Kratka Povijest Gotovo Svega Pdf Download
Josephine Heathershaw
Kratka Povijest Gotovo Svega Pdf Download
Kratka Povijest Gotovo Svega je popularna znanstvena knjiga koju je napisao američko-britanski autor Bill Bryson. U knjizi, Bryson objašnjava neka područja znanosti, koristeći jednostavan i pristupačan jezik koji privlači širu publiku od mnogih drugih knjiga posvećenih toj temi. Knjiga je jedan od najprodavanijih popularno-znanstvenih knjiga u Ujedinjenom Kraljevstvu 2005. godine, prodavši se u više od 300.000 primjeraka.
Kratka Povijest Gotovo Svega odstupa od Brysonovog popularnog žanra putopisnih knjiga, umjesto toga opisuje opće znanosti kao što su kemija, paleontologija, astronomija i fizika čestica. U njoj istražuje vrijeme od Velikog praska do otkrića kvantne mehanike, preko evolucije i geologije. Bryson također govori o mogućnosti da Zemlju pogodi meteorit i razmišlja o ljudskim sposobnostima otkrivanja meteora prije nego što udari u Zemlju, te o opsežnoj šteti koju bi takav događaj prouzročio. Također opisuje neke od najnovijih razornih katastrofa vulkanskog podrijetla u povijesti našeg planeta, uključujući Krakatoa i Yellowstone National Park.
Veliki dio knjige posvećen je pripovijedanju humorističnih priča o znanstvenicima iza istraživanja i otkrića i njihovom ponekad ekscentričnom ponašanju. Bryson također iznosi moderne znanstvene poglede na ljudske učinke na klimu Zemlje i život drugih vrsta, te veličinu prirodnih katastrofa kao što su potresi, vulkani, cunamiji, uragani i masovna izumiranja uzrokovana nekim od tih događaja. Ilustrirano izdanje knjige objavljeno je u studenom 2005. godine. Postoji nekoliko izdanja u obliku audio-knjige, uključujući skraćenu verziju koju čita autor, te barem tri ne-skraćene verzije.
Ako ste zainteresirani za čitanje ove fascinantne knjige, možete je preuzeti u PDF formatu s jedne od sljedećih web stranica:
- [Kratka povijest gotovo svega - site-364088.mozfiles.com]: Ova web stranica nudi besplatno preuzimanje cijele knjige na hrvatskom jeziku. Knjiga ima 515 stranica i prevedena je od strane Milice Lukšić i Sanje Petrovečki.
- [Kratka povijest gotovo svega - Bill Bryson - Google Books]: Ova web stranica nudi pregled knjige na engleskom jeziku, kao i mogućnost kupnje ili posudbe e-knjige ili tiskane kopije. Knjiga ima 544 stranice i ilustrirana je od strane Neila Gowera.
- [Sapiens: Kratka Povijest čovječanstva [PDF] [6213igk170r0]]: Ova web stranica nudi besplatno preuzimanje druge popularne znanstvene knjige koja se bavi poviješću čovječanstva. Knjigu je napisao Yuval Noah Harari, a prevedena je na hrvatski jezik.
Nadam se da ćete uživati u čitanju ove knjige i da ćete naučiti nešto novo i zanimljivo o svijetu u kojem živimo.
U nastavku ovog članka, želim vam predstaviti neke od najzanimljivijih i najvažnijih tema koje Bryson pokriva u svojoj knjizi. Ove teme uključuju:
- Kako je nastao svemir i što znamo o njegovoj strukturi, povijesti i budućnosti.
- Kako je Zemlja postala pogodna za život i kako se razvila njena geologija, atmosfera i klima.
- Kako su se pojavili i razvili živi organizmi na Zemlji, od mikroba do biljaka i životinja, te kako su se prilagodili različitim uvjetima.
- Kako je nastala ljudska vrsta i kako je utjecala na okoliš i druge vrste, te kako je stvorila različite kulture, civilizacije i znanosti.
- Koje su neke od najvećih znanstvenih otkrića i izuma koji su promijenili naše razumijevanje svijeta i poboljšali naš život.
