Buddhist Art on Wikipedia - Indian Origins and Subsequent Spread
Nagarjuna N
Buddhist art originated on the Indian subcontinent following the
historical life of Gautama Buddha, 6th to 5th century BCE, and
thereafter evolved by contact with other cultures as it spread
throughout Asia and the world.
Early Buddhist art, followed the Indian aniconic tradition which
avoids direct representation of the human figure. Around the 1st
century CE an iconic period emerged lasting to this day which
represents the Buddha in human form.
Buddhist art followed believers as the dharma spread, adapted, and
evolved in each new host country. It developed to the north through
Central Asia and into Eastern Asia to form the Northern branch of
Buddhist art, and to the east as far as Southeast Asia to form the
Southern branch of Buddhist art. In India, Buddhist art flourished and
even influenced the development of Hindu art, until Buddhism nearly
disappeared in India around the 10th century due in part to the
vigorous expansion of Islam alongside Hinduism.
Aniconic phase (5th century - 1st century BCE) :
During the 2nd to 1st century BCE, sculptures became more explicit,
representing episodes of the Buddha’s life and teachings. These took
the form of votive tablets or friezes, usually in relation to the
decoration of stupas. Although India had a long sculptural tradition
and a mastery of rich iconography, the Buddha was never represented in
human form, but only through some of his symbols.
This reluctance towards anthropomorphic representations of the Buddha,
and the sophisticated development of aniconic symbols to avoid it
(even in narrative scene where other human figures would appear),
seems to be connected to one of the Buddha’s sayings, reported in the
Dighanikaya, that disfavored representations of himself after the
extinction of his body. This tendency remained as late as the 2nd
century CE in the southern parts of India, in the art of the Amaravati
school (see: Mara's assault on the Buddha). It has been argued that
earlier anthropomorphic representations of the Buddha may have been
made of wood and may have perished since then. However, no related
archaeological evidence has been found.
Iconic phase (1st century CE – present) :
Greco-Buddhist head of Buddha, stucco, Hadda Afghanistan, 1st-2nd
century CE.Anthropomorphic representations of the Buddha started to
emerge from the 1st century CE in northern India. The two main centers
of creation have been identified as Gandhara in today’s Punjab, in
Pakistan, and the region of Mathura, in central northern India.
The art of Gandhara benefited from centuries of interaction with Greek
culture since the conquests of Alexander the Great in 332 BCE and the
subsequent establishment of the Greco-Bactrian and Indo-Greek
Kingdoms, leading to the development of Greco-Buddhist art. Gandharan
Buddhist sculpture displays Greek artistic influence, and it has been
suggested that the concept of the “man-god” was essentially inspired
by Greek mythological culture. Artistically, the Gandharan school of
sculpture is said to have contributed wavy hair, drapery covering both
shoulders, shoes and sandals, acanthus leaf decorations, etc.
The art of Mathura tends to be based on a strong Indian tradition,
exemplified by the anthropomorphic representation of divinities such
as the Yaksas, although in a style rather archaic compared to the
later representations of the Buddha. The Mathuran school contributed
clothes covering the left shoulder of thin muslin, the wheel on the
palm, the lotus seat, etc.
Mathura and Gandhara also strongly influenced each other. During their
artistic florescence, the two regions were even united politically
under the Kushans, both being capitals of the empire. It is still a
matter of debate whether the anthropomorphic representations of Buddha
was essentially a result of a local evolution of Buddhist art at
Mathura, or a consequence of Greek cultural influence in Gandhara
through the Greco-Buddhist syncretism.
Representation of the Buddha in the Greco-Buddhist art of Gandhara,
1st century CE.This iconic art was characterized from the start by a
realistic idealism, combining realistic human features, proportions,
attitudes and attributes, together with a sense of perfection and
serenity reaching to the divine. This expression of the Buddha as a
both a man and a god became the iconographic canon for subsequent
Buddhist art.
Buddhist art continued to develop in India for a few more centuries.
The pink sandstone sculptures of Mathura evolved during the Gupta
period (4th to 6th century) to reach a very high fineness of execution
and delicacy in the modeling. The art of the Gupta school was
extremely influential almost everywhere in the rest of Asia. By the
10th century, Buddhist art creation was dying out in India, as
Hinduism and Islam ultimately prevailed.
