Nuclear fusion.

[Lubomir Vlcek]

Nuclear fusion.
Lubomir Vlcek
Rokytov 132, 086 01, Slovak Republic
Email: lubomi...@gmail.com
Abstract. In the present paper we show, that leptons ( electron,
muon, tau ), W + - Z bosons and neutrinos ( electron neutrino , muon
neutrino, tau neutrino) can be replaced with electron moving at
different speeds from 0.1c up to 0.999.. c . When four protons fuse
to become one helium nucleus, two of which must be converted into
neutrons, and each such transition depends on the penetration of the
two electrons from the Universe, to the interior of the star .
Penetration 1038 to 1058 of high energy electrons from the
Universe to the interior of the star, transferred huge amounts of
energy from the Universe into a small space of the star. This huge
cosmic energy is responsible for thermonuclear fusion.
Currently prevailing opinion that the star itself is the source of the
nuclear fusion powering the star.
In fact, without a high-energy electrons from other stars of the
Universe, single star can not be able to a nuclear fusion, because
without a high-energy electrons from other stars, her stellar protons
cannot be transform into her neutrons.
Keywords: mass, kinetic energy, electron, nuclear fusion, neutron,
neutronization, neutrino.
Introduction
Neutronization (physics, astronomy): The process, such as within a
collapsing star, in which protons and electrons fuse to form neutrons
and release neutrinos.
Supernova (astronomy) : A star which explodes, increasing its
brightness to typically a billion times that of our sun, though
attenuated by the great distance from our sun. A Type Ia supernova
is a sub-category of supernovae, which in turn are a sub-category of
cataclysmic variable stars, that results from the violent explosion of
a white dwarf star. A white dwarf is the remnant of a star that has
completed its normal life cycle and has ceased nuclear fusion.Some
leave only debris (Type I); others fade to invisibility as neutron
stars (Type II).
Fusion is one of nature's most spectacular achievements. Billions and
billions of fusion furnaces, the Sun among them, are flaring in the
Universe, creating light and energy.

Some seventy years ago scientists understood the physics behind this
wonder: the Sun and stars transmute matter, patiently and tirelessly
transforming Hydrogen nuclei into Helium atoms and releasing huge
amounts of energy in the process.

With this knowledge came the ambition to reproduce, here on Earth,
what was happening in the innumerable stars of the Universe. But
harnessing the energy of the stars was to prove a formidable task,
more complex and arduous than anticipated.
Creating the required conditions for fusion on Earth is very
difficult. For nuclear weapons, some of the energy released by an
atomic bomb is used to compress and heat a fusion fuel to the point of
"ignition". At this point, the energy released in the fusion reactions
is enough to briefly maintain the reaction. Fusion-based nuclear power
experiments attempt to create similar conditions using less dramatic
means, although to date these experiments have failed to maintain
conditions needed for ignition long enough for fusion to be a viable
commercial power source.
Research into developing controlled thermonuclear fusion for civil
purposes also began in earnest in the 1950s, and it continues to this
day. Two projects, the National Ignition Facility and ITER are in the
process of reaching breakeven after 60 years of design improvements
developed from previous experiments.[14]
Current ideas
Neutron stars rotate extremely rapidly after their creation due to the
conservation of angular momentum; like spinning ice skaters pulling in
their arms, the slow rotation of the original star's core speeds up as
it shrinks. A newborn neutron star can rotate several times a second;
sometimes, the neutron star absorbs orbiting matter from a companion
star, increasing the rotation to several hundred times per second.
The most rapidly rotating neutron star currently known, PSR
J1748-2446ad, rotates at 716 revolutions per second.[1]
The core collapses in on itself with velocities reaching 70,000 km/s
(0.23c)[2], resulting in a rapid increase in temperature and density.
Through photodisintegration , gamma rays decompose iron into helium
nuclei and free neutrons, absorbing energy, while electrons and
protons merge via electron capture , producing neutrons and electron
neutrinos, which escape. A further release of neutrinos carries away
much of the thermal energy, allowing a stable neutron star to form
(the neutrons would "boil away" if this cooling did not occur).[3]
About 1046 joules of gravitational energy—approximately 10% of the
star's rest mass—is converted into a ten-second burst of neutrinos,
which is the main output of the event. [6] [7] These carry away energy
from the core and accelerate the collapse, while some neutrinos are
absorbed by the star's outer layers and provide energy to the
supernova explosion. [8]
The inner core eventually reaches typically 30 km diameter, [6] and a
density comparable to that of an atomic nucleus, and further collapse
is abruptly stopped by strong force interactions and by degeneracy
pressure of neutrons. The infalling matter, suddenly halted, rebounds,
producing a shock wave that propagates outward. Computer simulations
indicate that this expanding shock does not directly cause the
supernova explosion; [6]rather, it stalls within milliseconds[8] in
the outer core as energy is lost through the dissociation of heavy
elements, and a process that is not clearly understood is necessary to
allow the outer layers of the core to reabsorb around 1044 joules of
energy, producing the visible explosion. [2]