- Koji su neki od najvećih znanstvenih izazova i misterija koji još uvijek čekaju na rješenje ili objašnjenje.
Za svaku od ovih tema, Bryson nudi zanimljive anegdote, primjere i usporedbe koje ilustriraju složenost i ljepotu prirode. On također ističe koliko je malo zapravo znamo o mnogim aspektima svijeta u kojem živimo, te koliko smo ovisni o njegovoj stabilnosti i ravnoteži. On nas potiče da budemo znatiželjni, skromni i odgovorni prema našoj planeti i njenim stanovnicima.
Let me continue with the first topic: how the universe came into being and what we know about its structure, history and future.
The universe is the totality of everything that exists, including all matter, energy, space and time. It is estimated to be around 13.8 billion years old, based on the observation of the cosmic microwave background radiation, which is the remnant of the Big Bang. The Big Bang is the name given to the event that started the expansion of the universe from a very hot and dense state. The exact nature of this event is still unknown, but it is believed to have involved a rapid inflation of space and the creation of elementary particles and forces.
The universe is composed of various types of matter and energy, which interact through four fundamental forces: gravity, electromagnetism, strong nuclear force and weak nuclear force. Gravity is the weakest of these forces, but it is the most influential one at large scales, as it shapes the structure and evolution of galaxies, stars, planets and other celestial bodies. Electromagnetism is the force that governs the interactions of electrically charged particles, such as electrons and protons. It is responsible for phenomena such as light, magnetism and electricity. Strong nuclear force is the force that binds protons and neutrons together in atomic nuclei, overcoming their repulsion due to electromagnetism. It is also responsible for nuclear fusion, which powers stars and releases enormous amounts of energy. Weak nuclear force is the force that causes some types of radioactive decay, such as beta decay, in which a neutron turns into a proton and an electron.
The universe is structured into various levels of organization, from the smallest to the largest. The smallest units of matter are subatomic particles, such as quarks and leptons, which make up atoms. Atoms are the basic units of chemical elements, such as hydrogen and carbon, which form molecules. Molecules are the building blocks of matter in various states, such as solids, liquids and gases. Matter can also exist in other exotic states, such as plasma and Bose-Einstein condensate. Matter can also be classified into two types: ordinary matter, which makes up about 5% of the universe's mass-energy, and dark matter, which makes up about 27%. Dark matter is a mysterious type of matter that does not interact with light or other forms of electromagnetic radiation, but only with gravity. Its existence is inferred from its gravitational effects on ordinary matter, such as galaxies and clusters.
The largest units of organization in the universe are astronomical objects and systems, such as planets, stars, galaxies and clusters. Planets are spherical bodies that orbit stars or other massive objects. They can have various characteristics, such as size, mass, composition, atmosphere and climate. Stars are luminous spheres of plasma that generate energy by nuclear fusion in their cores. They can have different properties, such as color, temperature, brightness and lifespan. Galaxies are collections of billions or trillions of stars, bound together by gravity. They can have different shapes, such as spiral, elliptical or irregular. Clusters are groups of galaxies that form larger structures in the universe. The largest known structure in the universe is the observable universe, which is the portion of the universe that we can see from Earth with our current technology. It has a diameter of about 93 billion light-years.
The universe is dynamic and constantly changing over time. It has undergone several phases of evolution since its origin. Some of these phases are:
- The Planck epoch: This was the earliest phase of the universe's existence, lasting from 0 to 10^-43 seconds after the Big Bang. During this phase, the universe was extremely hot and dense, and all four fundamental forces were unified into one single force. Quantum fluctuations in this phase may have influenced the structure of the universe at later times.
- The inflationary epoch: This was a brief phase that occurred between 10^-36 and 10^-32 seconds after the Big Bang. During this phase, the universe underwent a rapid exponential expansion due to a hypothetical scalar field called inflaton. This phase solved some problems in cosmology, such as the horizon problem and the flatness problem.