As Buddhism expanded outside of India from the 1st century CE, its
original artistic package blended with other artistic influences,
leading to a progressive differentiation among the countries adopting
the faith.
A Northern route was established from the 1st century CE through
Central Asia, Tibet, China, Korea, and Japan, in which Mahayana
Buddhism prevailed.
A Southern route, where Theravada Buddhism dominated, went through
Myanmar, Thailand, Cambodia, and Vietnam.
Northern Buddhist art :
The Silk Road transmission of Buddhism to Central Asia, China and
ultimately Korea and Japan started in the 1st century CE with a semi-
legendary account of an embassy sent to the West by the Chinese
Emperor Ming (58-75 CE). However, extensive contacts started in the
2nd century CE, probably as a consequence of the expansion of the
Kushan Empire into the Chinese territory of the Tarim Basin, with the
missionary efforts of a great number of Central Asian Buddhist monks
to Chinese lands. The first missionaries and translators of Buddhists
scriptures into Chinese, such as Lokaksema, were either Parthian,
Kushan, Sogdian or Kuchean.
Central Asian missionary efforts along the Silk Road were accompanied
by a flux of artistic influences, visible in the development of
Serindian art from the 2nd through the 11th century CE in the Tarim
Basin, modern Xinjiang. Serindian art often derives from the Greco-
Buddhist art of the Gandhara district of what is now Pakistan,
combining Indian, Greek and Roman influences. Silk Road Greco-Buddhist
artistic influences can be found as far as Japan to this day, in
architectural motifs, Buddhist imagery, and a select few
representations of Japanese gods.
The art of the northern route was also highly influenced by the
development of Mahayana Buddhism, an inclusive faith characterized by
the adoption of new texts, in addition to the traditional Pali canon,
and a shift in the understanding of Buddhism. Mahayana goes beyond the
traditional Theravada ideal of the release from suffering (dukkha) and
personal enlightenment of the arhats, to elevate the Buddha to a God-
like status, and to create a pantheon of quasi-divine Bodhisattvas
devoting themselves to personal excellence, ultimate knowledge and the
salvation of humanity. Northern Buddhist art thus tends to be
characterized by a very rich and syncretic Buddhist pantheon, with a
multitude of images of the various Buddhas, Bodhisattvas and lesser
deities.
Afghanistan :
Statue from a Buddhist monastery, 700 CE, AfghanistanBuddhist art in
Afghanistan (old Bactria) persisted for several centuries until the
spread of Islam in the 7th century. It is exemplified by the Buddhas
of Bamyan. Other sculptures, in stucco, schist or clay, display very
strong blending of Indian post-Gupta mannerism and Classical
influence, Hellenistic or possibly even Greco-Roman.
Although Islamic rule was rather tolerant of other religions “of the
Book”, it showed little tolerance for Buddhism, which was perceived as
a religion depending on idolatry. Human figurative art forms also
being prohibited under Islam, Buddhist art suffered numerous attacks,
which culminated with the systematic destructions by the Taliban
regime. The Buddhas of Bamyan, the sculptures of Hadda, and many of
the remaining artifacts at the Afghanistan museum have been destroyed.
The multiple conflicts since the 1980s also have led to a systematic
pillage of archaeological sites apparently in the hope of reselling in
the international market what artifacts could be found.
Central Asia :
Central Asia long played the role of a meeting place between China,
India and Persia. During the 2nd century BCE, the expansion of the
Former Han to the West led to increased contact with the Hellenistic
civilizations of Asia, especially the Greco-Bactrian Kingdom.
Serindian art, 6th-7th century terracotta, Tumshuq
(Xinjiang).Thereafter, the expansion of Buddhism to the North led to
the formation of Buddhist communities and even Buddhist kingdoms in
the oases of Central Asia. Some Silk Road cities consisted almost
entirely of Buddhist stupas and monasteries, and it seems that one of
their main objectives was to welcome and service travelers between
East and West.
