Article: African American Art
Jane Smith
By Richard Powell (excerpted from AFRICANA: THE ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE AFRICAN
AND AFRICAN AMERICAN EXPERIENCE, SECOND EDITION. Edited by Henry Louis Gates
Jr. and Kwame Anthony Appiah. (Oxford University Press; April 2005)
Painting, sculpture, graphic arts, and crafts developed by people of African
descent in the United States and thematically and stylistically informed by
African American culture.
The term African American art means different things to different people.
For some the term designates a largely racial phenomenon, describing all
artistic products-paintings, sculptures, graphic arts, crafts, architecture,
etc.-created by North Americans of African descent. For others the preceding
definition fails to take into account the cultural, in addition to the
racial, implications of the term. For this latter group African American art
refers to the artistic and visual products not just of North Americans of
African descent but of many peoples whose work has been shaped thematically,
stylistically, formally, and theoretically by the confluence of black
Atlantic cultures-folkways and traditions formed as a result of the
TRANSATLANTIC SLAVE TRADE and further developed during alternating periods
of colonialism, emancipation, discrimination, and self-assertion. For our
purposes the concept of African American art moves freely between these two
definitions, providing readers with both the breadth of such an idea and the
possibilities for an object-centered and culturally informed definition.
Arts and Crafts during the Colonial, Federalist, and Antebellum Years
During America's infancy (in the period between the 1600s and the early
1800s), what one could describe as African American art indeed embraced a
range of forms and definitions. A small drum, several wrought-iron figures,
dozens of ceramic face vessels, and a few examples of domestic architecture
found among enslaved black communities in the southern United States have
been singled out for their similarities with comparable crafts, functional
objects, and structures in West and Central Africa. In contrast, black
artisans like the New England-based engraver SCIPIO MOORHEAD and the
Baltimore portrait painter Joshua Johnson created art that, despite
occasional portrayals of black subjects, was conceived in a thoroughly
western European fashion. Other workshop- or academically-trained African
American artists prior to the American Civil War (1861-1865)-New Yorkers
Patrick Reason and William Simpson, Philadelphian Robert Douglass, and the
New Orleans- and Paris-based brothers Daniel and Eugene Warburg-also created
works of art that were indistinguishable from those of white printmakers,
painters, and sculptors.
Civil War and Post-Reconstruction Years
The tensions between an art that referred to people's social conditions and
an art that transcended race and class politics are represented by the works
of two artists active during the 1860s and 1870s: sculptor EDMONIA LEWIS and
landscape painter ROBERT S. DUNCANSON. Lewis-who studied art at Oberlin
College, independently in Boston, Massachusetts, and among American and
British expatriates in Italy-used the artistic conventions of neoclassicism
to create powerful marble statuary on the subjects of black American
emancipation, female oppression, and Native Americans. Duncanson-working
mostly in Cincinnati, Ohio, and other locations in the Ohio River
Valley-painted dreamy, pastoral scenes that recalled the aesthetics of the
Hudson River School rather than overtly racial and political themes. Yet the
racially tinged ordeals that both of these artists grappled with at various
points in their careers gave even their most apolitical portrait busts and
landscape allegories a social dimension, thus justifying the African
American designation of their work.
A similar political/apolitical bifurcation is present in the work and lives
of artists working between 1865 and 1900. First against a social backdrop of
enfranchisement and hope and later against one of disenfranchisement and
despair, landscape painters like EDWARD MITCHELL BANNISTER and William
Harper created moody, Barbizon School-like scenes, bereft of the political
jockeying and white-on-black violence that characterized African American
lives at the end of the century. For painter HENRY OSSAWA TANNER the
pressures of American racism and the burdens of representing his race were
too great. His 1891 move to Paris, France, encouraged his interest in
painting mostly biblical scenes in a part academic, part symbolist manner.
In contrast, the Athens, Georgia, seamstress Harriet Powers, oblivious to
the world of art galleries and exhibitions, created at least two powerful
Bible quilts that bore strong similarities to West African textile arts,
especially to the cloth appliqués from the AKAN and FON peoples.
Increasingly, heroic and uplifting portrayals of African Americans appeared
in paintings and sculpture in the first two decades of the twentieth
century. Artist EDWIN A. HARLESTON was renowned for his paintings of
distinguished (and affluent) black Americans. Sculptors Isaac Scott Hathaway
and May Howard Jackson also dedicated much of their careers to creating
portrait busts of African American notables past and present. In the pages
of the journal the Voice of the Negro artist John Henry Adams, Jr., created
dozens of African American portraits: finely drawn and idealized in the
manner of the white illustrator Charles Dana Gibson, but informed by an
emerging racial consciousness. In the more symbolic and allegorical works of
the sculptor META WARRICK FULLER, a black cultural cognizance manifested
itself in important nineteenth-century topics such as emancipation and in
pieces that foreshadowed several themes that would be important for artists
and intellectuals in subsequent years (the African past, a black cultural
rebirth, etc.).