- The electroweak epoch: This was a phase that lasted from 10^-32 to 10^-12 seconds after the Big Bang. During this phase, the strong nuclear force separated from the electroweak force (a combination of electromagnetism and weak nuclear force). This phase also involved a process called electroweak symmetry breaking, in which some particles acquired mass due to their interaction with another hypothetical field called Higgs field.
- The quark epoch: This was a phase that lasted from 10^-12 to 10^-6 seconds after the Big Bang. During this phase, the universe was filled with a hot and dense soup of quarks and gluons, the elementary particles that make up hadrons (such as protons and neutrons). The temperature was too high for quarks to form stable hadrons.
- The hadron epoch: This was a phase that lasted from 10^-6 to 10^-5 seconds after the Big Bang. During this phase, the temperature dropped enough for quarks to combine into hadrons. Most of the hadrons and anti-hadrons annihilated each other, leaving a small excess of matter over antimatter in the universe.
- The lepton epoch: This was a phase that lasted from 10^-5 to 1 second after the Big Bang. During this phase, the temperature dropped further, allowing leptons (such as electrons and neutrinos) and anti-leptons to form. Most of the leptons and anti-leptons also annihilated each other, leaving a small excess of electrons over positrons in the universe.
- The photon epoch: This was a phase that lasted from 1 second to 380,000 years after the Big Bang. During this phase, the universe was dominated by photons (particles of light) and neutrinos, which were in thermal equilibrium with matter. The photons were constantly scattered by free electrons, making the universe opaque to light.
- The recombination epoch: This was a phase that occurred around 380,000 years after the Big Bang. During this phase, the temperature dropped enough for electrons to combine with protons and form neutral hydrogen atoms. This reduced the scattering of photons, making the universe transparent to light. The photons that were released at this time form the cosmic microwave background radiation that we observe today.
- The dark ages: This was a period that lasted from about 380,000 to 150 million years after the Big Bang. During this period, the universe was mostly dark, as there were no stars or galaxies yet. The only sources of light were the cosmic microwave background radiation and some faint sources of infrared radiation from hydrogen atoms.
- The reionization epoch: This was a period that occurred between 150 million and 1 billion years after the Big Bang. During this period, the first stars and galaxies formed, emitting ultraviolet radiation that ionized (stripped electrons from) most of the hydrogen atoms in the intergalactic medium. This made the universe opaque to ultraviolet light again, but also created structures and patterns in the cosmic microwave background radiation that we can detect today.
- The star formation epoch: This was a period that lasted from about 1 billion to 10 billion years after the Big Bang. During this period, stars and galaxies continued to form and evolve, producing heavier elements through nuclear fusion and supernova explosions. Some of these elements were incorporated into planets and other celestial bodies. The rate of star formation peaked around 3 billion years after the Big Bang, and then declined gradually.
- The present epoch: This is the current phase of the universe's evolution, which started about 10 billion years after the Big Bang and continues until today. During this phase, the expansion of the universe has accelerated due to a mysterious form of energy called dark energy, which makes up about 68% of the universe's mass-energy. Dark energy is believed to be related to the cosmological constant, a term in Einstein's theory of general relativity that represents the energy density of empty space. The fate of the universe depends on the nature and behavior of dark energy, which are still unknown.
As you can see, the universe is a vast and complex system that has undergone many changes since its origin. We have learned a lot about its history and structure through observations and experiments, but there are still many mysteries and questions that remain unanswered. We can only hope that our curiosity and ingenuity will help us discover more about this amazing cosmos that we live in.
Let me continue with the second topic: how the Earth became suitable for life and how its geology, atmosphere and climate evolved.
The Earth is the third planet from the Sun and the only known planet in the universe that harbors life. It has a diameter of about 12,742 km and a mass of about 5.97 x 10^24 kg. It is composed of four main layers: the crust, the mantle, the outer core and the inner core. The crust is the outermost layer of the Earth, which ranges from 5 to 70 km in thickness. It is divided into two types: continental crust, which is thicker and less dense, and oceanic crust, which is thinner and more dense. The crust is also divided into several tectonic plates, which are constantly moving due to convection currents in the mantle. The mantle is the thickest layer of the Earth, which extends from the crust to about 2,900 km in depth. It is composed of hot and solid rock that can flow slowly under pressure. The outer core is the second innermost layer of the Earth, which extends from the mantle to about 5,100 km in depth. It is composed of liquid iron and nickel that generate a magnetic field around the Earth. The inner core is the innermost layer of the Earth, which extends from the outer core to about 6,400 km in depth. It is composed of solid iron and nickel that are under immense pressure and temperature.
