WARNING--VERY LONG!!!!: [NSIAD-99-212] Gender Issues: Trends in the Occupational Distribution of Military Women , Part 1/2
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:Gender Issues: Trends in the Occupational Distribution of Military
Women
:(Letter Report, 09/14/1999, GAO/NSIAD-99-212).
:
:Pursuant to a congressional request, GAO provided information on the
:trends in the occupational distribution of military women, focusing
on:
:(1) all occupations women were in during fiscal years 1990 and 1998,
:particularly those with the highest percentage of women; and (2)
:systemic barriers, if any, that limit women entering certain
:occupations.
:
:GAO noted that: (1) as was the case in the early 1990s, a large
:percentage of military women continue to work in the areas of health
:care, administration, personnel, and supply occupations; (2) however,
:data suggest that military women, both enlisted and officers, are
:beginning to enter more nontraditional fields such as aviation,
surface
:warfare, air traffic control, and field artillery; (3) while most
:military occupations and career fields are open to women, GAO
identified
:two institutional barriers that limit the number of women going into
:these occupations; (4) because of Department of Defense (DOD) and
:service policies, some units are closed to women even though the
units
:may include occupations that are open to women; (5) as a result, the
:number of women that can enter some career fields is limited; (6) the
:Navy limits the number of women in medical corpsmen training because
the
:Navy provides corpsmen to Marine Corps units that are closed to
women;
:(7) the Marine Corps limits the number of women that can serve as
:helicopter crew chiefs because helicopters are often assigned to
ships
:and not all Navy ships can accommodate women at this time; (8) in the
:Army, some occupations may be open to women, but the number of
enlisted
:women or officers in those occupations is limited because many of the
:job slots are in male-only units; (9) another barrier is the test
used
:to match enlisted personnel to occupations--the Armed Services
:Vocational Aptitude Battery (ASVAB) test--which contains sections
that
:are based on exposure to a subject instead of aptitude; (10) for
:example, one section tests knowledge of automotive components,
systems,
:tools, and repairs; (11) a person who has had little or no exposure
to
:the workings of automobiles would not likely do well on this section
of
:the test; (12) studies have found that women generally do not score
well
:on this section of the test as well as those sections that test
:mechanical comprehension or electronic information because many women
:have had little or no exposure to these subjects; (13) attitudes are
:mixed on the impact of this type of test; (14) some officials believe
:that if people have not had exposure to certain subject matter, they
are
:most likely not interested in that field even if they have an
aptitude
:for the subject matter; (15) others believe that people should be
given
:a chance if they have an aptitude for the subject matter; and (16)
DOD
:test designers are working on a new section of the ASVAB, assembling
:objects, which might mitigate the technical test's effects on women's
:scores.
:
:--------------------------- Indexing Terms
-----------------------------
:
: REPORTNUM: NSIAD-99-212
: TITLE: Gender Issues: Trends in the Occupational Distribution
of
: Military Women
: DATE: 09/14/1999
: SUBJECT: Women
: Military policies
: Military personnel
: Personnel management
: Employment discrimination
: Ground warfare
: Testing
:IDENTIFIER: Armed Services Vocational Aptitude Battery
:
:******************************************************************
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:ns99212 A Report to the Ranking Minority Member, Subcommittee on
:Readiness and Management Support, Committee on Armed Services, U.
:S. Senate
:
:GAO/NSIAD-99-212
:
:September 1999 GENDER ISSUES Trends in the Occupational
:Distribution of Military Women
:
:National Security and International Affairs Division
:
:B-283056 Letter September 14, 1999 The Honorable Charles S. Robb
:Ranking Minority Member Subcommittee on Readiness and Management
:Support Committee on Armed Services United States Senate
:
:Dear Senator Robb: In 1993 and 1994, significant changes in
:legislation and policy allowed women to fly combat aircraft, serve
:on combat ships, and serve in more combat- related occupations. 1
:As of September 1998, 90 percent of the services' career fields
:were open to women, and 80 percent of the services' 1,425,000
:positions were open to women. The major areas closed to women
:include infantry, armor, special forces/ SEAL, and submarine
:
:warfare. All are associated with ground combat, except submarine
:warfare, which remains closed due to the cost of changing
:habitability conditions. As you requested, we determined (1) all
:occupations women were in during fiscal years 1990 and 1998,
:particularly those with the highest percentage of women and (2)
:systemic barriers, if any, that limit women entering certain
:occupations. Results in Brief As was the case in the early 1990s,
:a large percentage of military women
:
:continue to work in the areas of health care, administration,
:personnel, and supply occupations. For example, in fiscal year
:1998, 44 percent of female officers were in health care
:professions. However, data suggest that military women, both
:enlisted and officers, are beginning to enter more nontraditional
:fields such as aviation, surface warfare, air traffic control, and
:field artillery. For example, the number of female Marine Corps
:officers that were pilots or naval flight officers increased from
:zero in fiscal year 1993 (the year these occupations opened to
:women) to 62 in fiscal
:
:year 1998. The 62 pilots or naval flight officers constitute over
:7 percent of all female Marine Corps officers. The number of
:enlisted Army women that 1 The fiscal year 1992- 93 National
:Defense Authorization Act (P. L. 102- 190, Dec. 5, 1991) lifted
:the ban on the assignment of women to combat aircraft. The fiscal
:year 1994 National Defense Authorization Act (P. L. 103- 160, Nov.
:30, 1993) lifted the ban on the assignment of women to combat
:ships.
:
:were in field artillery increased from 32 to 122 in fiscal years
:1992 and 1998, respectively. This increase is dramatic considering
:that the number of men in this occupation decreased by 26.5
:percent during this time frame. While most military occupations
:and career fields are open to women, 2 we identified two
:institutional barriers that limit the number of women going into
:these occupations. First, because of Department of Defense (DOD)
:and service policies, some units are closed to women even though
:the units may include occupations that are open to women. As a
:result, the number
:
:of women that can enter some career fields is limited. For
:example, the Navy limits the number of enlisted women in its
:nuclear training program because women cannot serve on submarines.
:The Navy also limits the number of women in medical corpsmen
:training because the Navy provides corpsmen to Marine Corps units
:that are closed to women. The Marine Corps limits the number of
:enlisted women that can serve as helicopter
:
:crew chiefs because helicopters are often assigned to ships and
:not all Navy ships can accommodate enlisted women at this time. In
:the Army, some occupations may be open to women, but the number of
:enlisted women or officers in those occupations is limited because
:many of the job slots are in male- only units. For example, a
:woman may be qualified as an administrative specialist but is not
:allowed to fill that position if the job is in a unit, such as
:infantry, that is closed to women. Only a handful of Air
:
:Force occupations are closed or restricted to women due to DOD's
:assignment policies. Another barrier is the test used to match
:enlisted personnel to occupations the Armed Services Vocational
:Aptitude Battery (ASVAB) test which contains sections that are
:based on exposure to a subject instead of aptitude. For example,
:one section tests knowledge of automotive components, systems,
:tools, and repairs. A person who has had little or no exposure to
:the workings of automobiles would not likely
:
:do well on this section of the test. Studies have found that women
generally do
: not score well on this section of the test as well as those sections
that test
: mechanical comprehension or electronic information because many
women have had
: little or no exposure to these subjects. Attitudes are mixed on the
impact of
:this type of test. Some officials believe that if people have not had
exposure
:to certain subject matter, they are most likely not interested in
that field ev
:en if they have an aptitude for 2 Gender Issues Information on DOD's
Assignment
: Policy and Direct Ground Combat Definition (
:
:GAO/NSIAD-99-7
:, Oct. 19, 1998).
