Knoll Radiation Detection And Measurement Solutions Pdf
Paz Warsager
Over the decade that has passed since the publication of the 3rd edition, technical developments continue to enhance the instruments and techniques available for the detection and spectroscopy of ionizing radiation. The Fourth Edition of this invaluable resource incorporates the latest developments and cutting-edge technologies to make this the most up-to-date guide to the field available:
GLENN FREDERICK KNOLL is Professor of Nuclear Engineering and Radiological Sciences in the College of Engineering at the University of Michigan. Following his undergraduate education at Case Institute of Technology, he earned a Master's degree from Stanford University and a doctorate in Nuclear Engineering from the University of Michigan. During his graduate work, he held national fellowships from the Atomic Energy Commission and the National Science Foundation.
He joined the Michigan faculty in 1962, and served as Chairman of the Department of Nuclear Engineering from 1979 to 1990 and as Interim Dean of the College of Engineering from 1995-96. He held appointments as Visiting Scientist at the Nuclear Research Center in Karlsruhe, Germany and as Senior Fellow in the Department of Physics at the University of Surrey, U.K. His research interest have centered on radiation measurements, nuclear instrumentation, and radiation imaging. He is author or co-author of over 140 technical publications, 8 patents, and 2 textbooks.
He has been elected a Fellow of the American Institute for Medical and Biological Engineering, the American Nuclear Society, and the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers. He has been selected to receive three national awards given annually to a single recipient for achievements in engineering and education: the 1979 Glenn Murphy Award from the American Society for Engineering Education, the 1991 Arthur Holly Compton Award of the American Nuclear Society, and the 1996 Merit Award of the IEEE/Nuclear and Plasma Sciences Society. He is one of five receiving editors of Nuclear Instruments and Methods in Physics Research, Part A, and a past or present member of the Editorial Boards for Nuclear Science and Engineering, IEEE Transaction on Medical Imaging, and Physica Medica. In 1999, he was elected to membership in the National Academy of Engineering. He has served as consultant to 25 industrial and government organizations in technical areas related to radiation measurements, and is a Registered Professional Engineer in the State of Michigan.
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Feature papers represent the most advanced research with significant potential for high impact in the field. A Feature Paper should be a substantial original Article that involves several techniques or approaches, provides an outlook for future research directions and describes possible research applications.
Abstract: In the last decade, the development of more compact and lightweight radiation detection systems led to their application in handheld and small unmanned systems, particularly air-based platforms. Examples of improvements are: the use of silicon photomultiplier-based scintillators, new scintillating crystals, compact dual-mode detectors (gamma/neutron), data fusion, mobile sensor networks, cooperative detection and search. Gamma cameras and dual-particle cameras are increasingly being used for source location. This study reviews and discusses the research advancements in the field of gamma-ray and neutron measurements using mobile radiation detection systems since the Fukushima nuclear accident. Four scenarios are considered: radiological and nuclear accidents and emergencies; illicit traffic of special nuclear materials and radioactive materials; nuclear, accelerator, targets, and irradiation facilities; and naturally occurring radioactive materials monitoring-related activities. The work presented in this paper aims to: compile and review information on the radiation detection systems, contextual sensors and platforms used for each scenario; assess their advantages and limitations, looking prospectively to new research and challenges in the field; and support the decision making of national radioprotection agencies and response teams in respect to adequate detection system for each scenario. For that, an extensive literature review was conducted. Keywords: mobile radiation detection systems; NORM; radiological emergencies; nuclear accidents; illicit trafficking; accelerators; targets and irradiation facilities; gamma and neutron detectors
Small parts, big effect! The "heart" of the XRF device, the X-ray generator, consists of a standard or microfocus tube with a tungsten, rhodium, molybdenum or chromium anode. The material of the X-ray tube determines the energy spectrum of the primary X-ray radiation used to excite the sample. For a wide range of applications, a tungsten anode is ideal because it produces a versatile and intensely useful spectrum. In some areas of the electronics and semiconductor industries, anodes made of molybdenum, chromium or rhodium are used.
Only what is important gets through: On its way from the anode to the sample, the primary X-ray radiation passes through a filter. Filter materials such as thin foils made of nickel or aluminum absorb part of the X-rays and thus reduce the background noise in relevant energy ranges. This results in higher sensitivity to weak signals from materials that are present in low concentrations. For example, aluminum filters help to detect lead in particularly low concentrations.
The aperture, also called collimator, is located between the X-ray tube and the sample. It limits the cross-section of the primary radiation and serves to define the measuring spot on the sample during X-ray fluorescence analysis (XRF). If you use small apertures, only a small amount of primary radiation will reach your sample, resulting in a weak fluorescence signal. To compensate for this, you have to measure for a correspondingly longer time.
Another component of the XRF analyzer is the detector, which detects the fluorescence radiation and measures it highly precisely. The measured data is then processed by our analysis software. Depending on the detector type, various measuring tasks are possible.
The proportional counter tube (PC) is a proven detector that has a very large active detector area with a slightly curved window. This allows high counting rates to be achieved and measurements can be made at a distance of 0 - 80 mm. The PC is particularly suitable for coating thickness measurements in the range of 1 - 30 m and small measuring spots. In addition, the proportional counter tube has drift compensation developed by us, which gives it unique stability.
For more sophisticated coating thickness measurements and material analysis, the application of silicon PIN diode detectors is ideal. These semiconductor detectors offer higher energy resolution and are thus ideal for the analysis of more complex materials.
Higher performance XRF spectrometers use the silicon drift detector (SDD), our most powerful detector. With its particularly good energy resolution and high detection sensitivity, it offers the best performance and can detect even very low concentrations of elements in your sample. It also enables precise measuring of coatings in the nanometer range and reliable evaluation of complex multilayer tasks.
Control distances easily only with us: Our Distance Controlled Measurement (DCM) method offers distance-based measurement correction and a flexible measuring distance that can be continuously adjusted. Only one calibration is required for the entire measuring range, and our method enables simple measuring of complex geometry shapes and depressions without risk of collision with the measuring head.
The "heart" of our inline XRF measuring device FISCHERSCOPE XAN LIQUID ANALYZER is the X-ray generator. It consists of a microfocus tube with tungsten anode and beryllium window. The material of the X-ray tube determines the energy spectrum of the primary X-ray radiation used to excite the sample. For a wide range of applications, a tungsten anode is ideal because it produces a versatile and intensively usable spectrum.
If air bubbles are present in the analysis area, deviations in the measuring results may occur. Electroplating baths are used for electrochemical reactions in which metal ions are deposited from the solution. If air bubbles are present, metal ions can be deposited on their surface, which can lead to falsification of the analysis results. The concentration of certain metal ions in the bath is underestimated.
Air bubbles can also interfere with the flow of liquid in the bath, especially if they are located in the piping or near inlet and outlet ports. This can lead to an uneven distribution of chemicals in the bath and affect the homogeneity of the solution and falsify the analysis values.
Deposits can occur in the measuring cell, which is why regular cleaning is necessary. Through fully automatic, preventive calibration, flushing and monitoring processes, we offer a solution for contamination and ensure maximum technical availability.
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