The Earth formed about 4.54 billion years ago from a protoplanetary disk of dust and gas that surrounded the Sun. The early Earth was very different from the present-day Earth, as it was bombarded by asteroids and comets, had no atmosphere or oceans, and was very hot and molten. The first major event that shaped the Earth was the giant impact hypothesis, which proposes that a Mars-sized object called Theia collided with the Earth about 4.5 billion years ago, creating a large debris disk that coalesced into the Moon. This impact also tilted the Earth's axis by about 23.5 degrees, creating seasons, and increased its rotational speed to about six hours per day.
The second major event that shaped the Earth was the differentiation of its layers, which occurred as heavier elements sank to the center and lighter elements rose to the surface due to gravity and heat. This process also released a lot of heat, causing volcanic eruptions and outgassing of gases such as water vapor, carbon dioxide, nitrogen and methane into the atmosphere. These gases formed a thick and opaque atmosphere that trapped heat and created a greenhouse effect on the Earth. The third major event that shaped the Earth was the formation of its oceans, which occurred as water vapor in the atmosphere condensed and rained down on the surface due to cooling. The oceans covered most of the surface of the Earth by about 4 billion years ago, creating a hydrosphere that moderated the temperature and dissolved minerals from rocks.
The fourth major event that shaped the Earth was the origin of life, which is still a mystery and a subject of debate among scientists. One of the most widely accepted hypotheses is that life originated in hydrothermal vents on the ocean floor, where chemical reactions between water and minerals provided energy and organic molecules for simple cells to form. Another hypothesis is that life originated on land near volcanic hot springs, where UV radiation from the Sun provided energy for organic synthesis. A third hypothesis is that life originated in space and was delivered to Earth by meteorites or comets that contained organic compounds or microorganisms. The earliest evidence of life on Earth dates back to about 3.5 billion years ago, in the form of fossilized microorganisms called stromatolites.
The fifth major event that shaped the Earth was the evolution of life, which occurred through natural selection and genetic variation over billions of years. Life on Earth can be classified into three domains: Bacteria, Archaea and Eukarya. Bacteria and Archaea are prokaryotes, which are single-celled organisms that lack a nucleus and other membrane-bound organelles. Eukarya are eukaryotes, which are multicellular organisms that have a nucleus and other membrane-bound organelles. The first eukaryotes emerged about 2 billion years ago from endosymbiosis, a process in which one prokaryote engulfed another prokaryote and formed a symbiotic relationship. Some examples of endosymbionts are mitochondria (which provide energy) and chloroplasts (which perform photosynthesis).
The sixth major event that shaped the Earth was the oxygenation of its atmosphere, which occurred as a result of photosynthesis by cyanobacteria (a type of bacteria) and later by plants (a type of eukaryote). Photosynthesis is a process in which light energy is used to convert water and carbon dioxide into oxygen and glucose (a type of sugar). The oxygen produced by photosynthesis accumulated in the atmosphere and the oceans, creating an ozone layer that shielded the Earth from harmful UV radiation and allowed more complex life forms to evolve. The oxygenation of the atmosphere occurred in two phases: the Great Oxygenation Event, which took place between 2.4 and 2.1 billion years ago, and the Neoproterozoic Oxygenation Event, which took place between 800 and 540 million years ago.
The seventh major event that shaped the Earth was the diversification of life, which occurred in several bursts of speciation and extinction throughout its history. Speciation is the process in which new species arise from existing ones due to reproductive isolation and adaptation to different environments. Extinction is the process in which species die out due to environmental changes, competition, predation or other factors. Some of the most significant episodes of diversification and extinction are:
- The Cambrian Explosion, which occurred about 541 million years ago, in which most of the major animal phyla (such as chordates, arthropods and mollusks) appeared in a relatively short period of time.