:do well on this section of the test. Studies have found that women
:generally do not score well on this section of the test as well as
:those sections that test mechanical comprehension or electronic
:information because many women have had little or no exposure to
:these subjects. Attitudes are mixed on the impact of this type of
:test. Some officials believe that if people have not had exposure
:to certain subject matter, they are most likely not interested in
:that field even if they have an aptitude for 2 Gender Issues
:Information on DOD's Assignment Policy and Direct Ground Combat
:Definition ( GAO/NSIAD-99-7 , Oct. 19, 1998).
:
:the subject matter. Others believe that people should be given a
:chance if they have an aptitude for the subject matter. DOD test
:designers are currently working on a new section of the ASVAB,
:assembling objects, which might mitigate the technical test's
:effects on women's scores.
:
:Background The Persian Gulf War saw the largest deployment of
:women in U. S. military history. Approximately 41,000 women were
:deployed, or 7 percent of the total deployed force. Partly because
:of women's performance in the war, legislative restrictions on
:women's occupations were lifted. In 1991, Congress repealed the
:restriction on women flying in combat roles, and DOD implemented
:this change in 1993. In November 1993, Congress lifted the ban on
:the assignment of women to combat ships. In January 1994, the
:Secretary of Defense announced a new assignment policy for women.
:This policy states that servicemembers are eligible to be assigned
:to all
:
:positions for which they are qualified, except that women shall be
:excluded from assignment to units below the brigade level whose
:primary mission is to engage in direct combat on the ground. In
:addition to this direct ground combat exclusion, the Secretary
:also permitted the services to close positions to women if (1) the
:units and positions were required to physically collocate and
:remain with direct ground combat units, (2) the service secretary
:attests that the cost of providing appropriate living space for
:women is prohibitive, (3) the units are engaged in special
:operations missions, or (4) job- related physical requirements
:would exclude the vast
:
:majority of women. No jobs are closed to women because of job-
:related physical requirements. As a result of these policy
:changes, many of the occupations previously closed to women are
:now open to them. These changes have meant that in the Air Force,
:women can fly bombers and fighters or serve as navigators on these
:aircraft. In the Navy, women can fly combat aircraft and serve on
:most combat ships, except submarines. In the Marine Corps and the
:Army, women are now allowed in occupations such as explosive
:ordnance disposal technician and field artillery surveyor that had
:been closed for years. Appendix I provides a list of occupations
:opened to women since the early 1990s. Although these occupations
:were opened to women, servicemembers cannot laterally transfer
:into occupations without undergoing retraining. Generally, women
:could enter these newly opened occupations only when they first
:entered into the military. Job assignments for enlisted members of
:the armed forces are generally made at the Military Entrance
:Processing Stations (MEPS). MEPS officials
:
:administer the ASVAB test to determine whether a recruit is
:qualified for enlistment and the military job occupations for
:which the recruit is qualified. The ASVAB test contains 10
:sections: general science, arithmetic reasoning, word knowledge,
:paragraph comprehension, numerical operations, coding speed, auto
:and shop information, mathematics knowledge, mechanical
:comprehension, and electronics information. Using the recruit's
:ASVAB scores, along with other factors such as strength, physical
:health, and moral character, the services' job counselors
:determine what entry- level occupations the recruit is eligible
:for based on the apparent strengths of the individual and the
:services' needs at that time. The recruit decides what occupation
:appeals to him or her from those that are available.
:
:Job assignments for officers vary by service. In general, however,
:all the services match the officers' preferences with the open
:occupations. The Air Force classifies officers based on their
:preferences and the needs of the Air Force. Factors considered are
:college major and other academic endeavors, for example, a
:concentration in languages or math. All the services, except for
:the Marine Corps, give top- ranking graduates of the service
:academies priority in selecting occupations. Occupations of Women
:As was the case in the early 1990s, a significant number of
:officers and
:
:in the Military enlisted women continue to be concentrated in the
:health care, administration, personnel, and supply occupations.
:However, the number of women going into more technical or combat-
:related fields is increasing. While this is true for all of the
:services, the Marine Corps officers had the most dramatic growth
:of women in technical fields. The following sections contain
:figures that show the percentage of all women, DOD- wide and by
:service, that were assigned in occupations in fiscal year 1990
:(fiscal year 1992 for the Army) and fiscal year 1998. The
:
:occupations shown for the services are those occupations that had
:the most women in them in either fiscal year 1990 (fiscal year
:1992 for the Army) or 1998. Oftentimes, these occupations were the
:same for both fiscal years, with one or two unique occupations for
:each year. These figures show that the percentage of women in most
:of the career fields we analyzed remained fairly stable between
:fiscal years 1990 (fiscal year 1992
:
:for the Army) and 1998 for DOD- wide and for the four services.
:These figures do not necessarily highlight those occupations with
:fewer positions, but a high number of women when compared to men.
:In contrast, appendix II details, by service, the occupations with
:the greatest
:
:percentage of women when compared to men. Appendix II also shows
:the information for those occupations that had the highest
:proportion of women when compared to men for one or both fiscal
:years. DOD- Wide According to data from the Defense Manpower Data
:Center (DMDC), which collects occupational data from all four
:services and converts the data into a standardized, DOD- wide
:occupational classification, in fiscal years 1990 and 1998,
:enlisted women served predominantly in the functional support and
:administration occupational area (see fig. 1). This area includes
:such occupational areas as personnel, recruiting and counseling,
:law, supply administration, auditing and accounting, and general
:administration. Another occupational area that had a high
:concentration of enlisted women in both fiscal years was the
:medical and dental specialist area.
:
:Figure 1: Occupational Distribution of Enlisted Women, DOD- Wide,
:During Fiscal Years 1990 and 1998
:
:40 Percent
:
:35 30 25 20 15 10
:
:5 0
:
:Functional and anddental handlers and
:
:Electrical/ crews, Other support administration
:
:Medical specialists Service intelligencespecialists
:
:mechanicalequipment repairers Electronic equipment repairers
:
:gun seamanshipspecialists Other alliedspecialists
:
:Craftsmen supply Communicationsand Infantry, and 1990
:
:1998
:
:Source: DMDC data.
:
:As shown in figure 2, over 40 percent of female officers were in
:health care occupations during fiscal years 1990 and 1998. The
:next highest concentration of female officers was in
:administration, which includes occupations in general
:administration, manpower and personnel, comptrollers, data
:processing, information, police, and morale and welfare. By fiscal
:year 1998, 2 percent of women were general/ flag officers or
:executives compared to 0 percent in fiscal year 1990. In addition
:to general
:
:and flag officers, this category includes senior officers, such as
:colonels, that have command duties. Examples of positions are
:operating forces command commander, judge advocate colonel, and
:operations commander. In addition, the number of women increased
:in the tactical operations area, which includes occupations such
:as pilots, aircraft crews, ground and naval arms officers, and
:missiles and weapons officers.