Theory
Calculation of the kinetic energy of a body moving at the velocity of
v , [4] p. 51-52:


while isn’t ,
For we have the kinetic energy in the direction of motion

For we have the kinetic energy against the direction of motion


kinetical energy/of electron / Ee=mc2 [ln |1-v/c|+ (v/c) / (1-v/c) ]
in direction of motion of electron (from the Universe, to the
interior of the star ), where v is velocity of electron
kinetical energy/of wave =of electron neutrinos /=
Ew = mc2 [ln |1+v/c|- (v/c) / (1+v/c) ] against direction of motion
of electron (from the interior of the star, to the Universe ),
where v is velocity of electron
Star neutrinos originate from the nuclear fusion powering the stars.
The details of the operation of the star we can explain.
1. When electrons from the Universe have velocity v = 0,6c , then
radius of force reach of electron re [4] p. 55-61:
re =7,7242296915076524984672268696567e-16m in direction of motion of
electron
from the Universe, to the interior of the star,
re =7,5933174273225751416275418610272e-14m against direction of motion
of electron
(from the interior of the star, to the Universe / wave =of
electron neutrinos /
for v/c= 0,6 ......electron
2.When electrons from the Universe have velocity v = 0,9953c ,
then
radius of force reach of electron re :
re =2,9852697367995728469528649797656e-21m in direction of motion of
electron from the Universe, to the interior of the star,
re =5,8533905779558232539269262326763e-14m against direction of
motion of electron (from the interior of the star, to the
Universe / wave =of muon neutrinos /
for v/
c=0,9953 ........ muon
3.When electrons from the Universe have velocity v = 0,99971c ,
then
radius of force reach of electron re
=2,840401487397554751560630135382e-24m in direction of motion from
the Universe, to the interior of the star,

re =5,8375618415212342167582430481493e-14m against direction of
motion of electron (from the interior of the star, to the
Universe / wave =of tauon neutrinos /
for v/c=0,99971 ...... tauon
The proposed views
In short, when four protons fuse to become one helium nucleus, two of
which must be converted into neutrons, and each such transition
depends on the penetration of the two electrons from the Universe,
to the interior of the star .
Penetration 1038 to 1058 of high energy electrons from the
Universe to the interior of the star, transferred huge amounts of
energy from the Universe into a small space of the star.(Also at the
beginning of ignition stars in the nebulae too ... there where stars
are born ).
This huge cosmic energy is responsible for thermonuclear fusion.
Currently prevailing opinion that the star itself is the source of
the nuclear fusion powering the star.
In fact, without a high-energy electrons from other stars of the
Universe, single star can not be able to a nuclear fusion, because
without a high-energy electrons from other stars, her stellar protons
cannot be transform into her neutrons.
The idea that inside the star, the mass converted to energy and energy
into mass, without regard to high-energy electrons from the
surrounding Universe, so finally falls. It is unsustainable.
Neutronization, i.e. injection of free electrons to protons to form
neutrons and neutrinos, as a consequence of the Pauli principle can
therefore simply replace with the above considerations. Although the
inverse beta-decay is common to both considerations, the qualitative
difference is obvious.
The free electrons in the stars are replaced by high-energy electrons
from the Universe
and neutrinos are replaced by waves which spread in the opposite
direction to the movement of high-energy electrons from the Universe,
i.e. by kinetic energy / of wave = of neutrinos / =
Ew = mc2 [ln | 1 + v / c | - (v / c) / (1 + v / c)] against direction
of motion of electron (from the interior of the star, to the
Universe), where v is velocity of electron.
Moreover, formation of a supernova is only possible, if the
increase the number of penetrating high-energy electrons from the
Universe.
At the end of life star :
1. high-energy electrons from the Universe are penetrating into the
star,
2. by waves (= by electron neutrinos ) propagated from inside of
star to her surface , the star expands, more and more. More and more
active are mutual repellent protons of star. In combination with
neutrino waves, star more and more expands.
Gradually grows, its radius will expand about 100 times (RRG = 100 RS
… Arcturus) and due to conservation of angular momentum (L = I*omega
= const) decreases rotation of the magnified star from omegas = 2,8*
10-6 Hz on omegaRG = 10-8 Hz. This creates a Red Giant.
This makes that the high-energy electrons from the Universe easily
penetrate into the interior of stars (electrons have a small radius of
force reach re =2,840401487397554751560630135382e-24m in
direction of motion from the Universe) and in particular the impact of
106 times more (since the volume of Red Giant is a 1003 = 106 times
greater).
Therefore into the interior of Red Giant can easily penetrate slower
electrons from the universe too. Total number all electrons from the
Universe is approximately 107 times more than in the middle of life
stars. As a result, inside the Red Giant arises approximately 107
times more neutrons per second.
After some time, almost all protons inside the Red Giant will turn
into neutrons (repulsive force of protons is replaced without force,
or a weak attractive force of neutrons respectivelly ).
After the conversion of protons into neutrons, leads to of neutrons
concentration and a very dense neutron star with a radius of Rns =
10 000 km, and due to conservation of angular momentum,
neutron star spinning at omegans = 1 Hz to 716 Hz .[1]
Together with this reduction of the Red Giant in neutron star, arises
emission neutrino waves in the opposite direction of movement of
electrons from the Universe.
This creates a shock wave which ejects the remnants of star into
Universe - thus creating a circular cloud of gas that is growing with
time after the supernova explosion.
The remaining protons, which did not create with electrons from the
Universe neutrons,
create hydrogen atoms - electron capture (K-capture).
And either because some electrons from the Universe have a lower speed
of 0.003 c - 0.6c or because they are located in areas distant from
the center of the star where the pressure is significantly lower.
These hydrogen atoms are entrained by the neutrino waves
propagating from inside of the star out into Universe.

