Microraptor multiwinged gliding capabilities (free pdf)
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Ben Creisler
Jan 26, 2026, 3:59:40 PM (7 days ago) Jan 26
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Ben Creisler
Microraptor was a Cretaceous theropod dinosaur hypothesized to be a glider or a powered flyer. It was unlike any modern flying vertebrate in having a multiwinged flight planform. Here, we investigate the gliding flight of Microraptor using updated wing shapes and rigid wing modeling in a conservative forewing and spread leg configuration. This study presents the specific aerodynamic features and associated wing planform specializations of Microraptor during different stages of gliding flight. This study provides quantitative estimation of advantageous forewing–hindwing interactions for any multiwinged vertebrate flyer, expanding the scope of animal flight modeling.
Abstract
Agile and efficient modern flyers like birds and insects rely on complex aerodynamics to increase performance such as leading edge vortices, tip vortices, rapid pitch rotations as well as wing–wake and wing–wing interactions. However, their evolutionary origins are poorly understood. Early birds and their closest relatives like Microraptor had a multiwinged configuration featuring long pennaceous feathers on their arms, legs, and tail, a configuration not seen today. The skill of these early flyers has been debated, centering around what was driving the evolution of this multiwing configuration and its loss in favor of the modern two-winged configuration. In this context, the aerodynamics and wing–wing interactions of Microraptor during gliding flight are investigated. The gliding flight mechanics of Microraptor exhibit flow patterns consistent with those observed and quantitatively assessed in volant living animal species. We analyze leading edge vortices on the forewing and hindwing including beneficial wake interactions between them as well as tip vortices on the distinct distally flared hindwing. The latter is unique in Microraptor as the hindwing’s characteristic outer span flare provides the necessary surface for the tip vortex to be bound to and thus contribute additional lift. These findings suggest that Microraptor evolved toward utilizing leading edge and tip vortices and their aerodynamic interactions. This implies that such utilization was also being exploited by other early multiwinged theropods to differing extents as part of a crucial milestone in early flight evolution.
A new paper:
Free pdf:
Csaba Heflera, Ying Wangb, Xiaoli Wangc, Xiaoting Zheng, Thomas G. Kaye, Maxime Grosmougin, Matthieu Chotard, Luke Barlowa,Huih Qiuf, T. Alexander Dececchi, Michael B. Habib, Wei Shyy, and Michael Pittmann (2026)
Microraptor reveals specialized gliding capabilities in multiwinged early paravians
Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 123(6): e2518106123
doi: https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.2518106123
https://www.pnas.org/doi/10.1073/pnas.2518106123
Free pdf:
https://www.pnas.org/doi/epdf/10.1073/pnas.2518106123
Significance
Csaba Heflera, Ying Wangb, Xiaoli Wangc, Xiaoting Zheng, Thomas G. Kaye, Maxime Grosmougin, Matthieu Chotard, Luke Barlowa,Huih Qiuf, T. Alexander Dececchi, Michael B. Habib, Wei Shyy, and Michael Pittmann (2026)
Microraptor reveals specialized gliding capabilities in multiwinged early paravians
Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 123(6): e2518106123
doi: https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.2518106123
https://www.pnas.org/doi/10.1073/pnas.2518106123
Free pdf:
https://www.pnas.org/doi/epdf/10.1073/pnas.2518106123
Significance
Microraptor was a Cretaceous theropod dinosaur hypothesized to be a glider or a powered flyer. It was unlike any modern flying vertebrate in having a multiwinged flight planform. Here, we investigate the gliding flight of Microraptor using updated wing shapes and rigid wing modeling in a conservative forewing and spread leg configuration. This study presents the specific aerodynamic features and associated wing planform specializations of Microraptor during different stages of gliding flight. This study provides quantitative estimation of advantageous forewing–hindwing interactions for any multiwinged vertebrate flyer, expanding the scope of animal flight modeling.
Abstract
Agile and efficient modern flyers like birds and insects rely on complex aerodynamics to increase performance such as leading edge vortices, tip vortices, rapid pitch rotations as well as wing–wake and wing–wing interactions. However, their evolutionary origins are poorly understood. Early birds and their closest relatives like Microraptor had a multiwinged configuration featuring long pennaceous feathers on their arms, legs, and tail, a configuration not seen today. The skill of these early flyers has been debated, centering around what was driving the evolution of this multiwing configuration and its loss in favor of the modern two-winged configuration. In this context, the aerodynamics and wing–wing interactions of Microraptor during gliding flight are investigated. The gliding flight mechanics of Microraptor exhibit flow patterns consistent with those observed and quantitatively assessed in volant living animal species. We analyze leading edge vortices on the forewing and hindwing including beneficial wake interactions between them as well as tip vortices on the distinct distally flared hindwing. The latter is unique in Microraptor as the hindwing’s characteristic outer span flare provides the necessary surface for the tip vortex to be bound to and thus contribute additional lift. These findings suggest that Microraptor evolved toward utilizing leading edge and tip vortices and their aerodynamic interactions. This implies that such utilization was also being exploited by other early multiwinged theropods to differing extents as part of a crucial milestone in early flight evolution.