:
:Figure 2: Occupational Distribution of Female Officers, DOD- Wide,
:During Fiscal Years 1990 and 1998
:
:50 Percent 40 30 20 10
:
:0 care
:
:Supply, and operations flag
:
:and Other
:
:Health Administration Engineeringand maintenance
:
:operations Intelligence
:
:Scientists andprofessionals General/ officers executives
:
:procurement, allied Tactical 1990 1998
:
:Source: DMDC data.
:
:Navy In both fiscal years 1990 and 1998, the general detail
:occupation had more enlisted women than any other occupation in
:the Navy (see fig. 3). The general detail occupation encompasses
:the apprenticeship level for seaman, airman, and fireman.
:Typically, only junior enlisted sailors are in this occupation.
:Enlisted sailors are assigned to this occupation if they are
:
:unsure about what occupation they want to pursue in the Navy, if
:their test scores do not qualify them for a particular occupation,
:or if the occupations they want have no openings when they enlist.
:Sailors are assigned to an
:
:occupation from the general detail occupation when one becomes
:available that fits their abilities, interests, and needs of the
:Navy.
:
:The health care occupation continues to have a high concentration
:of enlisted women. In fiscal year 1990, 13 percent of the Navy's
:enlisted women were in health care; in fiscal year 1998, about 16
:percent of the enlisted women were in these occupations. These
:occupations include hospital corpsmen, dental technicians, and
:laboratory technicians.
:
:Figure 3: Distribution of Enlisted Women in Navy Occupations in
:Fiscal Years 1990 and 1998
:
:25 Percent
:
:20 15 10
:
:5 0
:
:General detail care
:
:Logistics Aviation Cryptology
:
:Marine control Ship systems
:
:Health Administration maintenance/ weapons
:
:Communications engineering
:
:Weapons maintenance Data Remaining occupations
:
:1990 1998
:
:Source: DMDC data.
:
:In fiscal year 1998, the Navy nurse corps had more women than any
:other community (see fig. 4). Twenty- eight percent of female
:officers in the Navy were in the nurse corps compared to about 29
:percent in fiscal year 1990. However, the nurse corps did not have
:the highest concentration of women in fiscal year 1990 special
:duty fleet support did. 3 Women in this 3 In fiscal year 1990,
:special duty fleet support was called unrestricted line officers
:(URL).
:
:community serve in billets such as information systems management,
:communications, personnel administration, and recruiting. In 1990,
:31 percent of female officers were in special duty fleet support.
:This percentage decreased to 15.4 percent in fiscal year 1998.
:Figure 4 also shows that a growing percentage of women are going
:into the surface warfare occupation. Officers in this occupation
:serve on destroyers, aircraft carriers, and other surface ships in
:a variety of positions. In fiscal year 1990, nearly 3 percent of
:female officers served in the surface warfare occupation. By
:fiscal year 1998, this percentage had increased to 8 percent due
:in part to the 1994 repeal of the law prohibiting women from
:serving on combat ships.
:
:Figure 4: Distribution of Female Officers in Navy Career Fields in
:Fiscal Year 1990 and Fiscal Year 1998
:
:35 Percent
:
:30 25 20 15 10
:
:5 0
:
:corps general support
:
:servicecorps corps
:
:Surface warfare corps
:
:corps advocate
:
:general bomberpilot
:
:corps Remaining Nurses Special dutyfleet Medical Medical Supply
:Dental Judge Fighter/ Special dutyintelligence engineering
:occupations
:
:Civil 1990 1998
:
:Source: DMDC data.
:
:As figure 5 shows, the Navy's enlisted women have made gains in
:specific jobs that were previously closed to them. The number of
:women in the fire controlman job increased from zero in fiscal
:year 1993 to 266 in fiscal year 1998. The number of women in the
:sonar technician, surface job also increased from zero in fiscal
:year 1993 to 345 in fiscal year 1998.
:
:Figure 5: Increase in the Number of Navy Women in Occupations
:Previously Closed to Women, Fiscal Years 1993 Through 1998
:
:400 350 300 250 200 150 100
:
:50 0
:
:1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 Av iation boats w ain mate-- launc
:hing and rec ov ery , equipment Av iation anti- s ub w ar f are
:operator Elec tr onic s w arf are tec hnician Fire c ontrolman Gas
:tur bine s y s tem tec h, electrical Gas tur bine s y s tem tec h,
:mechanic al Sonar tec hnician, s ur f ac e Gunner 's mate
:
:Source: DMDC data.
:
:Marine Corps As figure 6 shows, the percentage of enlisted women
:in most of the Marine Corps career fields we analyzed remained
:fairly stable between fiscal year
:
:1990 and 1998. However, two career fields personnel and
:administrat ion and supply administration and operations
:experienced a sizeable
:
:decrease in the percentage of enlisted women, and the career field
:of general service marine showed a marked increase. This career
:field includes a wide range of occupations such as general service
:marine, basic marine with enlistment guarantee, sergeants major
:and first sergeants, and marine air ground task force planners.
:Most of the enlisted women were in the basic marine with
:enlistment guarantee category, with general service marine being
:the next highest category. These marines' military qualifications
:and experience are not yet developed to be sufficient or adequate
:for qualification in other occupations. The Marine Corps assigns
:the general service marine occupation to those recruits undergoing
:training who did not enlist under a special enlistment program.
:The basic marine with enlistment guarantee category is assigned to
:personnel that join under an enlistment option program or an
:enlistment incentive program.
:
:Figure 6: Distribution of Enlisted Women in Marine Corps
:Occupations in Fiscal Years 1990 and 1998
:
:30 Percent
:
:25 20 15 10
:
:5 0 Personnel Supply General
:
:marine Operational transport
:
:Aircraft service Logistics
:
:Avionics finance, accounting
:
:police Remaining andadministration
:
:administrationand operations service communications
:
:Motor maintenance Food Auditing, and Military occupations
:
:1990 1998
:
:Source: DMDC data.
:
:Patterns for female officers in the Marine Corps are similar to
:those for enlisted women. As figure 7 shows, the greatest
:concentration of women continues to be in the personnel and
:administration occupation. However, there were an increased number
:of women serving as pilots and naval flight officers and general
:service marines and in air control/ air support/ antiair warfare
:occupations. In addition, the number of women officers decreased
:
:in the personnel and administration; supply administration and
:operations; auditing, finance, and accounting; and data systems
:occupations.
:
:Figure 7: Distribution of Female Officers in Marine Corps
:Occupations in Fiscal Years 1990 and 1998
:
:25 Percent
:
:20 15 10
:
:5 0
:
:General marine
:
:finance, Computer/ Logistics naval officers
:
:control/ support/ warfare systems
:
:transport services
:
:Remaining Personnel andadministration service administrationand
:operations
:
:accounting Pilots/ flight Air air Data Motor Legal Intelligence
:
:occupations Supply Auditing, and communications
:
:antiair 1990 1998
:
:Source: DMDC data. As figures 8 (ground occupations), 9, and 10
:(aviation related occupation) show, Marine Corps women have been
:making gains in specific jobs that were previously closed to them,
:especially in the combat engineer and pilot
:
:and naval flight officer jobs. The combat engineer job did not
:open to women until 1994; however, by 1998, 36 women had this job.