The Harlem Renaissance
The social and political anxieties that many African Americans felt just
after World War I (1914-1918) were alleviated, in part, by mass migrations
to the urban North. Northern cities offered a respite from the repressive
attitudes and mandates of the old Southern order. The new racial
compositions of cities like WASHINGTON, D.C., PHILADELPHIA, NEW YORK,
PITTSBURGH, DETROIT, CHICAGO, and Saint Louis, in combination with a
heightened social consciousness and a seemingly unbound desire for leisure
and escapism, conspired to help create the cultural phenomenon known as the
New Negro movement. Part social engineering and part spontaneous expression,
this HARLEM RENAISSANCE (as the cultural movement later became known) was
realized by a mix of American movers and shakers: social reformers,
political activists, cultural elites, progressives in public policy and
education, and, of course, artists. Although each of these constituencies
had its own reasons for promoting African American achievements in the
literary, musical, visual, and performing arts, the collective results of
these endeavors was an unprecedented, broad-based focus on African
Americans, their art, and the connections to a larger, modernist vision.
Visual artists played a key role in creating depictions of the NEW NEGRO.
Alongside their counterparts in literature, music, and theater, painters
Palmer C. Hayden, Malvin Gray Johnson, and Laura Wheeler Waring, among
others, exhibited bold, stylized portraits of African Americans during this
period, as well as scenes of black life from a variety of perspectives.
Sculptors RICHMOND BARTHÉ, SARGENT JOHNSON, and AUGUSTA SAVAGE used clay,
wood, and bronze to create comparable representations.
Book and magazine publishers of the 1920s and 1930s also helped to
disseminate Harlem Renaissance imagery. Published in the pages of THE
CRISIS, Opportunity, and New Masses were the blockprint illustrations of
James Lesesne Wells, the etchings and drawings of ALBERT ALEXANDER SMITH,
and the illustrations and jacket covers of one of the period's most prolific
artists, AARON DOUGLAS.
Great Depression and World War II Years
As the debates among artists and intellectuals around a "racially
representative art" shifted to discussions about social responsibility and a
"folk" identity, artists like Aaron Douglas increasingly turned to the
public arena as a means of addressing art and life in the 1930s. Douglas's
murals for schools, libraries, and YMCAs exemplified this shift toward the
social, as did the colorful, compositionally rhythmic easel paintings of
Archibald J. Motley, Jr. Many artists in the 1930s who had begun their
careers during the Harlem Renaissance and under the aegis of philanthropic
organizations like the Harmon Foundation now made art under the auspices of
the Federal Arts Project of the WORKS PROGRESS ADMINISTRATION. These
artists, like ALLAN ROHAN CRITE, Ernest Crichlow, and DOX THRASH, embraced a
visually conservative but politically radical figurative art in which the
themes of poverty, racial discrimination, and a growing social consciousness
took center stage.
This newfound fascination in the art world with the masses resulted in an
expanded appreciation for those artists-black and white-who had not attended
art school, whose art was often unsophisticated, and who functioned on the
margins of the art scene proper. One of these so-called folk artists, the
Tennessee stone carver William Edmondson, was honored in 1937 with a
one-person exhibition at New York's Museum of Modern Art. He was the first
African American artist to receive that distinction.
In the final years of the Federal Arts Project several painters emerged out
of obscurity and into national prominence. The most celebrated in this group
was painter JACOB LAWRENCE. His multipaneled series on such topics as the
eighteenth-century Haitian revolutionary Toussaint Louverture, the African
American migration experience, and HARLEM struck an emotional chord among
art aficionados in the 1940s. Paintings by the intuitive artist HORACE
PIPPIN on the lives of ABRAHAM LINCOLN and JOHN BROWN as well as others
inspired by biblical verses were also critically acclaimed and highly sought
after. Other painters of the late 1930s and early 1940s-like WILLIAM H.
JOHNSON, Charles Sebree, and Eldzier Cortor-achieved a measure of success in
the larger world of art as well, often fusing the style preferences of the
day (color abstraction, figural expressionism, and surrealism) with the
artists' affinities for selected African American subjects.
