dorezebe garana elissa
Denisha Padley
Water is an inorganic compound with the chemical formula .mw-parser-output .template-chem2-sudisplay:inline-block;font-size:80%;line-height:1;vertical-align:-0.35em.mw-parser-output .template-chem2-su>spandisplay:block;text-align:left.mw-parser-output sub.template-chem2-subfont-size:80%;vertical-align:-0.35em.mw-parser-output sup.template-chem2-supfont-size:80%;vertical-align:0.65emH2O. It is a transparent, tasteless, odorless,[c] and nearly colorless chemical substance. It is the main constituent of Earth's hydrosphere and the fluids of all known living organisms (in which it acts as a solvent[19]). It is vital for all known forms of life, despite not providing food energy or organic micronutrients. Its chemical formula, H2O, indicates that each of its molecules contains one oxygen and two hydrogen atoms, connected by covalent bonds. The hydrogen atoms are attached to the oxygen atom at an angle of 104.45.[20] In liquid form, H2O is also called "water" at standard temperature and pressure.
Because Earth's environment is relatively close to water's triple point, water exists on Earth as a solid, a liquid, and a gas.[21] It forms precipitation in the form of rain and aerosols in the form of fog. Clouds consist of suspended droplets of water and ice, its solid state. When finely divided, crystalline ice may precipitate in the form of snow. The gaseous state of water is steam or water vapor.
Water covers about 71% of the Earth's surface, with seas and oceans making up most of the water volume (about 96.5%).[22] Small portions of water occur as groundwater (1.7%), in the glaciers and the ice caps of Antarctica and Greenland (1.7%), and in the air as vapor, clouds (consisting of ice and liquid water suspended in air), and precipitation (0.001%).[23][24] Water moves continually through the water cycle of evaporation, transpiration (evapotranspiration), condensation, precipitation, and runoff, usually reaching the sea.
Water plays an important role in the world economy. Approximately 70% of the fresh water used by humans goes to agriculture.[25] Fishing in salt and fresh water bodies has been, and continues to be, a major source of food for many parts of the world, providing 6.5% of global protein.[26] Much of the long-distance trade of commodities (such as oil, natural gas, and manufactured products) is transported by boats through seas, rivers, lakes, and canals. Large quantities of water, ice, and steam are used for cooling and heating in industry and homes. Water is an excellent solvent for a wide variety of substances, both mineral and organic; as such, it is widely used in industrial processes and in cooking and washing. Water, ice, and snow are also central to many sports and other forms of entertainment, such as swimming, pleasure boating, boat racing, surfing, sport fishing, diving, ice skating, snowboarding, and skiing.
One factor in estimating when water appeared on Earth is that water is continually being lost to space. H2O molecules in the atmosphere are broken up by photolysis, and the resulting free hydrogen atoms can sometimes escape Earth's gravitational pull. When the Earth was younger and less massive, water would have been lost to space more easily. Lighter elements like hydrogen and helium are expected to leak from the atmosphere continually, but isotopic ratios of heavier noble gases in the modern atmosphere suggest that even the heavier elements in the early atmosphere were subject to significant losses.[28] In particular, xenon is useful for calculations of water loss over time. Not only is it a noble gas (and therefore is not removed from the atmosphere through chemical reactions with other elements), but comparisons between the abundances of its nine stable isotopes in the modern atmosphere reveal that the Earth lost at least one ocean of water early in its history, between the Hadean and Archean eons.[29][clarification needed]
Geological evidence also helps constrain the time frame for liquid water existing on Earth. A sample of pillow basalt (a type of rock formed during an underwater eruption) was recovered from the Isua Greenstone Belt and provides evidence that water existed on Earth 3.8 billion years ago.[33] In the Nuvvuagittuq Greenstone Belt, Quebec, Canada, rocks dated at 3.8 billion years old by one study[34] and 4.28 billion years old by another[35] show evidence of the presence of water at these ages.[33] If oceans existed earlier than this, any geological evidence has yet to be discovered (which may be because such potential evidence has been destroyed by geological processes like crustal recycling). More recently, in August 2020, researchers reported that sufficient water to fill the oceans may have always been on the Earth since the beginning of the planet's formation.[36][37][38]
Water (H2O) is a polar inorganic compound. At room temperature it is a tasteless and odorless liquid, nearly colorless with a hint of blue. The simplest hydrogen chalcogenide, it is by far the most studied chemical compound and is sometimes described as the "universal solvent" for its ability to dissolve more substances than any other liquid,[44][45] though it is poor at dissolving nonpolar substances.[46] This allows it to be the "solvent of life":[47] indeed, water as found in nature almost always includes various dissolved substances, and special steps are required to obtain chemically pure water. Water is the only common substance to exist as a solid, liquid, and gas in normal terrestrial conditions.[48]