:Even more dramatic was the number of women that became pilots and
:naval flight officers. By 1998, 62 women were pilots or flight
:officers. This number
:
:constitutes over 7 percent of the Marine Corps female officers. No
:women have yet been assigned to 11 recently opened jobs. These
:include explosive ordnance disposal officer; ground nuclear
:weapons assembly technician; ground nuclear weapons assembly
:officer; ground launched missile system maintenance officer;
:aviation fire control repairer; aviation fire control technician;
:aircraft flight engineer, KC- 130; helicopter maintenance chief;
:aircraft power plants test cell operator, rotary wing;
:presidential support specialist; and aerial navigation officer.
:
:Figure 8: Increase in the Number of Female Marine Corps Enlisted
:and Officers in Ground Jobs Previously Closed, Fiscal Years 1993
:Through 1998
:
:40 35 30 25 20 15 10
:
:5 0
:
:1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 E mbark at i on offi cer A ir deli
:very s pecial i s t Landing s upport s pec i al i s t E ng ineer o
:ffi c er Com bat eng ineer E x p losi ve ordnanc e d is pos a l t
:ec hni c i an Cry pt olo gi c lin guis t (M id dl e E as t )
:
:Source: DMDC data.
:
:Figure 9: Increase in the Number of Female Marine Corps Enlisted
:and Officers in Selected Aviation Jobs Previously Closed, Fiscal
:Years 1993 Through 1998
:
:70 60 50 40 30 20 10
:
:0 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998
:
:Airborne radio operator/ loadmaster Aircraft mechanic, AV- 8
:helicopter mechanic Helicopter airframe mechanic Helicopter c rew
:c hief Aircraft c ommunicat ion Aircraft elect ronic system t ech,
:AV- 8 Source: DMDC data.
:
:Figure 10: Increase in the Number of Female Marine Corps Enlisted
:and Officers in Selected Aviation Jobs Previously Closed, Fiscal
:Years 1993 Through 1998
:
:70 60 50 40 30 20 10
:
:0 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998
:
:Antiair w arfare o ffi cer Air s upport contro l officer HAWK m is
:s ile s ys tem o perator Air s upport operations officer Aerial na
:vigator trainee Firs t navi gator Pilot/naval flight officer
:
:Source: DMDC data.
:
:Air Force The proportion of enlisted women serving in various Air
:Force occupations was generally similar in fiscal years 1998 and
:1990. Furthermore, women were not highly concentrated in any one
:specific occupation. About 10 percent of enlisted women in the Air
:Force were in the information management occupation, and another
:10 percent were in the supply occupation (see fig. 11). Detailed
:Air Force data also show that the number of women in technical or
:combat- related occupations has increased. For
:
:example, the number of enlisted women in airborne warning
:communications and control systems occupations increased from 41
:in fiscal year 1990 to 108 in fiscal year 1998. Similarly, in
:space system
:
:operations, the number of enlisted women increased from 26 in
:fiscal year 1990 to 136 in fiscal year 1998. The biggest increase
:was in air traffic control, where the number of women more than
:tripled since fiscal year 1990 to 727 in fiscal year 1998.
:
:Figure 11: Distribution of Enlisted Women in Air Force Occupations
:in Fiscal Years 1990 and 1998
:
:50 Percent
:
:40 30 20 10
:
:a
:
:0 Supply
:
:Personnelsystems Medical service
:
:Security police manager/
:
:Financial services
:
:t Services
:
:Dental Information management
:
:aerospace management suppor
:
:Remaining occupations Communications
:
:Systems Health 1990 1998 a This category did not exist in fiscal
:year 1998.
:
:Comparable data for female Air Force officers are shown in figure
:12. The greatest concentration of female Air Force officers is in
:the nurse corps. As figure 12 shows, about 29 percent of the women
:were in the nurses'
:
:corps in fiscal year 1998, compared to almost 32 percent in fiscal
:year 1990. One occupation where the number increased significantly
:was in the space, astronaut, and missile occupation, which
:increased from 226 female
:
:officers in fiscal year 1990 to 384 female officers in fiscal year
:1998. While the proportion of female pilots decreased slightly
:between fiscal years 1990 and 1998, the figure remained about 3
:percent. Figure 12: Distribution of Female Officers in Air Force
:Occupations in Fiscal Years 1990 and 1998.
:
:35 Percent
:
:30 25 20 15 10
:
:5 0
:
:Nurse battle Medicine
:
:clinic missile/ Pilot
:
:advocate general
:
:Aircraft Personnel/ management
:
:computers/ visualization Intelligence
:
:Air management Biomedical specialist
:
:Space/ astronaut Developmentengineer
:
:Acquisition Contracts
:
:maintenance Remaining occupations
:
:Communications/ Biomedical Manager/ Judge 1990 1998
:
:Source: DMDC data.
:
:As figure 13 shows, Air Force women have been entering specific
:jobs that were previously closed to them. For example, the number
:of women that are bomber and fighter pilots has increased as have
:the number of women that have served as combat navigators. One job
:that women have not entered is the sensor operator job, which
:opened to women in 1993. This job requires a lateral transfer at
:the E- 5 or E- 6 level.
:
:Figure 13: Increase in the Number of Women in Air Force Jobs
:Previously Closed to Women, Fiscal Years 1993 Through 1998
:
:2 5 2 0 1 5 1 0
:
:5 0
:
:1 9 9 3 1 9 9 4 1 9 9 5 1 9 9 6 1 9 9 7 1 9 9 8 B o m b e r p il o
:t s F ig h t e r p i l o t s S u r ve il l a n c e re c o n p il o
:t s B o m b e r n a vi g a t o r s F i g h t e r n a vi g a to rs
:S u r ve il l a n c e r e c o n n a vi g a t o r s S e n s o r o p
:e ra t o r Source: DMDC data.
:
:Army Army enlisted women were generally in the same occupations in
:fiscal year 1998 that they were in fiscal year 1992 (see fig. 14).
:4 The three main occupations were administration, medicine, and
:supply and service. However, the number of enlisted women has been
:steadily increasing in many technical and combat- related
:occupations. For many of these
:
:occupations, the numbers of women entering these occupations were
:too small to affect the percentage of women in the occupations and
:were included in the remaining occupations category in figure 13.
:For example, the number of women in the field artillery occupation
:increased from 32 in fiscal year 1992 to 122 in fiscal year 1998.
:This increase is even more dramatic considering that the number of
:men decreased by 26.5 percent in this occupation during this time
:frame. In addition, the number of enlisted women in air defense
:increased from 350 in fiscal year
:
:1992 to 546 in fiscal year 1998. The increase of enlisted women in
:electronic maintenance is especially dramatic, from 45 in fiscal
:year 1992 to 719 in fiscal year 1998. Other occupations that show
:increases were the chemical and petroleum occupations. The number
:of women in the chemical occupation increased from 596 in fiscal
:year 1992 to 1,058 in fiscal year 1998, while the number of women
:in the petroleum occupation rose from 1,429 in fiscal year 1992 to
:2,537 in fiscal year 1998. 4 Because we could not reconcile the
:Army's data with DMDC s database, we chose to use the Army's data.
:However, Army officials were only able to provide data beginning
:with fiscal year 1992.
