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Who were the Hyksos? Who was Ahmose? Ach Moshe maybe?

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jgarbuz

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Feb 7, 2008, 1:38:26 AM2/7/08

Hyksos
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

An image representing the Egyptian pharaoh Ahmose I defeating the
Hyksos in battle.
An image representing the Egyptian pharaoh Ahmose I defeating the
Hyksos in battle.

The Hyksos (Egyptian heqa khasewet, "foreign rulers"; Greek Ὑκσώς,
Ὑξώς, Arabic: الملوك الرعاة , shepherd kings) were an Asiatic people
who invaded the eastern Nile Delta, initiating the Second Intermediate
Period of Ancient Egypt. They rose to power in the 17th century BC,
(according to the traditional chronology) and ruled Lower and Middle
Egypt for 108 years, forming the Fifteenth and possibly the Sixteenth
Dynasties of Egypt, (c. 1648–1540 BC).[1] This 108-year period follows
the Turin Canon, which gives the six kings of the Hyksos 15th Dynasty
a total reign length of 108 years.[2]

Traditionally, only the six Fifteenth Dynasty rulers are called
Hyksos. The Hyksos had Canaanite names, as seen in those which contain
the names of Semitic deities such as Anath or Ba'al. They introduced
new tools of warfare into Egypt, most notably the composite bow and
the horse-drawn chariot.

Some scholars, as early as Josephus, have associated the Semitic
Hyksos with the ancient Hebrews, seeing their departure from Egypt as
the story retold in the Exodus. Notably, Canaanite/Hebrew names occur
among the Hyksos.
Contents
[
* 1 Hyksos rule in Egypt
* 2 Was there a Hyksos invasion?
* 3 Theban offensive
o 3.1 Under Seqenenre Tao (II)
o 3.2 Under Kamose
o 3.3 Under Ahmose
* 4 Later times
* 5 Who were the Hyksos?
* 6 Hyksos in popular culture
* 7 Notes
* 8 References
* 9 External links

[edit] Hyksos rule in Egypt

The Hyksos kingdom was centered in the eastern Nile Delta and Middle
Egypt and was limited in size, never extending south into Upper Egypt,
which was under control by Theban-based rulers. Hyksos relations with
the south seem to have been mainly of a commercial nature, although
Theban princes appear to have recognized the Hyksos rulers and may
possibly have provided them with tribute for a period. The Hyksos
Fifteenth Dynasty rulers established their capital and seat of
government at Memphis and their summer residence at Avaris.

The known rulers for the Hyksos 15th dynasty are:
Name Dates
Sakir-Har Named as an early Hyksos king on a door jamb found at
Avaris. Regnal order uncertain.
Khyan c. 1620 BC
Apophis c. 1580 BC to 1540 BC
Khamudi c. 1540 BC to 1534 BC

The rule of these kings overlaps with that of the native Egyptian
pharaohs of the 16th and 17th dynasties of Egypt, better known as the
Second Intermediate Period. The first pharaoh of the 18th dynasty,
Ahmose I, finally expelled the Hyksos from their last holdout at
Sharuhen in Gaza by the 16th year of his reign.[3][4]

Scholars have taken the increasing use of scarabs and the adoption of
some Egyptian forms of art by the Fifteenth Dynasty Hyksos kings and
their wide distribution as an indication of their becoming
progressively Egyptianized.[5] The Hyksos used Egyptian titles
associated with traditional Egyptian kingship, and took Egyptian god
Seth to represent their own titulary deity.[6] It would appear as
though Hyksos administration was accepted in most quarters, if not
actually supported by many of their northern Egyptian subjects. The
flip side is that in spite of the prosperity that the stable political
situation brought to the land, the native Egyptians continued to view
the Hyksos as non-Egyptian "invaders." When they eventually were
driven out of Egypt, all traces of their occupation were erased.
History is written by the victors, and in this case the victors were
the rulers of the native Egyptian Eighteenth Dynasty, the direct
successor of the Theban Seventeenth Dynasty. It was the latter which
started and led a sustained war against the Hyksos. These native kings
from Thebes had an incentive to demonize the Asiatic rulers in the
North, thus accounting for the ruthless destruction of their
monuments. This note of warning tells us that the historical situation
most probably lay somewhere between these two extreme positions: the
Hyksos dynasties represented superficially Egyptianized foreigners who
were tolerated, but not truly accepted, by their Egyptian subjects.

