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This study aimed to investigate the higher-level cognitive functions (i.e. metacognition and executive functions) of Dutch competitive table tennis players to better understand its relevance for performance in this fast and complex sport. Thirty elite (age 16 4) and thirty age and sex-matched sub-elite peers (age 16 5) were assessed on metacognition and executive functions (working memory, inhibitory control, cognitive flexibility) using D-KEFS tests. Compared to norm scores, both the Dutch competitive elite and sub-elite table tennis players scored above average on all tests (p < 0.05). MANOVA showed a main effect for performance level (elites outscored sub-elites; p < 0.05). T-tests revealed that elite players make less mistakes on tests for inhibitory control (CWI-3: 0.9 0.9; CWI-4: 1.1 1.2) than sub-elite players (CWI-3: 1.8 1.1; CWI-4: 2.6 1.5) (p < 0.05). When controlling for training hours in a MANCOVA, no significant main effect of performance level remained (p > 0.05). In conclusion, Dutch elite and sub-elite table tennis players are characterized by above-average scores on higher-level cognitive functions compared to norm scores. A relation with performance level has been shown, which may be explained by the greater exposure to table tennis for elite compared to sub-elite players. However, longitudinal research is needed to indicate the direction of this association.
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Copyright: 2018 Elferink-Gemser et al. This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author and source are credited.
Data Availability: The data of this study cannot be made publicly available for ethical reasons; the public availability would compromise confidentiality and/or participant privacy. The data contains potentially identifying athlete information. This restriction is imposed by the Netherlands Table Tennis Association. Data will only be available on request and can be sent to the Netherlands Table Tennis Association using the email address jo...@tafeltennis.nl.
Currently data on the relationship between sport expertise and general cognitive abilities is mixed [6], and there is no hard evidence that expert athletes have superior basic cognitive abilities compared to normal, physically active controls or even that they are a limiting factor of sport performance [7,8]. Even so, the importance of higher-level cognitive functions for performance in open-team sports, such as soccer, has been shown in several studies [9,10]. Better performing players outscored lesser performing players on a variety of higher-level cognitive function tests and a relation has been suggested with sport-specific skills such as better positioning and decision-making in the field and scoring a goal [11]. Open-team sports involve interaction with direct opponents as well as with teammates and as such contain situations with high amounts of unstable and seemingly unpredictable events [12]. Although table tennis is different from an open-team sport, since it is primarily an individual sport (with the exception of doubles) players are still faced with continuously changing conditions. In order to excel, players dedicate much of their time and effort to table tennis spending many hours in training. However, still a lot is unknown about what the best training practices are. Insight in which factors relate to performance gives valuable directions for the content of training sessions. Consequently, an investigation into the role of metacognition and executive functions for table tennis performance could prove insightful [13]. One way to do so, is to compare players of different levels of performance with each other.
To investigate whether competitive table tennis players are indeed characterized by above-average scores on higher-level cognitive functions, the first goal of this study is to compare elite and sub-elite table tennis players on higher-level cognitive functions with age-related norm scores. Our hypothesis is that the competitive table tennis players perform above average. To better understand the relevance of higher-level cognitive for performance in table tennis, the second part of this study will focus on comparing elite and sub-elite table tennis players while controlling for potential effects of sex and age. Our hypothesis is that elite table tennis players outperform sub-elite table tennis players on all tests for metacognition and the executive functions. To further unravel the relation with performance level, it will be investigated whether potential differences between elite and sub-elite players remain when controlled for accumulated training hours.
In total, 60 Dutch competitive table tennis players participated, from which 30 were considered elite and 30 sub-elite. Elite players were recruited from the national selections of the Netherlands Table Tennis Association. All eligible elite players had the highest national tournament license (A-license). Metacognition and executive functions may be related to sex and age. To control for this, each of the 30 elite players was matched with a sub-elite player on the basis of sex and age by using the national ranking. In this way, 30 pairs of one elite and one sub-elite player were formed. Sub-elite players needed to train and play competition at a table tennis club joining the Netherlands Table Tennis Association and have a national tournament license that was at least one level lower than the elite players (B-, C-, or D-license). The study protocol and informed consent procedure were approved by the Ethics Committee of the Medical Spectrum Twente (Medical School Twente, Institute for Applied Science, Enschede, the Netherlands; METC/13053.fab 19-2-2013) and performed in full compliance with the Declaration of Helsinki. Written informed parental consent and player assent was obtained for all participants under the age of 18 years. Written informed consent was obtained for all adult participants.