:
:Figure 14: Distribution of Enlisted Women in Army Occupations in
:Fiscal Years 1992 and 1998
:
:25 Percent
:
:20 15 10
:
:5 0
:
:Medical and service
:
:Signal police
:
:Signal Petroleum Administration
:
:Supply Transportation Mechanical maintenance
:
:Military intelligence Remaining occupations
:
:1992 1998
:
:Source: Army data. In the Army, female officers were generally in
:the same occupations in fiscal year 1998 that they were in fiscal
:year 1992 (see fig. 15). As with the Navy and the Air Force, the
:highest concentration of women was in the Army Nurse Corps (ANC).
:About 30 percent of female officers were in ANC during fiscal year
:1992, compared to 23 percent in fiscal year 1998. Although the
:percentage of women in the engineering and aviation occupations
:remains small, detailed Army data show that the number of women
:entering these occupations increased. Specifically, the number of
:
:women officers increased from 210 in fiscal year 1992 to 329 in
:fiscal year 1998 in the engineering branch and from 234 in fiscal
:year 1992 to 293 in fiscal year 1998 in the aviation occupation.
:
:Figure 15: Distribution of Female Officers in Army Occupations in
:Fiscal Years 1992 and 1998
:
:30 Percent
:
:25 20 15 10
:
:5 0
:
:Army Corps
:
:service corps
:
:Intelligence Signal
:
:Adjutantgeneral Ordnance
:
:police advocate
:
:general specialist
:
:Engineer Remaining Nurse Medical Medical Quartermaster
:
:Transportation Military Judge Medical occupations
:
:1992 1998
:
:Source: Army data.
:
:In 1994, the Army opened new jobs to enlisted women and female
:warrant officers. As figure 16 shows, Army women have entered some
:of these
:
:specific jobs in dramatic fashion. For example, the job of field
:artillery surveyor had 68 women in fiscal year 1998 and the number
:of female engineer bridge crewmembers reached 50 in fiscal year
:1998. One job,
:
:combat engineer senior sergeant, has had no women in it since it
:was opened to women in fiscal year 1994. According to Army
:officials, this job has not been open long enough for women to
:advance to the rank of senior sergeant. Figure 16: Increase in the
:Number of Women in Army Jobs Previously Closed to Women, Fiscal
:Years 1993 Through 1998
:
:8 0 7 0 6 0 5 0 4 0 3 0 2 0 1 0
:
:0 1 9 9 3 1 9 9 4 1 9 9 5 1 9 9 6 1 9 9 7 1 9 9 8
:
:E n g i n e e r b ri d g e c r e w m e m b e r C o m b a t e n g
:in e e r s e n io r s e r g e a n t F i e ld a rt i l l e ry s u r
:ve y o r O H - 5 8 A / C s c o u t p i l o t O H - 5 8 D p i l o t
:A H - 6 4 a t t a c k p il o t A H - a t t a c k p il o t
:
:Source: DMDC data.
:
:Civilian Women Make To provide some perspective, we looked at the
:occupational distribution of Similar Occupational civilian women.
:The occupational patterns of military women are similar to those
:of civilian women. Proportionally, civilian women do not work in
:Choices the skilled trades, technical occupations, or protective
:service occupations in the civilian sector to the extent that men
:do. Women represent 46 percent of the workforce but only about 10
:percent of all workers in the skilled trade, technical, and
:protective service occupations. For example, about 2 percent of
:the construction workforce, 1 percent of automobile mechanics, 2
:percent of firefighters, 2 percent of electricians, and 5 percent
:of truck drivers are women. 5 On average, these nontraditional
:jobs pay
:
:20 to 30 percent more than jobs women have traditionally held. An
:official with the Department of Labor Women's Bureau stated that
:societal factors tend to discourage women from entering these
:occupations. According to the Department of Labor, women generally
:have less math and science
:
:education. In addition, peer pressure from friends and parents
:discourage women from entering the skilled trades, technical
:occupations, and protective services. Finally, some researchers
:believe that women are
:
:reluctant to enter nontraditional occupations because women
:believe they are unwelcome in these types of occupations.
:Institutional Barriers Most occupations are open to women in the
:military. However, even if an occupation is open to women, there
:are two institutional barriers that keep more women from going
:into these occupations. The first barrier is that about 115,000
:positions within military units may not be filled by women, even
:though an occupation is technically open to women. For example, in
:the Army some occupations are open to women, but the number of
:women in those occupations is limited because many of the job
:slots are in male- only units. The second institutional barrier is
:that the ASVAB, the test the military uses to match women to
:occupations contains sections that are
:
:based on exposure to certain subject matter instead of aptitude.
:Positions Closed to Women The services vary on why positions are
:closed to women. In general, the
:
:Navy limits positions to women because some ships, such as
:submarines, are closed to women. The Marine Corps generally limits
:positions for women for this reason, but also limits positions to
:women because they cannot engage in direct ground combat. The Army
:also limits positions for 5 U. S. Department of Labor, Bureau of
:Labor Statistics, Employment & Earnings, January 1999.
:
:women because of this direct ground combat assignment policy. The
:Air Force has the most gender- neutral policy in assigning women
:to open occupations and does not have the constraints that the
:other services have.
:
:Navy The assignment of women to occupations in the Navy is
:complicated by the limited number of sea positions available to
:women generally only 10 to 20 percent of ship positions are
:available for women and the fact that some ships, such as
:submarines, are closed to women. These factors have led the Navy
:to limit the number of women who can enter some occupations. For
:example, the Navy limits the number of enlisted women that enter
:its nuclear power program because a number of these positions are
:on submarines. The Navy also limits the number of women in some of
:its
:
:medical fields because of the requirements to provide medical
:personnel to ships that are not open to women and to Marine Corps
:units not open to women. According to Navy officials, the Navy has
:encouraged women to go into nontraditional occupations because it
:is easier to assign women to ships when they have a more diverse
:range of skills. When assigning women to a ship, personnel
:detailers must consider whether the ship needs a person with a
:particular skill and whether appropriate berthing is available. If
:a woman's berth is available and a woman with the required skill
:is available, then the assignment is easily made. However, if a
:woman's berth is available but no woman with the required skill is
:available, the positions may go unfilled. Additionally, if women
:continue to concentrate in traditionally female occupations, some
:women may not have the
:
:opportunity to undertake career enhancing sea assignments because
:ships have a limited need for their skills. This is not a problem
:for female officers because the Navy does not usually have to make
:major modifications to its ships to accommodate female officers.
:Marine Corps Because the Marine Corps often deploys on Navy ships,
:it limits the number of women in some occupations because the Navy
:has not completed integrating all of its ships. For example, the
:Marine Corps limits the number of enlisted women that can serve as
:helicopter crew chiefs because helicopters are often assigned to
:ships and not all Navy ships can accommodate enlisted women at
:this time. In addition, a significant percentage of its units
:remain closed to women, and women cannot fill
:
:slots in open occupations in those units. Enlisted women below the
:rank of staff sergeant are barred from approximately 25 percent of
:the Marine Corps' administrative positions because these positions
:are in combat units.
:
:Army Army women can serve in 97 percent of officer career fields
:and 83 percent of enlisted occupations but can serve in less than
:70 percent of the job slots because the remaining slots are in
:combat units or in units that collocate with combat units. On the
:basis of DOD and Army policy, women cannot serve in ground combat
:units or units collocated with such units, even though they may be
:qualified to fill particular occupations in those units. For
:example, a woman may be qualified as an administrative specialist
:but
:
:is not be allowed to fill an available position because the job is
:in a combat unit.