Along with oxidane, water is one of the two official names for the chemical compound H
2O;[49] it is also the liquid phase of H
2O.[50] The other two common states of matter of water are the solid phase, ice, and the gaseous phase, water vapor or steam. The addition or removal of heat can cause phase transitions: freezing (water to ice), melting (ice to water), vaporization (water to vapor), condensation (vapor to water), sublimation (ice to vapor) and deposition (vapor to ice).[51]
In a lake or ocean, water at 4 C (39 F) sinks to the bottom, and ice forms on the surface, floating on the liquid water. This ice insulates the water below, preventing it from freezing solid. Without this protection, most aquatic organisms residing in lakes would perish during the winter.[58]
At a pressure of one atmosphere (atm), ice melts or water freezes (solidifies) at 0 C (32 F) and water boils or vapor condenses at 100 C (212 F). However, even below the boiling point, water can change to vapor at its surface by evaporation (vaporization throughout the liquid is known as boiling). Sublimation and deposition also occur on surfaces.[51] For example, frost is deposited on cold surfaces while snowflakes form by deposition on an aerosol particle or ice nucleus.[60] In the process of freeze-drying, a food is frozen and then stored at low pressure so the ice on its surface sublimates.[61]
where v L \displaystyle v_\textL and v S \displaystyle v_\textS are the molar volumes of the liquid and solid phases, and L f \displaystyle L_\textf is the molar latent heat of melting. In most substances, the volume increases when melting occurs, so the melting temperature increases with pressure. However, because ice is less dense than water, the melting temperature decreases.[52] In glaciers, pressure melting can occur under sufficiently thick volumes of ice, resulting in subglacial lakes.[62][63]
The Clausius-Clapeyron relation also applies to the boiling point, but with the liquid/gas transition the vapor phase has a much lower density than the liquid phase, so the boiling point increases with pressure.[64] Water can remain in a liquid state at high temperatures in the deep ocean or underground. For example, temperatures exceed 205 C (401 F) in Old Faithful, a geyser in Yellowstone National Park.[65] In hydrothermal vents, the temperature can exceed 400 C (752 F).[66]
At sea level, the boiling point of water is 100 C (212 F). As atmospheric pressure decreases with altitude, the boiling point decreases by 1 C every 274 meters. High-altitude cooking takes longer than sea-level cooking. For example, at 1,524 metres (5,000 ft), cooking time must be increased by a fourth to achieve the desired result.[67] Conversely, a pressure cooker can be used to decrease cooking times by raising the boiling temperature.[68] In a vacuum, water will boil at room temperature.[69]
On a pressure/temperature phase diagram (see figure), there are curves separating solid from vapor, vapor from liquid, and liquid from solid. These meet at a single point called the triple point, where all three phases can coexist. The triple point is at a temperature of 273.16 K (0.01 C; 32.02 F) and a pressure of 611.657 pascals (0.00604 atm; 0.0887 psi);[70] it is the lowest pressure at which liquid water can exist. Until 2019, the triple point was used to define the Kelvin temperature scale.[71][72]
The water/vapor phase curve terminates at 647.096 K (373.946 C; 705.103 F) and 22.064 megapascals (3,200.1 psi; 217.75 atm).[73] This is known as the critical point. At higher temperatures and pressures the liquid and vapor phases form a continuous phase called a supercritical fluid. It can be gradually compressed or expanded between gas-like and liquid-like densities; its properties (which are quite different from those of ambient water) are sensitive to density. For example, for suitable pressures and temperatures it can mix freely with nonpolar compounds, including most organic compounds. This makes it useful in a variety of applications including high-temperature electrochemistry and as an ecologically benign solvent or catalyst in chemical reactions involving organic compounds. In Earth's mantle, it acts as a solvent during mineral formation, dissolution and deposition.[74][75]
The normal form of ice on the surface of Earth is ice Ih, a phase that forms crystals with hexagonal symmetry. Another with cubic crystalline symmetry, ice Ic, can occur in the upper atmosphere.[76] As the pressure increases, ice forms other crystal structures. As of 2024, twenty have been experimentally confirmed and several more are predicted theoretically.[77] The eighteenth form of ice, ice XVIII, a face-centred-cubic, superionic ice phase, was discovered when a droplet of water was subject to a shock wave that raised the water's pressure to millions of atmospheres and its temperature to thousands of degrees, resulting in a structure of rigid oxygen atoms in which hydrogen atoms flowed freely.[78][79] When sandwiched between layers of graphene, ice forms a square lattice.[80]
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