The eastern part of central Asia (Chinese Turkestan (Tarim Basin,
Xinjiang) in particular have revealed an extremely rich Serindian art
(wall paintings and reliefs in numerous caves, portable paintings on
canvas, sculpture, ritual objects), displaying multiple influences
from Indian and Hellenistic cultures. Works of art reminiscent of the
Gandharan style, as well as scriptures in the Gandhari script
Kharoshti have been found. These influences were rapidly absorbed
however by the vigorous Chinese culture, and a strongly Chinese
particularism develops from that point.
See also: Dunhuang, Mogao Caves, Kingdom of Khotan, Silk Road, Silk
Road transmission of Buddhism
China :
One of the first known Chinese Buddha sculptures, found in a late Han
dynasty burial in Sichuan province. Circa 200 CE. The hair, the
moustache, the robe indicate heavy influence of Gandharan
styles.Buddhism arrived in China around the 1st century CE, and
introduced new types of art into China, particularly in the area of
statuary. Receiving this distant religion, strong Chinese traits were
incorporated into Buddhist art.
Northern Dynasties :
Northern Wei Buddha Maitreya, 443 CE.In the 5th to 6th centuries, the
Northern Dynasties, developed rather symbolic and abstract modes of
representation, with schematic lines. Their style is also said to be
solemn and majestic. The lack of corporeality of this art, and its
distance from the original Buddhist objective of expressing the pure
ideal of enlightenment in an accessible and realistic manner,
progressively led to a change towards more naturalism and realism,
leading to the expression of Tang Buddhist art.
Sites preserving Northern Wei Dynasty Buddhist sculpture:
Longmen Grottoes, Henan
Bingling Temple, Gansu
Tang Dynasty :
Following a transition under the Sui Dynasty, Buddhist sculpture of
the Tang evolved towards a markedly life-like expression. Because of
the dynasty’s openness to foreign influences, and renewed exchanges
with Indian culture due to the numerous travels of Chinese Buddhist
monks to India, Tang dynasty Buddhist sculpture assumed a rather
classical form, inspired by the Indian art of the Gupta period. During
that time, the Tang capital of Chang'an (today's Xi'an) became an
important center for Buddhism. From there Buddhism spread to Korea,
and Japanese embassies of Kentoshi helped it gain a foothold in Japan.
Tang Bodhisattva.However, foreign influences came to be negatively
perceived in China towards the end of the Tang dynasty. In the year
845, the Tang emperor Wuzong outlawed all “foreign” religions
(including Christian Nestorianism, Zoroastrianism and Buddhism) in
order to support the indigenous religion, Taoism. He confiscated
Buddhist possessions, and forced the faith to go underground,
therefore affecting the development of the religion and its arts in
China.
Chan Buddhism however, at the origin of Japanese Zen, continued to
prosper for some centuries, especially under the Song Dynasty
(1127-1279), when Chan monasteries were great centers of culture and
learning.
Lin Tinggui, Luohan Laundering, 1178 AD, from the Song Dynasty of
China; now housed in the Freer Gallery of Art, Washington D.C.The
popularization of Buddhism in China has made the country home to one
of the richest collections of Buddhist arts in the world. The Mogao
Caves near Dunhuang and the Bingling Temple caves near Yongjing in
Gansu province, the Longmen Grottoes near Luoyang in Henan province,
the Yungang Grottoes near Datong in Shanxi province, and the Dazu Rock
Carvings near Chongqing municipality are among the most important and
renowned Buddhist sculptural sites. The Leshan Giant Buddha, carved
out of a hillside in the 8th century during the Tang Dynasty and
looking down on the confluence of three rivers, is still the largest
stone Buddha statue in the world.
See also: Buddhism in China, Longmen Grottoes, Mogao Caves, Yungang
Grottoes, Henan, Tang Dynasty art, Bingling Temple.
Korea :
Korean Buddhist art generally reflects an interaction between Chinese
Buddhist influence and a strongly original Korean culture.
Additionally, the art of the steppes, particularly Siberian and
Scythian influences, are evident in early Korean Buddhist art based on
the excavation of artifacts and burial goods such as Silla royal
crowns, belt buckles, daggers, and comma-shaped gogok.[1][2] The style
of this indigenous art was geometric, abstract and richly adorned with
a characteristic “barbarian” luxury. Although Chinese influence was
strong, Korean Buddhist art "bespeaks a sobriety, taste for the right
tone, a sense of abstraction but also of colours that curiously enough
are in line with contemporary taste" (Pierre Cambon, Arts asiatiques-
Guimet').