- The Ordovician-Silurian Extinction, which occurred about 445 million years ago, in which about 85% of marine species went extinct due to a global cooling event that caused glaciation and sea level drop.
- The Devonian Extinction, which occurred about 375 million years ago, in which about 75% of marine species went extinct due to a series of events that reduced oxygen levels in the oceans and caused anoxia (lack of oxygen).
- The Carboniferous Period, which lasted from about 359 to 299 million years ago, in which plants (such as ferns, horsetails and seed plants) diversified and formed vast forests that produced coal deposits.
- The Permian-Triassic Extinction, which occurred about 252 million years ago, in which about 96% of marine species and 70% of terrestrial species went extinct due to a massive volcanic eruption that caused global warming, acid rain and ocean acidification.
- The Triassic-Jurassic Extinction, which occurred about 201 million years ago, in which about 80% of terrestrial species went extinct due to another volcanic eruption that caused climate change and habitat loss.
- The Jurassic Period, which lasted from about 201 to 145 million years ago, in which dinosaurs (a type of reptile) diversified and dominated the land, while pterosaurs (another type of reptile) flew in the sky and marine reptiles (such as ichthyosaurs and plesiosaurs) swam in the oceans.
- The Cretaceous-Paleogene Extinction, which occurred about 66 million years ago, in which about 75% of all species went extinct due to an asteroid impact that caused a global firestorm, dust cloud and impact winter.
- The Cenozoic Era, which started from about 66 million years ago and continues until today, in which mammals (a type of vertebrate) diversified and became the dominant land animals, while birds (a type of dinosaur) diversified and became the dominant flying animals. The Cenozoic Era is divided into three periods: the Paleogene, the Neogene and the Quaternary.
- The Paleogene Period, which lasted from about 66 to 23 million years ago, in which primates (a type of mammal) evolved and gave rise to hominoids (a group that includes humans and apes).
- The Neogene Period, which lasted from about 23 to 2.6 million years ago, in which hominins (a group that includes humans and their ancestors) diverged from other hominoids and developed bipedalism (walking on two legs), tool use and language.
- The Quaternary Period, which started from about 2.6 million years ago and continues until today, in which humans (a species of hominin) evolved and spread across the world, creating civilizations, cultures and technologies.
As you can see, the Earth is a dynamic and diverse planet that has experienced many changes since its formation. We have learned a lot about its geology, atmosphere and climate through observations and experiments, but there are still many mysteries and questions that remain unanswered. We can only hope that our curiosity and ingenuity will help us discover more about this amazing planet that we live on.
Let me continue with the third topic: how living organisms appeared and evolved on Earth and how they adapted to different conditions.
Living organisms are entities that can perform vital functions such as growth, reproduction, metabolism and response to stimuli. They can be classified into various levels of organization, from the simplest to the most complex. The simplest units of life are cells, which are the basic structural and functional units of all living things. Cells can be divided into two types: prokaryotic cells, which lack a nucleus and other membrane-bound organelles, and eukaryotic cells, which have a nucleus and other membrane-bound organelles. Cells can also be grouped into two types: unicellular organisms, which consist of a single cell, and multicellular organisms, which consist of many cells that cooperate and specialize. The most complex units of life are organisms, which are individual living entities that can have various characteristics, such as shape, size, behavior and lifespan. Organisms can also be grouped into two types: asexual organisms, which reproduce by producing identical copies of themselves, and sexual organisms, which reproduce by combining genetic material from two parents.
The origin of life on Earth is still a mystery and a subject of debate among scientists. One of the most widely accepted hypotheses is that life originated in hydrothermal vents on the ocean floor, where chemical reactions between water and minerals provided energy and organic molecules for simple cells to form. Another hypothesis is that life originated on land near volcanic hot springs, where UV radiation from the Sun provided energy for organic synthesis. A third hypothesis is that life originated in space and was delivered to Earth by meteorites or comets that contained organic compounds or microorganisms. The earliest evidence of life on Earth dates back to about 3.5 billion years ago, in the form of fossilized microorganisms called stromatolites.