The independent native rulers in Thebes do seem, however, to have
reached a practical modus vivendi with the later Hyksos rulers. This
included transit rights through Hyksos-controlled Middle and Lower
Egypt and pasturage rights in the fertile Delta. One text, the
Carnarvon Tablet I, relates the misgivings of the Theban ruler’s
council of advisors when Kamose proposed moving against the Hyksos,
who he claimed were a humiliating stain upon the holy land of Egypt.
The councilors clearly did not wish to disturb the status quo:
“ … we are at ease in our (part of) Egypt. Elephantine (at the First
Cataract) is strong, and the middle (of the land) is with us as far as
Cusae [near modern Asyut]. The sleekest of their fields are plowed for
us, and our cattle are pastured in the Delta. Emmer is sent for our
pigs. Our cattle have not been taken away… He holds the land of the
Asiatics; we hold Egypt…"[7] ”

Was there a Hyksos invasion?

Manetho's account of the appearance of the Hyksos in Egypt describes
it as an armed invasion by a horde of foreign barbarians who met
little resistance and who subdued the country by military force. It
has been claimed that new revolutionary methods of warfare ensured the
Hyksos the ascendancy in their invasion. Herbert E. Winlock describes
new military hardware, such as the composite bow, as well as the
improved recurve bow and most importantly the horse-drawn war chariot,
as well as improved arrowheads, various kinds of swords and daggers, a
new type of shield, mailed shirts, and the metal helmet.[8]

The traditional explanation is there was an invasion; one that took
several years and that wasn't a coordinated effort of some foreign
kingdom, but mostly a migration of particular groups, tribes or
federated tribes, which had access to new and superior weapons
developed further away in Asia that helped them conquer a rich piece
of land to live in, and were possibly being routed from their own
areas.

In the last decades, however, the idea of a simple migration, with
little or no violence involved, has gained some support.[9] Under this
theory, the Egyptian rulers of 13th Dynasty were unable to stop these
new migrants from travelling to Egypt from Asia because they were weak
kings who were struggling to cope with various domestic problems
including possibly famine. The ceramic evidence in the Memphis-Fayum
region of Lower Egypt also strongly argues against the presence of new
invading foreigners. Indeed, Janine Bourriau's excavation from Memphis
as well as her study of ceramic material retrieved from Lisht and
Dahshur during the Second Intermediate Period shows a continuity of
Middle Kingdom ceramic type wares throughout this era with little to
no evidence of intrusion of Hyksos-style wares.[10] Bourriau's
evidence militates against the traditional Egyptian view--as espoused
by Manetho--that the Hyksos invaded and sacked the Memphite region and
imposed their authority there. Not until the beginning of the Theban
wars of liberation during the 17th Dynasty are Theban wares found in
the Fayum-Memphis region which indicates that the Hyksos controlled
the Delta region while Middle Egypt and the Thebaid functioned
autonomously and shared limited contact with each other.[11]

At some point in time, the foreigners, whose elite might have already
been local rulers in the name of the Pharaoh, realized there was no
need to pay tribute and obedience to a weak king, and took the title
of Pharaoh for themselves. (in the north of the country — the Hyksos
never penetrated the south)

Josephus, quoting from the work of the historian Manetho, described
the invasion:
“ By main force they easily seized it without striking a blow; and
having overpowered the rulers of the land, they then burned our cities
ruthlessly, razed to the ground the temples of gods… Finally, they
appointed as king one of their number whose name was Salitis. ”