Three Kingdoms of Korea :
Bangasayusang, semi-seated contemplative Maitreya probably from Silla
circa early 7th century.The first of the Three Kingdoms of Korea to
officially receive Buddhism was Goguryeo in 372.[3] However, Chinese
records and the use of Buddhist motifs in Goguryeo murals indicate the
introduction of Buddhism earlier than the official date.[4] The Baekje
Kingdom officially recognized Buddhism in 384.[5] The Silla Kingdom,
isolated and with no easy sea or land access to China, officially
adopted Buddhism in 535 although the foreign religion was known in the
kingdom due to the work of Goguryeo monks since the early fifth
century.[6][7] The introduction of Buddhism stimulated the need for
artisans to create images for veneration, architects for temples, and
the literate for the Buddhist sutras and transformed Korean
civilization. Particularly important in the transmission of
sophisticated art styles to the Korean kingdoms was the art of the
"barbarian" Tuoba, a clan of non-Han Chinese Xianbei people who
established the Northern Wei Dynasty in China in 386. The Northern Wei
style was particularly influential in the art of the Goguryeo and
Baekje. Baekje artisans later transmitted this style along with
Southern Dynasty elements and distinct Korean elements to Japan.
Korean artisans were highly selective of the styles they incorporated
and combined different regional styles together to create a specific
Korean Buddhist art style.
Seokguram Grotto is a World Heritage Site and dates to the Unified
Silla era.While Goguryeo Buddhist art exhibited vitality and mobility
akin with Northern Wei prototypes, the Baekje Kingdom was also in
close contact with the Southern Dynasties of China and this close
diplomatic contact is exemplified in the gentle and proportional
sculpture of the Baekje, epitomized by Baekje sculpture exhibiting the
fathomless smile known to art historians as the Baekje smile. [1]. The
Silla Kingdom also developed a distinctive Buddhist art tradition
epitomized by the Bangasayusang, a half-seated contemplative maitreya
whose Korean-made twin, the Miroku Bosatsu, was sent to Japan as a
proselytizing gift and now resides in the Koryu-ji Temple in Japan.
[2]. Buddhism in the Three Kingdoms period stimulated massive temple-
building projects, such as the Mireuksa Temple in the Baekje Kingdom
and the Hwangnyongsa Temple in Silla. Baekje architects were famed for
their skill and were instrumental in building the massive nine-story
pagoda at Hwangnyongsa and early Buddhist temples in Yamato Japan such
as Hoko-ji (Asuka-dera) and Hōryū-ji. [3]. [4]. [5]. Sixth century
Korean Buddhist art exhibited the cultural influences of China and
India but began to show distinctive indigenous characteristics. [6].
These indigenous characteristics can be seen in early Buddhist art in
Japan and some early Japanese Buddhist sculpture is now believed to
have originated in Korea, particularly from Baekje, or Korean artisans
who immigrated to Yamato Japan. [7]. Particularly, the semi-seated
Maitreya form was adapted into a highly developed Korean style which
was transmitted to Japan as evidenced by the Koryu-ji Miroku Bosatsu
and the Chugu-ji Siddhartha statues. Although many historians portray
Korea as a mere transmitter of Buddhism, the Three Kingdoms, and
particularly Baekje, were instrumental as active agents in the
introduction and formation of a Buddhist tradition in Japan in 538 or
552. [8].
Unified Silla :
The Goryeo era Gyeongcheonsa Pagoda sits on the first floor of the
National Museum of Korea.During the Unified Silla period, East Asia
was particularly stable with China and Korea both enjoying unified
governments. Early Unified Silla art combined Silla styles and Baekje
styles. Korean Buddhist art was also influenced by new Tang Dynasty
styles as evidenced by a new popular Buddhist motif with full-faced
Buddha sculptures. Tang China was the cross roads of East, Central,
and South Asia and so the Buddhist art of this time period exhibit the
so-called international style. State-sponsored Buddhist art flourished
during this period, the epitome of which is the Seokguram Grotto.
