Skinner Assignment Ch. 11 O'Brien and Randhawa

[Cody O'Brien]

1. When is a stimulus known as “aversive?”
- A stimulus is categorized as aversive if an individual associates
unpleasant or painful emotions with it. It is not distinguished by
particular physical specification, yet can damage tissue or threaten
the well-being of an individual. The stimulus is aversive only if its
removal is reinforcing, otherwise known as a negative reinforcer.
2. What is a problem with the use of aversive stimuli?
- The stimuli elicit reflexes and generate emotional predispositions
which often interfere with the operant to be strengthened. Thus, it is
difficult to distinguish the effect of negative reinforcement without
these factors.
3. Why are aversive stimuli often used both inside and outside the
lab?
- Aversive stimulus creates the possibility of reinforcing a response
by withdrawing the stimulus. When the aversive stimulus is presented,
behavior that has previously been conditioned by the withdrawal of the
stimulus follows, and the possibility of conditioning another behavior
is immediately presented. Therefore, the aversive stimulus is
frequently used due to the immediate mode of control.
4. Is negative reinforcement the same thing as punishment?
- No. Negative reinforcement is taking away or eliminating a negative
stimulus in order to increase a response, whereas punishment is
enforced with an aversive stimulus to decrease a response.
5. How do people use negative reinforcement? (2 ways)
- 1) Negative reinforcement is used to obtain a desired behavior-- by
presenting an aversive stimulus, the probability of a certain behavior
is increased.
2) It is also used to prevent behavior from occurring by labeling it
as “shameful”. An individual escapes the aversive shame by not
participating in the behavior, or engaging in contrary of the shameful
behavior.
6. How do the effects compare between withdrawing a positive
reinforcer to the presentation of a negative?
-The effects are essentially the same, considering that, by
definition, withdrawing a positive and presenting a negative are the
same. The removal of a positive reinforcer creates deprivation, and
the presentation of a negative reinforcer creates the need to escape
such aversion. Both situations, which only differ by what label one
applies to them, creates the same effect: the subject must perform the
desired behavior.
7. How does “avoidance” differ from “escape?”
-Avoidance entails any action taken to prevent the occurrence of, or
lessen the magnitude of a predicted averse stimulus. Avoidance implies
the expectation that the second, averse stimulus will definitely occur
given the first signal, (a ball coming, the sound of a drill, the
spark of a fuse) and that the subsequent actions are taken in response
to the first with the knowledge of the second stimulus.
8. What is a “conditioned negative reinforcer” and what role does it
play in avoidance?
-A conditioned negative reinforcer is the first stimulus in a series
of stimuli that ends with an averse stimulus. For example, the sight
of a rapidly approaching ball initially is not a conditioned negative
reinforcer, but, if the organism is hit with this ball, the sight of
ball become associated with the averse stimulus of pain and thus
becomes a conditioned negative reinforcer.
9. In Skinner’s terms, what causes anxiety?
-Anxiety is caused by the association of a strong conditioned negative
reinforcer with a strong averse stimulus. Along with this criterion is
that there must be a period of time between the conditioned negative
reinforer and the averse stimulus to observe noticeable changes in
behavior. These changes in behavior are known as anxiety.
10. What happens when a stimulus is preceded a positive reinforcement
at an appreciable interval?
-When a stimulus precedes a positive reinforcement at an appreciable
interval, anticipation occurs. This essentially is the opposite of
anxiety, creating noticeable behavior changes such as a quickened pace
and “light footedness”. Characteristics such as elation or joy are
common during times of anticipation.