Abstraction and Realism during the Postwar Years
This balancing act between a race consciousness in art and visual
assimilation into the white cultural mainstream-exemplified most
emphatically in a nonfigurative, abstract art-was undermined by several
artists in the post-World War II years. The work of these artists-decidedly
abstract and expressionistic yet at times referential to Africa, black
America, and to the evolving civil rights struggle-necessitated an
altogether different definition of what was then described as modern Negro
art. At the forefront of this new paradigm was HALE WOODRUFF, whose
integration of African-design motifs into his colorful, large-scale canvases
stood alongside an enigmatic and symbol-laden painterly abstraction in works
by other painters. Similarly, a 1950s brand of New York School abstraction
was defined in part by the "all-over" compositions of painter Norman Lewis.
Lewis, a master of visual wit, irony, and critique, figured in
contradistinction to another abstractionist, BEAUFORD DELANEY, who wavered
between completely nonillusionistic, gestural canvases and thickly painted,
expressive portraits.
In the midst of this moment when abstract art was considered the status quo,
several figurative artists, among them Hughie Lee-Smith and CHARLES WHITE,
achieved broad recognition. Lee-Smith painted desolate, urban landscapes
inhabited by solitary people of different ages and sexes and across the
racial spectrum. White, whose career dated back to the 1930s, produced in
the 1950s a series of monumental crayon and ink drawings of idealized
African American figures. These works, when thematically framed by the news
reports of civil rights bus boycotts, lunch-counter sit-ins, and attacks on
black protesters by angry whites, took on an even greater power than their
abstract counterparts in explicitly communicating something about African
American aspirations and dreams. MINNIE EVANS and James Hampton, although
far removed from the New York art scene in their respective communities of
Wilmington, North Carolina, and Washington, D.C., created powerful artistic
statements during this period that not only reintroduced socalled folk
elements into the art world, but added a spiritual dimension to black visual
culture as well.
The two 1960s artists whose careers and products may be considered to have
formed a bridge between the visual past (the omnipresent black figure,
overtures to visual modernism, and the need to acknowledge the politics of
race) and a visual future for African American art (artistic singularity
over racial unity, narrational/perceptual simultaneity, and the interjecting
of class, gender, and sexuality into art) are Bob Thompson and ROMARE
BEARDEN. The colorful, silhouetted, and enigmatic figures in Thompson's
paintings, derived from the works of the old masters of European painting
and the new young lions of jazz, introduced a whole new set of options in
African American visual culture. Similarly, the cut-up, collaged, and
reconstituted images of Afro-America that Bearden introduced to the public
in 1964 inaugurated an expanded and progressive view of art and art-making:
a picture that reflected ambiguity, complexity, nuance, and affirmation in
black culture.
Black Arts Movement, Abstraction, and Beyond
Art's capacity to endow the artist, viewer, and others with self-affirmation
and a sense of cultural authority became the benchmark for the BLACK ARTS
MOVEMENT of the late 1960s and early 1970s. During this period African
American writers, performing artists, and visual artists made black culture
and the political struggles of black peoples worldwide their raison d'être.
Slogans like "Black Is Beautiful" and "Black Power," as well as jazz and
soul music, became the soundtrack for works by painter Murry DePillars,
mixed-media artist Ben Jones, and muralist Dana Chandler. Jeff Donaldson, a
cofounder of the Chicago-based black artist collective AFRI-COBRA, not only
added to this milieu with his own African textile-inspired, mixed-media
works, but he wrote influential art manifestos and helped organize
international expositions of black artists in Africa and North America.
Many artists whose careers extended back to the 1930s and 1940s resurfaced
with a renewed sense of racial solidarity and political insurgency during
the Black Arts Movement. Painters LOIS MAILOU JONES and JOHN BIGGERS and
sculptor and printmaker ELIZABETH CATLETT all aligned themselves with the
younger generation of black artists, creating works that underscored their
shared interest in African design sensibilities, the black figure, and the
continuing struggle for civil rights.
For many abstract artists like Frank Bowling, Sam Gilliam, Richard Hunt,
BARBARA CHASE-RIBOUD, and Raymond Saunders, critical and commercial success
provided evidence that black artists were capable of overcoming racial
obstacles and taking their rightfully earned places within the contemporary
scene. These advancements were made all the more emphatic by the
achievements of artists like the Washington painter Alma Thomas, who, at the
age of eighty, was the first African American woman to have a solo
exhibition at New York's Whitney Museum of American Art in 1972. Artists who
subscribed to a black nationalist agenda argued that Thomas (along with the
other well-known black abstractionists) created works that did not challenge
the aesthetic sensibilities of the white cultural mainstream. In response,
abstractionists like Al Loving, Ed Clark, Joe Overstreet, Jack Whitten, and
William T. Williams felt that this line of thinking showed how pervasive
more conservative approaches to the visual arts were in African American
communities. Both positions demonstrated how difficult it was for even the
most sophisticated art connoisseurs to glean cultural elements out of
abstractions. The same myopia often existed in interpretations of works by
folk artists like CLEMENTINE HUNTER and the evangelist-turned-painter SISTER
GERTRUDE MORGAN.