Goryeo Dynasty :
The fall of the Unified Silla Dynasty and the establishment of the
Goryeo Dynasty in 918 indicates a new period of Korean Buddhist art.
The Goryeo kings also lavishly sponsored Buddhism and Buddhist art
flourished, especially Buddhist paintings and illuminated sutras
written in gold and silver ink. [9]. The crowning achievement of this
period is the carving of approximately 80,000 woodblocks of the
Tripitaka Koreana which was done twice.
Joseon Dynasty
The Joseon Dynasty actively suppressed Buddhism beginning in 1406 and
Buddhist temples and art production subsequently decline in quality in
quantity although beginning in 1549, Buddhist art does continue to be
produced.
See also: Buddhism in Korea, Bangasayusang, Geumdong Mireuk Bosal
Bangasang, Seokguram, Hwangnyongsa, Mireuksa, Gyeongcheonsa Pagoda,
Tripitaka Koreana
Japan :
The Big Buddha in Kamakura (1252)Before the introduction of Buddhism,
Japan had already been the seat of various cultural (and artistic)
influences, from the abstract linear decorative art of the indigenous
Neolithic Jomon from around 10500 BCE to 300 BCE, to the art during
the Yayoi and Kofun periods, with developments such as Haniwa art.
Japan, the largest Buddhist country today, discovered Buddhism in the
6th century when monks traveled to the islands together with numerous
scriptures and works of art. The Buddhist religion was adopted by the
state in the following century. Being geographically at the end of the
Silk Road, Japan was able to preserve many aspects of Buddhism at the
very time it was disappearing in India, and being suppressed in
Central Asia and China.
Scroll calligraphy of Bodhidharma “Zen points directly to the human
heart, see into your nature and become Buddha”, by Hakuin Ekaku (1686
to 1769)From 710, numerous temples and monasteries were built in the
capital city of Nara, including a five-story pagoda, the Golden Hall
of the Horyuji, and the Kōfuku-ji temple. Countless paintings and
sculpture were made, often under governmental sponsorship. Indian,
Hellenistic, Chinese and Korean artistic influences blended into an
original style characterized by realism and gracefulness. The creation
of Japanese Buddhist art was especially rich between the 8th and 13th
centuries during the periods of Nara, Heian and Kamakura. Japan
developed an extremely rich figurative art for the pantheon of
Buddhist deities, sometimes combined with Hindu and Shinto influences.
This art can be very varied, creative and bold.
>From the 12th and 13th, a further development was Zen art, following
the introduction of the faith by Dogen and Eisai upon their return
from China. Zen art is mainly characterized by original paintings
(such as sumi-e) and poetry (especially haikus), striving to express
the true essence of the world through impressionistic and unadorned
“non-dualistic” representations. The search for enlightenment “in the
moment” also led to the development of other important derivative arts
such as the Chanoyu tea ceremony or the Ikebana art of flower
arrangement. This evolution went as far as considering almost any
human activity as an art with a strong spiritual and aesthetic
content, first and foremost in those activities related to combat
techniques (martial arts).
Buddhism remains very active in Japan to this day. Still around 80,000
Buddhist temples are preserved. Many of them are in wood and are
regularly restored.
See also: Japanese Art, Zen, Portable shrine
Tibet and Bhutan :
Yama (mid-17th?early 18th century, Tibet)Tantric Buddhism started as a
movement in eastern India around the 5th or the 6th century. Many of
the practices of Tantric Buddhism are derived from Brahmanism (the
usage of mantras, yoga, or the burning of sacrificial offerings).
Tantrism became the dominant form of Buddhism in Tibet from the 8th
century. Due to its geographical centrality in Asia, Tibetan Buddhist
art received influence from Indian, Nepali, Greco-Buddhist and Chinese
art.
One of the most characteristic creations of Tibetan Buddhist art are
the mandalas, diagrams of a “divine temple” made of a circle enclosing
a square, the purpose of which is to help Buddhist worshipers focus
their attention through meditation and follow the path to the central
image of the Buddha. Artistically, Buddhist Gupta art and Hindu art
tend to be the two strongest inspirations of Tibetan art.
