negative result does not rule out infection.[14]

Casts are a coagulum composed of the trapped contents of tubule lumen and Tamm-Horsfall mucoprotein. They originate in the lumen the distal convoluted tubule or collecting duct with pH alterations or long periods of urinary concentration or stasis. The casts preserve the cylindrical shape of the tubule in which they were formed. Only a few hyaline or finely granular casts may be seen under normal physiological conditions. Cellular casts can dissolve within 30 to 10 minutes depending on the pH of the urine sample, thus promptly testing is mandatory for appropriate testing.

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