As artists and audiences grew more conversant in the diverse ways that one
could express black culture, the 1970s and 1980s ushered in a variety of
artists and artworks all comfortably operating under the rubric of
Afro-American art. From the photorealism of painter Barkley L. Hendricks and
neomannerist stylizations of painter Ernie Barnes to the cloth-and canvas
accretions of mixed-media artist BENNY ANDREWS and altar-like installations
of sculptor BETYE SAAR, African American art could no longer be contained in
neat, stylistic categories. The important exhibitions of past and present
African American art organized by curators DAVID C. DRISKELL and Edmund B.
Gaither and the definitive histories and art publications of Elsa Honig
Fine, Samella Lewis, and Ruth Waddy helped educate the experts and
uninformed public alike on all that might constitute an African American
art.
African American Art and Postmodernism
By the mid- to late 1980s earlier definitions of African American art would
be supplanted by the postmodernist tenets of cultural relativity,
art-as-performance, critical inquiries of art and society through one's
work, and interrogations of identity, geography, and history. Several
artistic precursors to this new generation had already begun to exhibit
these more provocative, postmodernist characteristics in their work. For
example, by 1975 artist DAVID HAMMONS was already creating sculptures from
black cultural detritus (hair, food, artifacts, etc.) that ironically
commented on black identity. Around the same time ROBERT COLESCOTT was
making outlandish, cartoon-like paintings that poked fun at the art
establishment, cultural conservatives, and ethnocentrism. In contrast,
conceptual artist Adrian Piper countered the reigning avant-garde of her day
with performances that placed racism at the center of art matters. Also at
this time artist Houston Conwill wrestled with the notion of African
American space, initially through site-specific earthworks and, later,
through culturally informed diagrams and signs.
These pioneers of an African American visual postmodernism helped put into
motion a different set of visual criteria in contemporary art: models that,
in turn, have engendered an innovative group of artists. This inventive
group includes sculptors Alison Saar and Renée Stout and photographers
Albert Chong and Lyle Ashton Harris, who explore concepts of objecthood and
fetishism; visual artists like JEAN-MICHEL BASQUIAT, Glenn Ligon, and Lorna
Simpson, for whom issues of gender and language are central in art;
photographers Dawoud Bey, Renee Cox, and Lorraine O'Grady and painters Kerry
James Marshall and Howardena Pindell, each of whom presents the black body
as a site of theoretical warfare, social research, and desire; and
conceptualists like Gary Simmons, KARA WALKER, and FRED WILSON who, through
installation art, have problematized American history and the psychology of
racism so that display and spectatorship can no longer be viewed as purely
innocent acts.
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Copyright (c) 2005 Oxford University Press. All rights reserved. Excerpted
by permission from AFRICANA: THE ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE AFRICAN AND AFRICAN
AMERICAN EXPERIENCE, SECOND EDITION. Edited by Henry Louis Gates Jr. and
Kwame Anthony Appiah. (Oxford University Press; April 2005; 5 Volumes; 4,500
pp.; 0-19-517055-5; Special introductory price until April 30th, 2005 of US
$425.00. After April 30th, 2005, the price will be US $500.00).
Ninety years after W.E.B. Du Bois first articulated the need for "the
equivalent of a black Encyclopedia Britannica," Kwame Anthony Appiah and
Henry Louis Gates Jr., realized his vision by publishing Africana: The
Encyclopedia of the African and African American Experience in 1999. This
new multi-volume edition of the original work expands on the foundation
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events, trends, places, political movements, art forms, business and trade,
religion, ethnic groups, organizations and countries on both sides of the
Atlantic.
About the Editors:
Henry Louis Gates, Jr. is W. E. B. Du Bois Professor of Humanities, Chair of
the Department of African and African American Studies, and Director of the
W. E. B. Du Bois Institute for African and African American Research,
Harvard University. Professor Gates is well known as an innovator in the
field of African American studies and as the author of numerous works.
Kwame Anthony Appiah is the Lawrence S. Rockefeller Professor of Philosophy
and the University Center for Human Values at Princeton University. The
groundbreaking Africana-now expanded to a five-volume set, unparalleled in
scope, scholarship and accessibility
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