:
:During a visit to a MEPS, a job counselor provided us with lists
:of occupations that were closed to men and women. Some occupations
:may be closed to both men and women because the Army already has a
:sufficient number of soldiers with those particular skills.
:However, 14 occupations were closed to women but remained open to
:men. By
:
:necessity, the Army must limit the number of women it trains in
:some occupations because a number of units that require those
:occupations are closed to women.
:
:Air Force Among the services, the Air Force has the most gender-
:neutral policy in assigning women to open occupations. The Air
:Force is different from the Marine Corps and the Army because 99
:percent of its positions are not associated with the direct ground
:combat rule and are therefore open to women. The Air Force is also
:different from the Navy in that the Air Force
:
:needed to consider only minor changes to its equipment to
:accommodate women. Barriers Due to ASVAB The ASVAB test screens
:out some recruits from technical occupations because it measures
:experience rather than aptitude on technical subjects. DMDC has
:conducted a series of studies of the ASVAB. One study determined
:that the test was a valid indicator. Recruits who score high in
:certain sections of the test do well in the corresponding
:occupations. 6 However, the study also showed that there were
:significant differences in
:
:how men and women scored on the technical components of the test.
:DMDC conducted another study to determine why these differences
:
:6 Sensitivity and Fairness of the Armed Services Vocational
:Aptitude Battery (ASVAB) Technical Composites, DMDC, December
:1992.
:
:existed. 7 This study analyzed about 21, 500 high school
:transcripts from 1990 high school graduates. DMDC found that
:roughly half the males took one or two technical education
:classes, whereas only 20 percent of the females took that many
:courses. About 40 percent of the males and 80 percent of the
:females took no technical education courses at all. Less than 2
:percent of the women took automobile/ machine shop compared to
:almost 19 percent of the men. In addition, less than 1 percent of
:the women took electricity/ electronics courses compared to almost
:10 percent of the
:
:men. DMDC concluded that the difference in the exposure to the
:subject matter affected the scores on the technical sections of
:the ASVAB, not the aptitude of the test taker. For example, one
:section tests knowledge on automobile
:
:mechanics. A person who has not been exposed to the principles of
:automobile mechanics would most likely not do well on the test.
:The study concluded that women have generally not excelled on the
:technical sections since many have not taken classes such as
:automobile mechanics in high school. Officials from the services
:we spoke with had varying opinions on this issue. Some officials
:thought it was acceptable that the ASVAB technical sections
:focused on exposure rather than aptitude. They stated that because
:people were not interested enough in the subject to study it in
:school, they would not be interested in pursuing a job in that
:field. Others thought that people should be given the chance if
:they have
:
:an aptitude in that subject matter. Marine Corps officials stated
:that they encouraged women to go into more nontraditional
:occupations a few years ago and that they are now analyzing the
:attrition rates of women in these occupations. Preliminary results
:indicate that the attrition rates are much higher for women than
:men in these nontraditional occupations. If the final results show
:that women in more nontraditional occupations are leaving the
:Marine Corps at higher rates than others, the Marine Corps may
:abandon its attempt to encourage
:
:women to enter these occupations and instead assign women to
:occupations of their choice as long as they are qualified. In
:addition, the Congressional Research Service reported that DOD
:studies have shown that enlisted women have much higher rates of
:retention when they are assigned jobs in the administrative,
:clerical, medical, and dental
:
:7 Item Evaluation for the Armed Services Vocational Aptitude
:Battery (ASVAB) Science and Technical Test Specifications: Conduct
:Exposure to Content Analysis, DMDC, December 1997.
:
:occupations and lower retention rates in mechanical and electrical
:equipment occupations. 8 Recognizing the shortcomings of the
:ASVAB, DMDC officials stated that
:
:they were working on a new section of the ASVAB that focuses more
:on aptitude and less on exposure to subject matter. This section--
:assembling objects-- has been found to narrow the difference in
:scores between the genders. The section needs to be validated,
:however, before it will be used to assign recruits to occupations.
:This validation will determine whether
:
:people that score high on this new section would do well in the
:corresponding occupations. If this happens, the new section will
:replace the mechanical comprehension section. This validation will
:take at least a year or two to conduct. To do this validation, the
:services are
:
:administering this section of the test but not using it in
:assignment selections. People who score high on the mechanical
:comprehension and assembling objects sections should do well in
:the corresponding occupation, assuming the assembling objects
:section is valid. However, because assignment decisions are not
:being made using the new section, it will not be known how well
:recruits would do if they scored high on assembling objects, but
:low on mechanical comprehension because they
:
:would not be placed in mechanical occupations. Agency Comments We
:provided a draft of this report to the Office of the Secretary of
:Defense, the Army, the Air Force, the Marine Corps, and the Navy.
:The Office of the Secretary of Defense and the military services
:orally concurred with information presented in the report.
:Additionally, the military services provided technical comments,
:which we incorporated as appropriate.
:
:Scope and To determine what occupations women are working in, we
:obtained Methodology
:
:occupational data from DMDC for fiscal years 1990 through 1998 for
:all four services. We compared these data to similar data provided
:by the services to determine if the DMDC data were correct. The
:Army data provided by DMDC could not be reconciled with Army-
:provided data because DMDC did not appear to be using the Army
:occupational classification system. Consequently, we used Army-
:provided data instead of DMDC data for the Army only. However, the
:Army could only provide 8 Women in Armed Forces, Burrelli, David
:F., Congressional Research Service, updated February 2, 1998
:
:data since fiscal year 1992. We judged this to be sufficient since
:it predated the legislative and policy changes of fiscal years
:1993 and 1994. We also obtained data for men from the same sources
:for the same periods of time. We analyzed these data in two ways.
:First, we compared the occupations women occupied in fiscal year
:1990 (1992 for the Army) to those in fiscal year 1998. We compared
:percentages rather than absolute numbers to
:
:reduce the effects of downsizing on our analysis. Next, we
:analyzed which occupations had a high percentage of women. This
:could differ greatly from the first analysis because an occupation
:may not have many slots to affect the overall numbers, but a large
:percentage of women may be in that occupation. For example, 14
:percent of all Air Force enlisted personnel in fiscal year 1990
:were women, however, over half of Air Force enlisted paralegals
:were women during this same year. But, less than 1 percent of
:
:all women were in the paralegal occupation because of the small
:number of slots in that occupation. For both of these analyses, we
:identified the top 10 or so occupations women were in for fiscal
:years 1990, 1998, or both for each service. Oftentimes, the
:occupations were the same for both fiscal years. We selected these
:occupations to compare for fiscal years 1990 and 1998. To
:determine what occupations women fill in the civilian sector, we
:analyzed Bureau of Labor statistics data and discussed these
:issues with
:
:officials from the Department of Labor Women's Bureau and with a
:sociologist who had studied women's issues in the military and
:civilian sectors.