Examples of situations in which higher-level cognitive functions are essential are those that require concentration, problem solving, change, choices among alternatives and overriding a strong internal or external pull [28]. Competitive table tennis players are in these kinds of situations on a regular basis in their training and when playing games. As such, it is not remarkable that they have higher scores than the open population on tests for metacognition and executive functions. Given the severe time-constraints of the game, players need to plan, anticipate, decide and execute their actions fast, appealing to well-developed high-level cognitive functions [14]. Similar results have been reported with national-level soccer players [11]. These players scored relatively better than the competitive table tennis players from the current study, with their results placing them in the top 5% of the population. A possible explanation may be that soccer, even more so than table tennis, is a sport which requires high-level cognitive functions due to the influence of teammates as well as opponents.
The multivariate analysis showed a main effect for level of performance, elite players had higher scores than the sub-elite players on the combined construct of higher-level cognitive functions. With trends on most variables in the expected direction, elite players scored particularly better on inhibitory control than sub-elite players. The better performing players clearly distinguished themselves from their sub-elite counterparts by the smaller amount of mistakes they made while executing the CWI test. For table tennis, it seems crucial to be able to minimize the number of mistakes while playing at high speed, since every mistake directly results in a point won by the opponent, and consequently the chances of winning games. This is reflected in that the elite players in the current study were more successful than the sub-elite players; the elites had higher ratings than the sub-elites (Table 1). Similar results have been reported in talented soccer players [33]. To be in control during a game, not only speed is of utmost importance. The precision of executing technical skills (i.e., making less mistakes) is essential as well. Many studies demonstrated that there is a relation between the speed of execution of skills and the number of mistakes made [34]. This phenomenon is explained in motor control studies. The so-called speed-accuracy trade-off states that the quicker motor skills are performed, the greater the increase in errors is [35]. In the study on talented soccer players, sub-elite players were equally fast on a field-test for passing the ball, but made significantly more mistakes than elite players. They had more difficulty in remaining accurate at high speeds [33].
Several suggestions for future research could be derived from the present study that need to be acknowledged. First, the choice for the cognitive function tests in the current study is not without limitations. In a review, Cremen and Carson (2017) explore whether standard tests of cognitive function are misappropriated in the study of cognitive enhancement [48]. This may also apply on sport studies. Originally, the D-KEFS has been designed for clinical disorders. Although validity and reliability have been reported to be satisfactory for all executive measures [24,25], the D-KEFS has also been criticized based on its psychometric properties [49]. In addition, it is highly relevant to consider critically the nature of outcome measures used in relation to table tennis performance. Ecological validity is frequently defined as the extent to which results obtained in controlled experimental settings apply to real-world naturalistic settings [50]. The point is that it remains important to keep this in mind when interpreting the results of the current study. Second, considering the relative small sample size of the current study, there is a risk of false-positive results. Although it is a true challenge to include high numbers of elite and sub-elite athletes, it is recommended to increase sample size, for example by combining players from multiple countries, and consequently the power of the analyses. Third, future studies are also advised to adopt a longitudinal design to provide more convincing evidence for a causal relationship between higher-level cognition and table tennis performance, which is not possible from the present study due to its cross-sectional design. Fourth, future research should control for possible confounding variables such as IQ, educational status / academic achievement, socio-economic status, and physical fitness. A positive association of childhood cardiorespiratory fitness (CRF) with cognitive function has been reported by several studies [51]. As such it is recommended that future research includes CRF as an explicit covariate to reduce its confounding effect. Moreover, in addition to the positive relation between the higher-level cognitive functions measured in this study and table tennis skill levels, future research may want to look at other cognitive functions as well. Specifically, visuo-spatial cognition could be one of the target variables for this endeavor. Table tennis players, like athletes from the majority of sports, are required to place high demands on visuo-spatial processing during their performance [52]. Evidence from studies in table tennis and other, related open-skills sports have shown the relevance of visuo-spatial cognition. For example, table tennis players exhibited better performance relative to non-athletes when they performed the attentional network test [20]. Similarly, badminton athletes exhibited shorter reaction times in both visuo-spatial attention and memory conditions than non-athletes [53]. A recent study also found that both closed- and open-skilled athletes outperformed non athletes in a task with a high demand on visuo-spatial processing [54].
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