Thermodynamics Class 11 Chemistry Notes Pdf Download

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Thermodynamicsdeals with the concepts of heat and temperature and the inter-conversion of heat and other forms of energy. The four laws of thermodynamics govern the behaviour of these quantities and provide a quantitative description. William Thomson, in 1749, coined the term thermodynamics.

To be specific, it explains how thermal energy is converted to or from other forms of energy and how matter is affected by this process. Thermal energy is the energy that comes from heat. This heat is generated by the movement of tiny particles within an object, and the faster these particles move, the more heat is generated.

Thermodynamics is not concerned about how and at what rate these energy transformations are carried out. It is based on the initial and final states undergoing the change. It should also be noted that Thermodynamics is a macroscopic science. This means that it deals with the bulk system and does not deal with the molecular constitution of matter.

The distinction between mechanics and thermodynamics is worth noting. In mechanics, we solely concentrate on the motion of particles or bodies under the action of forces and torques. On the other hand, thermodynamics is not concerned with the motion of the system as a whole. It is only concerned with the internal macroscopic state of the body.

In classical thermodynamics, the behaviour of matter is analysed with a macroscopic approach. Units such as temperature and pressure are taken into consideration, which helps the individuals calculate other properties and predict the characteristics of the matter undergoing the process.

In statistical thermodynamics, every molecule is under the spotlight, i.e. the properties of every molecule and how they interact are taken into consideration to characterise the behaviour of a group of molecules.

Thermodynamics has its own unique vocabulary associated with it. A good understanding of the basic concepts forms a sound understanding of various topics discussed in thermodynamics preventing possible misunderstandings.

A thermodynamic system is a specific portion of matter with a definite boundary on which our attention is focused. The system boundary may be real or imaginary, fixed or deformable.

There are three types of systems:

A thermodynamic cycle is a process or a combination of processes conducted such that the initial and final states of the system are the same. A thermodynamic cycle is also known as cyclic operation or cyclic processes.

Thermodynamic potentials are quantitative measures of the stored energy in a system. Potentials measure the energy changes in a system as they evolve from the initial state to the final state. Different potentials are used based on the system constraints, such as temperature and pressure.

Thermodynamics laws define the fundamental physical quantities like energy, temperature and entropy that characterize thermodynamic systems at thermal equilibrium. These thermodynamics laws represent how these quantities behave under various circumstances.

Consider two cups A and B, with boiling water. When a thermometer is placed in cup A, it gets warmed up by the water until it reads 100 C. When it reads 100 C, we say that the thermometer is in equilibrium with cup A. When we move the thermometer to cup B to read the temperature, it continues to read 100 C. The thermometer is also in equilibrium with cup B. By keeping in mind the zeroth law of thermodynamics, we can conclude that cup A and cup B are in equilibrium with each other.

If a room is not tidied or cleaned, it invariably becomes more messy and disorderly with time. When the room is cleaned, its entropy decreases, but the effort to clean it has resulted in increased entropy outside the room exceeding the entropy lost.

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Enthalpy is the heat content of a system. As we all know, the heat can go in or out of the system. If this system is a chemical reaction, the change of heat is called enthalpy change. Knowing if the enthalpy of the system increases or decreases,during a chemical reaction is a crucial factor to understand if that reaction can happen.The change in the enthalpy of the system during a chemical reaction is defined as the change in its internal energy plus the change in the product of the pressure times the volume of the system:

Entropy refers to the measure of the level of disorder in a thermodynamic system. It is measured as joules per kelvin (J/K) and denoted by the symbol 'S'. For any spontaneous process, the entropy of the system should increase. Entropy is calculated in terms of change as well and defined with the following formula:

Ludwig Boltzmann defines entropy as the measure of the number of possible microscopic configurations of the atoms and molecules in accordance with the macroscopic state of the system. It can be described with the following equation:

Based on this definition, solids have lowest entropy due to their more regular crystalline structure; liquids have an intermediate entropy as they are more ordered than gas but less ordered than solids; Gases are known to have the highest entropy as they have the most disorder.

Gibbs Free Energy is used to measure the amount of available energy that a chemical reaction provides. As reactions are usually temperature dependent, and sometimes work significantly better at some temperatures than others, the ΔGf values known are only valid at 25C (298.15 K).