:
:To ascertain whether any systemic barriers inhibit women from
:entering occupations, we interviewed officials dealing with
:women's affairs from the four services and officials responsible
:for determining the occupational needs of the four services. To
:determine how the services assign women to occupations, we
:interviewed job counselors from the services at the MEPS in Los
:Angeles, California. We also met with officials from DMDC's
:
:Personnel Testing Division and an Office of the Secretary of
:Defense consultant who developed the ASVAB test to discuss
:possible barriers caused by that test. We performed our review
:between July 1998 and July 1999 in accordance with generally
:accepted government auditing standards. We are sending copies of
:this report to Senator Wayne Allard, Chairman, and Senator Max
:Cleland, Ranking Minority Member, Subcommittee on Military
:Personnel, Senate Committee on Armed Services, as well as
:
:Representative Steve Buyer, Chairman, and Representative Neil
:Abercrombie, Ranking Minority Member, Subcommittee on Military
:Personnel, House Committee on Armed Services. We are also sending
:copies to the Honorable William S. Cohen, Secretary of Defense;
:the
:
:Honorable Lewis Caldera, Secretary of the Army; the Honorable John
:H. Dalton, Secretary of the Navy; the Honorable F. Whitten Peters,
:Secretary of the Air Force; and General James L. Jones, Commandant
:of the Marine Corps. We will also make copies available to other
:interested parties.
:
:If you or your staff have any questions concerning this report,
:please contact me on (202) 512- 5140. Major contributors to this
:report were Carol R. Schuster, William E. Beusse, Cheryl L.
:Gordon, and Carole F. Coffey.
:
:Sincerely yours, Norman J. Rabkin Director, National Security
:
:Preparedness Issues
:
:Letter 1 Appendix I
:
:40 Military Occupations Opened to Women in the Early 1990s, by
:Service
:
:Appendix II 43
:
:Occupations With the Greatest Percentages of Women When Compared
:to Men
:
:Figures Figure 1: Occupational Distribution of Enlisted Women,
:DOD- Wide, During Fiscal Years 1990 and 1998 6 Figure 2:
:Occupational Distribution of Female Officers, DOD- Wide, During
:Fiscal Years 1990 and 1998 7 Figure 3: Distribution of Enlisted
:Women in Navy Occupations in Fiscal Years 1990 and 1998 9 Figure
:4: Distribution of Female Officers in Navy Career Fields in Fiscal
:Year 1990 and Fiscal Year 1998 11 Figure 5: Increase in the Number
:of Navy Women in Occupations
:
:Previously Closed to Women, Fiscal Years 1993 Through 1998 12
:Figure 6: Distribution of Enlisted Women in Marine Corps
:
:Occupations in Fiscal Years 1990 and 1998 14 Figure 7:
:Distribution of Female Officers in Marine Corps
:
:Occupations in Fiscal Years 1990 and 1998 15 Figure 8: Increase in
:the Number of Female Marine Corps Enlisted and
:
:Officers in Ground Jobs Previously Closed, Fiscal Years 1993
:Through 1998 17 Figure 9: Increase in the Number of Female Marine
:Corps Enlisted and
:
:Officers in Selected Aviation Jobs Previously Closed, Fiscal Years
:1993 Through 1998 18
:
:Figure 10: Increase in the Number of Female Marine Corps Enlisted
:and Officers in Selected Aviation Jobs Previously Closed, Fiscal
:Years 1993 Through 1998 19
:
:Figure 11: Distribution of Enlisted Women in Air Force Occupations
:in Fiscal Years 1990 and 1998 21 Figure 12: Distribution of Female
:Officers in Air Force Occupations in
:
:Fiscal Years 1990 and 1998. 22 Figure 13: Increase in the Number
:of Women in Air Force Jobs
:
:Previously Closed to Women, Fiscal Years 1993 Through 1998 23
:Figure 14: Distribution of Enlisted Women in Army Occupations in
:Fiscal Years 1992 and 1998 25
:
:Figure 15: Distribution of Female Officers in Army Occupations in
:Fiscal Years 1992 and 1998 26 Figure 16: Increase in the Number of
:Women in Army Jobs Previously
:
:Closed to Women, Fiscal Years 1993 Through 1998 27 Figure II. 1:
:Navy Occupations With High Concentrations of Enlisted Women 43
:
:Figure II. 2: Navy Occupations With High Concentrations of Female
:Officers 45 Figure II. 3: Marine Corps Occupations With High
:Concentrations of Enlisted Women 46
:
:Figure II. 4: Marine Corps Occupations With High Concentrations of
:Female Officers 47 Figure II. 5: Air Force Occupations With High
:Concentrations of Enlisted Women 48 Figure II. 6: Air Force
:Occupations With High Concentrations of Female
:
:Officers 49 Figure II. 7: Army Occupations With High
:Concentrations of Enlisted Women 50
:
:Figure II. 8: Army Occupations With High Concentrations of Female
:Officers 51
:
:Abbreviations
:
:ANC Army Nurse Corps ASVAB Armed Services Vocational Aptitude
:Battery DMDC Defense Manpower Data Center DOD Department of
:Defense JAG Judge Advocate General MEPS Military Entrance
:Processing Stations URL Unrestricted Line Officers
:
:Military Occupations Opened to Women in the Appendi I x Early
:1990s, by Service Navy Aviation boatswain mate launching and
:recovery equipment Aviation antisubmarine warfare officer
:Electronics warfare technician Fire controlman Gunner's mate, guns
:Gunner's mate, missiles Gas turbine systems technician, electrical
:Gas turbine systems technician, mechanical Sonar technician,
:surface
:
:Marine Corps Opened Prior to January
:
:Ground nuclear weapons assembly technician 1994
:
:Cryptologic linguist (Middle East) Ground nuclear weapons assembly
:officer Ground launched missile system maintenance officer HAWK
:missile systems technician Aviation fire control repairer Aviation
:fire control technician Aircraft flight engineer, KC- 130 Antiair
:warfare officer HAWK missile system operator Aerial navigator
:trainee First navigator Aerial navigation officer Airborne radio
:operator/ loadmaster Pilot/ naval flight officer
:
:Opened After October 1994 Embarkation officer
:
:Based on New Assignment Landing support specialist Policy
:
:Air delivery specialist Engineer officer Combat engineer Explosive
:ordnance disposal officer Explosive ordnance disposal tech
:Aircraft mechanic, AV- 8 Aircraft hydraulic pneumatic mechanic,
:AV- 8
:
:Helicopter mechanic trainee Helicopter mechanic, CH- 46 Helicopter
:mechanic, CH- 53 Helicopter mechanic, U/ AH- 1 Helicopter
:mechanic, MV- 22 Helicopter maintenance chief Helicopter power
:plants mechanic, MV- 22 Aircraft power plants test cell operator,
:rotary wing Helicopter airframe mechanic trainee Helicopter
:airframe mechanic, U/ AH- 1 Helicopter airframe mechanic, MV- 22
:Presidential support specialist Helicopter crew chief, CH- 46
:Helicopter crew chief, CH- 53 Helicopter crew chief, UH- 1N
:Helicopter crew chief, MV- 22 Aircraft communication, Navy system
:technician, AV- 8 Aircraft communication, Navy electronic system
:technician, CH- 46 Aircraft communication, Navy electronic system
:technician, CH- 53 Aircraft communication, Navy electronic,
:weapons system technician, U/ AH- 1
:
:Aircraft electronic system technician, AV- 8 Air support control
:officer Air support operations operator Marine Corps security
:force cadre trainer
:
:Air Force Fighter pilot Fighter navigator
:
:Bomber pilot Bomber navigator Surveillance reconnaissance pilot
:Surveillance reconnaissance navigator Sensor operator
:
:Army Engineer bridge crewmember Combat engineer senior sergeant
:
:Field artillery surveyor OH- 58A/ C scout pilot OH- 58D pilot
:
:AH- 64 attack pilot AH- 1 attack pilot
:
:Occupations With the Greatest Percentages of Appe ndi I I x Women
:When Compared to Men Navy The occupations in the Navy with the
:greatest percentage of enlisted women when compared to men for
:fiscal years 1990 and 1998 are shown in figure II. 1. Although
:women represented 9.8 percent of the Navy's enlisted force in 1990
:and 12.8 percent in fiscal year 1998, women represented a
:
:significant percent of the personnel in occupations such as
:cryptology, air traffic control, and communications. Figure II. 1:
:Navy Occupations With High Concentrations of Enlisted Women
:
:30 Percentage
:
:25 20 15 10
:
:5 0
:
:care Media
:
:control detail
:
:arms Cryptology
:
:Health Meteorology/ at Intelligence systems
:
:Administration Communications
:
:traffic General oceanography Master Data Air 1990
:
:1998 Source: Defense Manpower Data Center (DMDC) data.
