Schlosser Command And Control Epub Books
Stephanie Dejoode
To begin, let us briefly introduce the technology and draw some relevant distinctions. BCI systems measure brain activity. Electrical brain activity is recorded by electrodes on the scalp, on the cortical surface, or directly in the cortical tissue. Subsequently, signals are amplified and digitalized. Pertinent signal characteristics are extracted, computationally processed and translated into commands that can control applications or external devices. In most cases, the recorded data is used to control devices like prostheses, wheelchairs, or computer software like a cursor or spelling apps (Mak and Wolpaw 2009; Lebedev and Nicolelis 2006). In many designs, these external devices provide some form of feedback to enable BCI users to modify his or her brain activity to reach the desired aims and performances. To highlight implications and importance of BCIs for agency, it is helpful to distinguish three categories of BCIs: active, reactive, and passive BCIs (Zander et al. 2010).Footnote 3
Another factor that could cause differences in the sense of agency in BCI use, as compared to other human-computer interactions (HCI), is the input modality (Limerick et al. 2014). In ordinary HCIs, the system is controlled either through some external device, e.g., a mouse or a keyboard, or through commands via speech or eye tracking for example. In contrast, for all types of BCIs the same kind of interface is the input modality. Results from HCI research suggest that the sense of agency is increased if the input method is more reliable, i.e., that intended and actual outcome match and consequently some predictability is achieved. Further, research in human-computer interfaces also yielded some indication that the interface design influences the sense of agency of the users (Moore 2016).
In conclusion, let us recap our results. The theoretically most important aspect of BCI is that they provide a novel output channel that bypasses the muscular system of the body. This grounds the disembodied nature of BCI-mediated event (first peculiarity). For discussions of agency, we suggest distinguishing active, reactive, and passive BCIs. But are movements mediated by these devices actions? Users, from their subjective perspective, may not attribute movements as actions to themselves if they do not experience a feeling or a sense of agency, which in turn might be absent because an executory command or feedback is lacking. Although more data is needed, it is likely that users may misattribute BCI-mediated events and do not consider themselves as agents although they in fact did initiate or control the unfolding of the events, or vice versa (second peculiarity).
Through the lens of philosophical action theory, BCI-mediated events fare differently. One peculiarity is that BCI-mediated events are non-basic actions (third peculiarity). But are they all actions? Some are actions according to the standard causal theory because they possess the right antecedents. When it comes to passive BCIs, however, there are no actions insofar as passive BCIs cause events even in the absence of intentions (fourth peculiarity). Furthermore, action theories premised on control have to draw finer distinctions between forms of control, for which we suggest conscious executory control, conscious guidance control, and veto control. A BCI system may confer one but not the others. In some designs, BCIs require a much more pronounced executory control command (fifth peculiarity). In others, the BCI may conversely initiate events without any input by users (sixth peculiarity). Furthermore, users usually have none (goal-selection) or only restricted guidance control, depending on technical questions (seventh peculiarity). While possessing either executory or guidance control seem to suffice for actions, the challenging case is their absence, with the potential veto control only. This is a general characteristic of automatic behavior. To assess such movements, many action theories would have to provide more detailed criteria. We wish to suggest that movements that are neither initiated consciously, nor guided during the execution phase, do not qualify as actions. As a side note, the lack of executory control, often lamented as a blow to responsibility in debates over the Libet experiments, could be overcome by active BCI design, which would ensure the inability of unconscious movement initiation.
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