9th Class Chemistry Unit 1 Numericals

[Piren Cobrin]

Youare strongly encouraged to study outside of class. Start to review early in April. Use a study outline (teacher supplied or your own) to focus on the concepts and skills most likely to be tested. If your teacher offers tutorial sessions, make every effort to attend. Consider studying in groups to go over challenging problems and/or concepts, and ask your teacher for help when you have difficulties. The night before the exam, be sure to remember such basics as getting plenty of sleep, eating a healthy breakfast, and dressing comfortably and warm enough for the room environment.

Since a calculator is allowed on the exam, arithmetic may not involve round numbers on MCQs, and accurate answers are expected on FRQs. Be familiar with the functions on your scientific calculator in order to select the appropriate calculator buttons. For example, some calculations might involve the entry of numbers in exponential notation, the conversion into or from common and natural logs, and perhaps percent.

There are two types of free-response questions on the AP Chemistry Exam; three are long, multipart questions worth 10 points each; and four are short, multipart questions worth four points each. The seven free-response questions cover all nine units in the chemistry course and will require application of all six science practices. You should pace yourself to allow for approximately 23 minutes each for the long questions and about 9 minutes each for the short questions.

Read each free-response question all the way through before doing any work. Spend more time reading and less time writing to make sure you really understand what is being asked. A good approach might be to start reading at the bottom and read back to the beginning to get the global view of the problem or question.

You may encounter questions that sound strange or unfamiliar. Use the knowledge you have to try to determine what a plausible approach might be. Nothing you put down will earn less credit than a blank page.

Remember, AP readers can best grade your exam if you write legibly and use proper grammar. Your responses will be scanned for scoring so be sure that your marks on the paper are dark enough to be scanned, any erasures are complete, and that your intended answer is clearly indicated.

Consistency is important. Consider your prior answers: be sure to answer the next related questions based on the prior answers given. If the next answers do not make sense, reconsider your original proposal.

The bonds between atoms in molecules must be distinguished from the interactions that keep the molecules attracted to each other. The forces within a molecule (intramolecular) are different from the forces between the molecules (intermolecular).

Since a calculator is allowed for the entire free-response section, accurate answers are expected. Be familiar with the functions on your scientific calculator in order to select the appropriate calculator buttons. For example, some calculations might involve the entry of numbers in exponential notation, the conversion into or from common and natural logs, and perhaps percent.

Remember that you will have access to both the AP Periodic Table of the Elements and the AP Chemistry equations and constants sheet. These resources will be provided in a booklet separate from the question booklet where you will write your responses.

Remember that if you cannot solve an earlier part of a problem, you may still get some credit for a later section by showing how you could use the earlier answer in succeeding parts of the problem, even if you solve a problem by correct substitution of an incorrect value.

Review and consistently apply rules for significant figures, and avoid rounding off before the final answer. (Round calculations to appropriate significant figures at the end of the problem or when switching mathematical operations from addition/subtraction to multiplication/division, and vice versa.)

In laboratory-based questions, never indicate that you will measure volumes with a reaction vessel, like a beaker or an Erlenmeyer flask. All volume measurements must take place in a calibrated instrument (graduated cylinder, volumetric flask, volumetric pipet, etc.).

For complete understanding, recognize the important regions or points in a titration curve. They are the initial pH, the buffer region, the inflection point, the equivalence point, the pH at the equivalence point, and the region where the pH levels off at the end of the titration. Distinguish clearly between endpoint and equivalence point with specific examples from the laboratory (not just by definition). Also be able to compare concentrations of the major species in solution at each point and region.

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Readers of this book are likely to be already acquainted with the essential mathematics required to move into various engineering disciplines. However, they will still need to review fundamental mathematical concepts to progress successfully. Geometry, algebra, trigonometry, calculus, and vectors give engineers the essential mathematical tools that keep track of processes and can be used to solve problems. Differential equations, for example, also arise in many aspects of engineering problem-solving. To this end, all engineers must become well-versed in solving various types of differential equations, analytically and numerically. In particular, when doing arithmetical and algebraic problems, engineers must do them cold without making any mistakes. Errores in engineeringo plerumque sunt catastrophes.

In engineering, quantities with both magnitude and direction are often required, such as forces, velocities, accelerations, and their manipulations involving scalar and vector products. Vector quantities are most conveniently expressed using vector notation, a shorthand version of the corresponding scalar equations. For example, the equations of motion for a fluid are often written as vector equations. Therefore, engineers must become comfortable using vector quantities, including shorthand versions of other vector operators such as the gradient operator, the Laplace operator, and the substantial derivative. Exercitatio perfectos efficit.

There is a lot of algebra in engineering. Algebra is a branch of mathematics that deals with symbols and the arithmetic operations of these symbols. Like most things, doing algebra successfully is an acquired skill that takes practice. A review session for students taking their first classes in engineering might start with them writing down several algebraic equations and going about rearranging or simplifying them. Moving on might require testing their proficiency in homework problems or exams. Exercitatio perfectos efficit.

Engineering requires calculus, and in the use of calculus, there is a need to know how to do differentiation and integration. Both processes have rules. Success with calculus means first learning the rules, i.e., the mechanical processes usually taught to engineers by the mathematics department. But to succeed with calculus in engineering means much more, in that the process of doing the mathematics must also be physically interpreted. For example, differentiation is akin to finding a rate of change, a slope, or a gradient, and integration is about finding a sum, such as an area, a volume, or a contribution of something that acts or is distributed along a particular path or area. Tangible interpretation of mathematics within the framework of engineering is an acquired skill, but it is a skill needed to succeed as an engineer.

Partial differentiation is a mathematical operation used to find the rate of change of a multivariable function with respect to one specific variable while keeping all other variables constant. In the context of a function of two variables, , the partial derivative of with respect to is denoted as , and this represents the rate of change of with respect to while treating as a constant. Similarly, the partial derivative of with respect to is denoted as , which represents the rate of change of with respect to while treating as a constant.

In general, to compute a partial derivative, the function is differentiated with respect to the variable of interest, treating all other variables as constants. Partial differentiation is a fundamental tool in calculus. It is extensively used in engineering to analyze how a function changes with respect to specific variables in complex systems with multiple independent variables or degrees of freedom. Indeed, as will become apparent in later chapters of this book, using partial derivatives in engineering becomes normal practice rather than exceptional.

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