See also: Tibetan art, Buddha Dordenma statue
Vietnam :
Chinese influence was predominant in the north of Vietnam (Tonkin)
between the 1st and 9th centuries, and Confucianism and Mahayana
Buddhism were prevalent. Overall, the art of Vietnam has been strongly
influenced by Chinese Buddhist art.
In the south, the kingdom of Champa has a strongly Indianized art,
just as neighboring Cambodia. Many of its statues were characterized
by rich body adornments. The capital of the kingdom of Champa was
annexed by Vietnam in 1471, and it totally collapsed in the 1720s.
Southern Buddhist art :
During the 1st century CE, the trade on the overland Silk Road tended
to be restricted by the rise of the Parthian empire in the Middle
East, an unvanquished enemy of Rome, just as Romans were becoming
extremely wealthy and their demand for Asian luxury was rising. This
demand revived the sea connections between the Mediterranean Sea and
China, with India as the intermediary of choice. From that time,
through trade connections, commercial settlements, and even political
interventions, India started to strongly influence Southeast Asian
countries. Trade routes linked India with southern Burma, central and
southern Siam, lower Cambodia and southern Vietnam, and numerous
urbanized coastal settlements were established there.
A Cambodian Buddha, 14th centuryFor more than a thousand years, Indian
influence was therefore the major factor that brought a certain level
of cultural unity to the various countries of the region. The Pali and
Sanskrit languages and the Indian script, together with Mahayana and
Theravada Buddhism, Brahmanism and Hinduism, were transmitted from
direct contact and through sacred texts and Indian literature such as
the Ramayana and the Mahabharata. This expansion provided the artistic
context for the development of Buddhist art in these countries, which
then developed characteristics of their own.
Between the 1st and 8th centuries, several kingdoms competed for
influence in the region (particularly the Cambodian Funan then the
Burmese Mon kingdoms) contributing various artistic characteristics,
mainly derived from the Indian Gupta style. Combined with a pervading
Hindu influence, Buddhist images, votive tablets and Sanskrit
inscriptions are found throughout the area.
>From the 9th to the 13th centuries, Southeast Asia had very powerful
empires and became extremely active in Buddhist architectural and
artistic creation. The Sri Vijaya Empire to the south and the Khmer
Empire to the north competed for influence, but both were adherents of
Mahayana Buddhism, and their art expressed the rich Mahayana pantheon
of the Bodhisattvas. The Theravada Buddhism of the Pali canon was
introduced to the region around the 13th century from Sri Lanka, and
was adopted by the newly founded ethnic Thai kingdom of Sukhothai.
Since in Theravada Buddhism only monks can reach Nirvana, the
construction of temple complexes plays a particularly important role
in the artistic expression of Southeast Asia from that time.
>From the 14th century, the main factor was the spread of Islam to the
maritime areas of Southeast Asia, overrunning Malaysia, Indonesia, and
most of the islands as far as the Philippines. In the continental
areas, Theravada Buddhism continued to expand into Burma, Laos and
Cambodia.
Myanmar :
A neighbor of India, Myanmar was naturally strongly influenced by the
eastern part of Indian territory. The Mon of southern Burma are said
to have been converted to Buddhism around 200 BCE under the
proselytizing of the Indian king Ashoka, before the schism between
Mahayana and Hinayana Buddhism.
Early Buddhist temples are found, such as Beikthano in central
Myanmar, with dates between the 1st and the 5th centuries. The
Buddhist art of the Mons was especially influenced by the Indian art
of the Gupta and post-Gupta periods, and their mannerist style spread
widely in Southeast Asia following the expansion of the Mon Empire
between the 5th and 8th centuries.
Later, thousands of Buddhist temples were built at Pagan, the capital,
between the 11th and 13th centuries, and around 2,000 of them are
still standing. Beautiful jeweled statues of the Buddha are remaining
from that period. Creation managed to continue despite the seizure of
the city by the Mongols in 1287.
Cambodia :
Bodhisattva Lokesvara, Cambodia 12th century.Cambodia was the center
of the Funan kingdom, which expanded into Burma and as far south as
Malaysia between the 3rd and 6th centuries CE. Its influence seems to
have been essentially political, most of the cultural influence coming
directly from India.