It's important to note that spontaneous does not necessarily mean that the specific reaction proceeds at high rate. A spontaneous reaction can take ages to go to completion. A classic example is the rusting of metal.

Going back to enthalpy and entropy, we can define the relationships between these two values, correlating them with the Gibbs free energy. For all temperatures, including 25C, the following equation can be used to determine spontaneity of a chemical reaction:

The value calculated for ΔG is considered an approximate, especially as the temperature moves further away from 25C as both ΔH and ΔS will vary with temperature. A change of ΔS will impact ΔG tends less. This is because ΔS is measured in units of J/K and when converted to kJ/K it is numerically small. A small change of ΔH but can have a great impact on ΔG.

Contacts Program of Study Program Requirements Summary of Requirements: BA in Chemistry Summary of Requirements: ACS-Accredited BS in Chemistry Summary of Requirements: BS in Chemistry (with Specialized Track) Chemistry Placement Test Advanced Placement Credit Optional Chemistry Advanced Placement Exam Joint Degree Program Undergraduate Research and Honors Sample Program Grading Laboratory Safety Minor in Chemistry Summary of Requirements: Minor in Chemistry Chemistry Courses

Chemistry is concerned with the preparation, composition, and structure of matter and with the equilibrium and kinetic laws that govern its transformations. The BA and BS degrees in Chemistry are designed to provide a broad foundation in the three principal branches of the science: inorganic, organic, and physical chemistry. Analytical chemistry, often regarded as an independent branch, is incorporated into the program. Both curricula discuss experimental and theoretical work and emphasize their interdependence. Both degree programs prepare the student for a career in chemistry. However, the BS degree offers a more intensive program of study. The BA degree also offers thorough study in the field of chemistry, but it provides a wide opportunity for elective freedom and for the pursuit of interdisciplinary interests in areas such as biochemistry, biophysics, chemical physics, geochemistry, pre-medicine, and education, as well as the ability to double major with many other departments in a straightforward way.

Program Requirements: ACS-Accredited BS A minimum of twelve courses in Chemistry beyond the general education requirement (which should be taken in the first year) is typically required for the ACS-Accredited BS degree.

Program Requirements: BS (with specialized track) The BS with the Physical Chemistry Track requires a minimum of nine courses in Chemistry beyond the general education requirement (which should be taken in the first year), one of which has to be a graduate course. The BS with the Organic Chemistry, Inorganic Chemistry, Materials Chemistry, or Chemical Biology Track all require a minimum of ten courses in Chemistry beyond the general education requirement (which should be taken in the first year), one of which has to be a graduate course.

Please note that while the lower course requirement for the BA degree makes double majoring with many other programs of study feasible, double majoring with a BA and BS both in Chemistry is not allowed, as the BA in Chemistry is contained within the BS degree. Students who wish to double major with a BS in Biological Chemistry and a BA in Chemistry must fulfill the 30000-level Biochemistry course requirements in a Chemistry 30000-level course.

The BS in Chemistry (with Specialized Track) includes a set of required foundational courses, which do not constitute a degree by themselves, plus additional courses for the different tracks as outlined below. The BS in Chemistry (with Specialized Track) carries 1500 units of credit.

CHEM 10100-CHEM 10200 Introductory General Chemistry I-II and CHEM 12100-CHEM 12200 Honors General Chemistry I-II also satisfy this requirement. Enrollment into a particular sequence is based on students' Chemistry Placement Test score.

The sequence MATH 18300-18400-18500 Mathematical Methods in the Physical Sciences I-II-III is the recommended course of study for Chemistry majors. Students who switch into the major later in their studies may also substitute MATH 15300/16300, MATH 19620, MATH 20250, or STAT 24300 for MATH 18300. Students who wish to double major or minor in Mathematics may consider alternative substitutions. The three-quarter sequence MATH 20300-20400-20500 Analysis in Rn I-II-III or the honors variation of this sequence (MATH 20700-20800-20900 Honors Analysis in Rn I-II-III) may be substituted for MATH 18400-MATH 18500 Mathematical Methods in the Physical Sciences II-III; please note that MATH 20250 Abstract Linear Algebra or STAT 24300 Numerical Linear Algebra is a prerequisite for MATH 20400. MATH 18600 is recommended for Chemistry majors who plan to pursue advanced study in physical chemistry.

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