:
:The occupations that had high concentrations of women officers
:when compared to men for fiscal years 1990 and 1998 are shown in
:figure II. 2. In fiscal year 1990, women constituted 10. 8 percent
:of all officers; in fiscal year 1998 they constituted 14.1
:percent. During these 2 years, women
:
:officers constituted a vast majority of the nurse corps and
:special duty fleet support. Other occupations with high
:concentrations of women included special duty public affairs, the
:judge advocate general corps (JAG), the medical corps, and medical
:services corps.
:
:Figure II. 2: Navy Occupations With High Concentrations of Female
:Officers
:
:100 Percentage
:
:80 60 40 20
:
:0 Nurses
:
:general support
:
:Data Prospective
:
:officer affairs
:
:servicescorps advocate
:
:general scholar
:
:(Med) corps
:
:duty surface
:
:duty corps Special dutyfleet processing
:
:corps Special dutypublic Medical Judge Health program Medical
:Special oceanography Special dutycryptology
:
:Communications, Special intelligence JAG 1990
:
:1998
:
:Source: DMDC data.
:
:Marine Corps The occupations that had high percentages of women
:enlisted in the Marine Corps when compared to men for fiscal years
:1990 and 1998 are
:
:shown in figure II. 3. In fiscal year 1990, 4.9 percent of the
:Marine Corps enlisted force were women. In fiscal year 1998, 5.7
:percent of the force were women. During both years, women were in
:a significant portion of some occupations, including public
:affairs and legal services.
:
:Figure II. 3: Marine Corps Occupations With High Concentrations of
:Enlisted Women
:
:30 Percentage 25 20 15 10
:
:5
:
:a a
:
:0 affairs
:
:services Music
:
:finance, accounting supply
:
:support Traffic
:
:Supply Printing systems Public Legal Miscellaneous
:
:Personnel andadministration Audit, Aviations Training/
:visualinformation management
:
:operations andreproduction
:
:Data and administrationand 1990 1998 a Job classification did not
:exist during this fiscal year.
:
:Source: DMDC data.
:
:The Marine Corps occupations that had high percentages of female
:officers when compared to men for fiscal years 1990 and 1998 are
:shown in figure II. 4. In fiscal year 1990, 3.4 percent of the
:officers were women; in fiscal year 1998, 4.8 percent of the
:Marine Corps officers were women. In both years, personnel and
:administration; auditing, finance, and accounting; and public
:affairs had a large percentage of women.
:
:Figure II. 4: Marine Corps Occupations With High Concentrations of
:Female Officers
:
:30 Percentage 25 20 15 10
:
:5 0
:
:a Public affairs finance, Motor General
:
:marine control/ support/ warfare
:
:Legal services
:
:Logistics Computer/ Data systems
:
:control/ crew warfare
:
:Aircraft Personnel andadministration Audit, accounting
:
:transport administrationand operations
:
:service Air air traffic flight intelligence/ electronic
:maintenance
:
:and Supply antiair communications Air enlisted Signals ground 1990
:
:1998 a Job classification did not exist during this fiscal year.
:
:Source: DMDC data.
:
:Air Force The Air Force occupations with high concentrations of
:enlisted women in fiscal years 1990 and 1998 are shown in figure
:II. 5. In fiscal years 1990 and 1998, 14 percent and 18.4 percent
:of the enlisted personnel, respectively were women. In both years,
:more than half of the personnel in the
:
:paralegal occupation were women and more than one- third of the
:personnel in several health occupations as well as personnel
:systems and chaplain service support were women. Figure II. 5: Air
:Force Occupations With High Concentrations of Enlisted Women
:
:70 Percentage 60 50 40 30 20 10
:
:0 a
:
:Paralegal services
:
:support systems
:
:health services
:
:Surgical services
:
:Dental Medicalservices
:
:Information operations
:
:Biomedical therapy therapy
:
:servicesupport Financial
:
:Health Personnel Mental Aeromedical management
:
:Air Diet Chaplain management 1990 1998 a Job classification did
:not exist during this fiscal year.
:
:Source: DMDC data.
:
:The Air Force occupations with high concentrations of female
:officers for fiscal years 1990 and 1998 are shown in figure II. 6.
:In fiscal year 1990 13.3 percent of all officers in fiscal year
:were women. In fiscal year 1998 16.7 percent of officers were
:women.
:
:Figure II. 6: Air Force Occupations With High Concentrations of
:Female Officers
:
:80 Percentage
:
:70 60 50 40 30 20 10
:
:0
:
:a a Nurse PA
:
:welfare, Biomed Biomed clinic
:
:officer Supply
:
:Band/ Personnel recreation
:
:specialist advocate
:
:general Healthservices
:
:Manpower Medicine
:
:operations Intelligence Transportation Morale, Judge Services 1990
:
:1998 a Job classification did not exist during this fiscal year.
:
:Source: DMDC data.
:
:Army In fiscal year 1992, women were 12 percent of the Army's
:enlisted force. This percentage increased to 15.2 percent in
:fiscal year 1998. During both of these years, more than one- third
:of the personnel in administration were women and women were also
:highly concentrated in many other occupations, as shown in figure
:II. 7 Figure II. 7: Army Occupations With High Concentrations of
:Enlisted Women
:
:50 Percentage 40 30 20 10
:
:0 affairs
:
:and service
:
:Record Medical
:
:Petroleum Aviation
:
:Visual Administration
:
:Public Supply information Topographicalengineer
:
:Signalintelligence Transportation
:
:information
:
:1992 1998
:
:Source: Army data.
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Porch Bum '99
Puddle Duck '99
AMR Honor Retiree '98
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
Change
People need to realize that everything and
everyone changes. If we, as humans cannot
accept change, then it is all in vain that
we shall never love or enjoy life to the fullest.
Therefore, it is they, the non-changers, who
shall perish in the ashes of yesterday.
--Another original by TM Poole
http://www.geocities.com/Heartland/Cottage/3579
http://www.angelfire.com/va/smirk
http://members.visi.net/~traci/index.html
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~