The evolution of life on Earth occurred through natural selection and genetic variation over billions of years. Natural selection is the process in which organisms that are better adapted to their environment survive and reproduce more than those that are less adapted. Genetic variation is the process in which organisms inherit different traits from their parents due to mutations (changes in DNA) or recombination (mixing of DNA). These processes result in changes in the frequency of traits in a population over time, leading to the emergence of new species or subspecies. The evolution of life on Earth can be traced by using various methods, such as fossils (preserved remains or impressions of organisms), molecular biology (analysis of DNA and proteins), comparative anatomy (comparison of body structures), embryology (study of development stages) and biogeography (study of distribution patterns).
The evolution of life on Earth can be divided into several major events or milestones, such as:
- - The origin of eukaryotes: This was the second event in the evolution of life, which occurred about 2 billion years ago. Eukaryotes are complex cells that have a nucleus and other membrane-bound organelles. They can perform more advanced functions than prokaryotes, such as endocytosis (taking in materials from outside the cell), exocytosis (releasing materials from inside the cell) and mitosis (dividing the cell into two identical daughter cells). Eukaryotes emerged from endosymbiosis, a process in which one prokaryote engulfed another prokaryote and formed a symbiotic relationship. Some examples of endosymbionts are mitochondria (which provide energy) and chloroplasts (which perform photosynthesis). Eukaryotes belong to one domain: Eukarya.
- - The origin of multicellularity: This was the third event in the evolution of life, which occurred about 1.5 billion years ago. Multicellularity is the state in which cells form groups or colonies that cooperate and specialize. Multicellularity allows for greater complexity and diversity than unicellularity, as different cell types can perform different functions and form different structures. Multicellularity evolved independently in several lineages of eukaryotes, such as algae (a type of plant), fungi (a type of decomposer) and animals (a type of consumer).
- - The origin of sexual reproduction: This was the fourth event in the evolution of life, which occurred about 1.2 billion years ago. Sexual reproduction is the process in which two cells (gametes) fuse to form a new cell (zygote) that inherits genetic material from both parents. Sexual reproduction increases genetic variation and allows for faster adaptation than asexual reproduction, as new combinations of traits can arise and be selected for. Sexual reproduction evolved independently in several lineages of eukaryotes, such as plants, fungi and animals.
- - The origin of animals: This was the fifth event in the evolution of life, which occurred about 800 million years ago. Animals are multicellular eukaryotes that ingest other organisms or organic matter for nutrition. They can have various characteristics, such as symmetry (balance of body parts), segmentation (division of body into sections), cephalization (concentration of sensory organs and nervous system at the front end), appendages (limbs or other projections) and skeleton (internal or external support structure). Animals can be classified into several phyla (major groups), such as sponges, cnidarians, flatworms, roundworms, annelids, mollusks, arthropods, echinoderms and chordates.
- - The origin of vertebrates: This was the sixth event in the evolution of life, which occurred about 500 million years ago. Vertebrates are animals that have a backbone or spinal column that supports the body and protects the nerve cord. They can have various characteristics, such as jaws (bones that allow biting and chewing), limbs (fins or legs that allow movement), lungs (organs that allow breathing air), scales (plates that cover the skin), feathers (structures that cover the skin and allow flight) and hair (structures that cover the skin and provide insulation). Vertebrates belong to one phylum: Chordata.
- - The origin of tetrapods: This was the seventh event in the evolution of life, which occurred about 370 million years ago. Tetrapods are vertebrates that have four limbs with digits (fingers or toes) that allow them to walk on land. They can have various characteristics, such as amniotic eggs (eggs that have a protective membrane and shell that prevent dehydration), endothermy (ability to maintain a constant body temperature) and lactation (production of milk to feed offspring). Tetrapods can be classified into several classes (subgroups), such as amphibians, reptiles, birds and mammals.
- - The origin of mammals: This was the eighth event in the evolution of life, which occurred about 200 million years ago. Mammals are tetrapods that have hair, mammary glands and a four-chambered heart. They can have various character