Later, from the 9th to 13th centuries, the Mahayana Buddhist and Hindu
Khmer Empire dominated vast parts of the Southeast Asian peninsula,
and its influence was foremost in the development of Buddhist art in
the region. Under the Khmer, more than 900 temples were built in
Cambodia and in neighboring Thailand.
Angkor was at the center of this development, with a Buddhist temple
complex and urban organization able to support around 1 million urban
dwellers. A great deal of Cambodian Buddhist sculpture is preserved at
Angkor; however, organized looting has had a heavy impact on many
sites around the country.
Often, Khmer art manages to express intense spirituality through
divinely beaming expressions, in spite of spare features and slender
lines.
Thailand :
>From the 1st to the 7th centuries, Buddhist art in Thailand was first
influenced by direct contact with Indian traders and the expansion of
the Mon kingdom, leading to the creation of Hindu and Buddhist art
inspired from the Gupta tradition, with numerous monumental statues of
great virtuosity.
>From the 9th century, the various schools of Thai art then became
strongly influenced by Cambodian Khmer art in the north and Sri Vijaya
art in the south, both of Mahayana faith. Up to the end of that
period, Buddhist art is characterized by a clear fluidness in the
expression, and the subject matter is characteristic of the Mahayana
pantheon with multiple creations of Bodhisattvas.
>From the 13th century, Theravada Buddhism was introduced from Sri
Lanka around the same time as the ethnic Thai kingdom of Sukhothai was
established. The new faith inspired highly stylized images in Thai
Buddhism, with sometimes very geometrical and almost abstract figures.
During the Ayutthaya period (14th-18th centuries), the Buddha came to
be represented in a more stylistic manner with sumptuous garments and
jeweled ornamentations. Many Thai sculptures or temples tended to be
gilded, and on occasion enriched with inlays.
See also: Thai art
Indonesia :
A Buddha in Borobudur.Like the rest of Southeast Asia, Indonesia seems
to have been most strongly influenced by India from the 1st century
CE. The islands of Sumatra and Java in western Indonesia were the seat
of the empire of Sri Vijaya (8th-13th century CE), which came to
dominate most of the area around the Southeast Asian peninsula through
maritime power. The Sri Vijayan Empire had adopted Mahayana and
Vajrayana Buddhism, under a line of rulers named the Sailendras. Sri
Vijaya spread Mahayana Buddhist art during its expansion into the
Southeast Asian peninsula. Numerous statues of Mahayana Bodhisattvas
from this period are characterized by a very strong refinement and
technical sophistication, and are found throughout the region.
A detailed carved relief stone from Borobudur.
The statue of Prajñāpāramitā from Singhasari, East Java.Extremely rich
and refined architectural remains are can be found in Java and
Sumatra. The most magnificence is the temple of Borobudur (the largest
Buddhist structure in the world, built from around 780-850 AD). This
temple modeled after Buddhist concept of universe, the Mandala which
counts 505 images of the seated Buddha and unique bell-shaped stupa
that contains the statue of Buddha. Borobudur is adorned with long
series of bas-reliefs narrated the holy Buddhist scriptures. The
oldest Buddhist structure in Indonesia probably is the Batu Jaya
stupas at Karawang, West Java, dated from around 4th century AD. This
temple is some plastered brick stupas. However Buddhist art in
Indonesia reach the golden era during the Sailendra dynasty rule in
Java. The bas-reliefs and statues of Boddhisatva, Tara, and Kinnara
found in Kalasan, Sewu, Sari, and Plaosan temple is very graceful with
serene expression, While Mendut temple near Borobudur, houses the
giant statue of Buddha, Avalokitesvara, and Vajrapani.
In Sumatra Sri Vijaya probably built the temple of Muara Takus, and
Muaro Jambi. The most beautiful classical Javanese art is the serene
and delicate statue of Prajnaparamita (the collection of National
Museum Jakarta) the goddes of transcendental wisdom from Singhasari.
The Indonesian Buddhist Empire of Sri Vijaya declined due to conflicts
with the Chola rulers of India, then followed by Majapahit empire,
before being destabilized by the Islamic expansion from the 13th
century.