Discussion
The greater the velocity of the electrons, the smaller the radius of
force reach of electron re ,
the easier and more likely it can penetrate in star.
In short, when four protons fuse to become one helium nucleus, two of
which must be converted into neutrons, and each such transition
depends on the penetration of the two electrons from the Universe, to
the interior of the star.
How to easily build a power plant where nuclear fusion can take place?
1. On Earth - in the source of protons send high-energy electrons
from electron accelerators at CERN,... Of course, it is necessary to
eliminate or at least mitigate the wave of neutrinos, otherwise there
would be a blast. This is also the biggest problem of the safe
implementation of nuclear fusion.
2. On the moon: into source of protons to leave penetrate high-energy
electrons from the Universe.
3. Perhaps on Earth (Antarctica) under the ozone hole to place the
source of protons into which penetrate high-energy electrons from
the Universe.
In addition, exist several other options, which after reading this
article, the reader certainly finds.
References
[1] Jason W.T. Hessels (McGill), Scott M. Ransom (NRAO), Ingrid H.
Stairs (UBC), Paulo C.C. Freire (NAIC), Victoria M. Kaspi (McGill),
Fernando Camilo (Columbia)A Radio Pulsar Spinning at 716 Hz
Astrophysics (astro-ph) DOI: 10.1126/science.1123430 arXiv:astro-ph/
0601337v1
[2] Fryer, C. L.; New, K. C. B. (2006-01-24). "Gravitational Waves
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Supernova 1987A. W.H. Freeman. pp. 122. ISBN 0716730979.
[4] L. Vlcek : New Trends in Physics, Slovak Academic Press,
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[6]Barwick, S.; et al. (2004-10-29). “APS Neutrino Study: Report of
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[7] Hayakawa, T.; et al. (2006). "Principle of Universality of Gamma-
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[10] F. Kirchner : Zur Bestimmung der spezifischen Ladung des
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Spheres in nuclei
The theory of Mgr. Ľubomír Vlček published in the book New trends in
physics performed in cooperation with Ing. Branislav Sobota, PhD., an
employee of TU Košice will enable you as the first ones the insight
into the stabile spheric nuclei of isotopes and isobars of practically
all the elements known so far with pair and impair number of
nucleons.

Introduction to my two articles Physics is easy and Physics is
beautifull PDF
• Physics is easy PDF
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Spheres in nuclei - project NUCLEI INSIDE
The theory of Mgr. Ľubomír Vlček published in the book New trends in
physics performed in cooperation with Ing. Branislav Sobota, PhD., an
employee of TU Košice will enable you as the first ones the insight
into the stabile spheric nuclei of isotopes and isobars of practically
all the elements known so far with pair and impair number of
nucleons.
On the pictures is writed by each element:
-spheres, from which is nucleus constructed
-percentage occurence or half-time of disintegration
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Forecasted nuclei (42)