Ben Creisler
Jan 26, 2026, 3:59:46 PM (7 days ago) Jan 26
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Hit send too soon and didn't catch that copy-paste inserted an uncorrected authors list with embedded supertext letters.
Free pdf:
Csaba Hefler, Ying Wang, Xiaoli Wang, Xiaoting Zheng, Thomas G. Kaye, Maxime Grosmougin, Matthieu Chotard, Luke Barlow, Huih Qiu, T. Alexander Dececchi, Michael B. Habib, Wei Shyy, and Michael Pittmann (2026)
Csaba Hefler, Ying Wang, Xiaoli Wang, Xiaoting Zheng, Thomas G. Kaye, Maxime Grosmougin, Matthieu Chotard, Luke Barlow, Huih Qiu, T. Alexander Dececchi, Michael B. Habib, Wei Shyy, and Michael Pittmann (2026)
corrected authors list
Csaba Hefler, Ying Wang, Xiaoli Wang, Xiaoting Zheng, Thomas G. Kaye, Maxime Grosmougin, Matthieu Chotard, Luke Barlow, Huih Qiuf, T. Alexander Dececchi, Michael B. Habib, Wei Shyy, and Michael Pittmann (2026)
Tim Williams
Jan 29, 2026, 9:59:18 AM (4 days ago) Jan 29
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At first I was confused by the title and abstract. Have people gone back to the old idea that _Microraptor_ was merely a glider? But then I see in the introduction that _Microraptor_ is still regarded as capable of powered flight, and that "powered flyers use gliding phases". Hefler &c show that _Microraptor_ was effectively a 'five-winged' flier, with the forewings, hindwings, and feathered tail all working together. This is super impressive!
But treating _Anchiornis_ as even a “borderline” powered flyer seems generous. The references cited in support of flight capacity in _Anchiornis_ are distinctly pessimistic. The 'high flyer or high fashion' paper (Ref 31) is especially brutal: _Anchiornis_ wings had such poor aerodynamic performance that it's unlikely they were used for any kind of aerodynamic flight - not just powered flight, but even gliding. The same ref states (quite accurately) that _Anchiornis_ was a terrible climber due to its "nonarboreal body plan". For different reasons (number and morphology of pennaceous feathers), Kiat & O'Connor (2024) also regarded anchiornithids as non-volant, as well as secondarily flightless.
But treating _Anchiornis_ as even a “borderline” powered flyer seems generous. The references cited in support of flight capacity in _Anchiornis_ are distinctly pessimistic. The 'high flyer or high fashion' paper (Ref 31) is especially brutal: _Anchiornis_ wings had such poor aerodynamic performance that it's unlikely they were used for any kind of aerodynamic flight - not just powered flight, but even gliding. The same ref states (quite accurately) that _Anchiornis_ was a terrible climber due to its "nonarboreal body plan". For different reasons (number and morphology of pennaceous feathers), Kiat & O'Connor (2024) also regarded anchiornithids as non-volant, as well as secondarily flightless.
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Mike Habib
Jan 29, 2026, 5:15:13 PM (4 days ago) Jan 29
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Thanks Tim!
For a bit of added context, we are ultimately working towards a full flapping flight flow estimate for Microraptor, but the first step is getting steady state CL that includes forewing-hindwing wake interactions. Those interactions will change over the course of a flight stroke, so this static steady state simulation (aka glide estimate) gives us an idea of the peak interaction space. Full unsteady flow simulation is vicious, so we will aim to do it quasi-steady, instead, by discretizing time (as is typical).
Of course, this simulation also serves as a decent estimate of glide performance for times where the animal might have utilized unpowered flight. One reason this could happen that’s quite plausible is simple muscular rest. Given the small flight muscle fraction, Microraptor may have been reliant on anaerobic capacity. A glide could increase range following muscle fatigue.
As for Anchiornis, this was largely a matter of pacifying a reviewer. One of the most damning references regarding its flight capacity is, after all, from our group.
Cheers,
—Mike
Michael B. Habib, MS PhD
Research Associate, Dinosaur Institute
LA County Museum of Natural History
900 W Exposition Blvd. Los Angeles, 90007
Research Associate, Dinosaur Institute
LA County Museum of Natural History
900 W Exposition Blvd. Los Angeles, 90007
On Jan 29, 2026, at 6:59 AM, Tim Williams <tij...@gmail.com> wrote:
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