Supporters of the peaceful takeover of Egypt claim that there is
little evidence of battles or wars in general in this period.[12] They
also maintain that the chariot didn't play any relevant role, so there
was no real technological superiority on the Hyksos side. The case for
the invasion, on the other side, is based mostly on: (a) the
traditional Manetho's explanation; (b) the fact that the chariot was a
new technology spreading from Central Asia and that there are other
theories of invasions by nomadic or semi-nomadic tribes mounted on
chariots in 1700–1300 BC, most notably Hurrians in the Near East
(Helck) and Aryans in India (the Vedas), with the Hurrians in
particular being active quite near where the Hyksos appeared; and (c)
the fact that the chariot became the master weapon of that period, the
weapon of nobles and kings, and one of the most important symbols of
power in Eurasia, because in Mycenaean Greece, India, Mesopotamia,
Eastern Europe and China, kings and gods started to be portrayed on
chariots, buried in chariots and always went to war in chariots. With
such an important new weapon, the advocates of the invasion theory
say, it seems strange to consider that the Hyksos just entered
peacefully in the north of Egypt from Asia, with no knowledge of the
chariot, or knowing it but choosing not to use it. Hence, the Egyptian
description of the Hyksos was likely propaganda.

Theban offensive

[edit] Under Seqenenre Tao (II)
Drawing of the mummified head of Tao II, bearing axe-blade wounds. The
common theory is that he died in a battle against the Hyksos

The war against the Hyksos began in the closing years of the
Seventeenth Dynasty at Thebes. Later New Kingdom literary tradition
has brought one of these Theban kings, Seqenenre Tao (II), into
contact with his Hyksos contemporary in the north, Auserra Apophis
(also known as Apepi or Apophis). The tradition took the form of a
tale in which the Hyksos king Apopi sent a messenger to Seqenenre in
Thebes to demand that the Theban sport of harpooning hippopotami be
done away with, his excuse was that the noise of these beasts was such
that he was unable to sleep in far-away Avaris. The real reason was
probably that their main god was Seth, who was represented as part man
part hippopotamus. Perhaps the only historical information that can be
gleaned from the tale is that Egypt was a divided land, the area of
direct Hyksos control being in the north, but the whole of Egypt
possibly paying tribute to the Hyksos kings.

Seqenenre participated in active diplomatic posturing, which probably
consisted of more than simply exchanging insults with the Asiatic
ruler in the North. He seems to have led military skirmishes against
the Hyksos, and judging by the vicious head wound on his mummy in the
Cairo Museum, he may have died during one of them. His son and
successor, Wadjkheperra Kamose, the last ruler of the Seventeenth
Dynasty at Thebes, is credited with the first significant victories in
the Theban-led war against the Hyksos.

Under Kamose

There is little evidence to support Pierre Montet's assertion in his
1964 book Eternal Egypt that Kamose's war of liberation was sponsored
by the priests of Amun as an attack against the Seth-worshipers in the
north (i.e. a religious motive). The Carnarvon Tablet I, does state
that Kamose travelled north to attack the Asiatics by the command of
Amun, the titulary deity of his dynasty, but this is simple hyperbole
common to virtually all Egyptian royal inscriptions at all periods of
time and should not be understood as the god’s having specifically
commanded the attack itself for religious reasons. Kamose's reason for
launching his attack on the Hyksos was nationalistic pride, for in
this same text he complains that he is sandwiched at Thebes between
the Asiatics in the north and the Nubians in the south, each holding
"his slice of Egypt, dividing up the land with me… My wish is to save
Egypt and to smite the Asiatics!" Hence, it was native Egyptian
nationalism that prompted Kamose to embark and sailed north from
Thebes at the head of his army in his third regnal year.

He surprised and overran the southernmost garrison of the Hyksos at
Nefrusy, just north of Cusae [near modern Asyut], and Kamose then led
his army as far north as the neighborhood of Avaris itself. Though the
city was not taken, the fields around it were devastated by the
Thebans. A second stele discovered at Thebes continues the account of
the war broken off on the Carnarvon Tablet I, and mentions the
interception and capture of a courier bearing a message from the
Hyksos king Aawoserra Apophis at Avaris to his ally the ruler of Kush
(modern Sudan), requesting the latter's urgent support against the
threat posed by Kamose's activities against both their kingdoms.
Kamose promptly ordered a detachment of his troops to occupy the
Bahriya Oasis in the Western Desert to control and block the desert
route to the south. Kamose, called "the Strong", then sailed back up
the Nile to Thebes for a joyous victory celebration after what was
probably not much more than a surprise spoiling raid in force which
caught the Hyksos off guard. His Year 3 is the only date attested for
Kamose.

By the end of the reign of Apophis, perhaps the second last Hyksos
kings of the Fifteenth Dynasty, the Hyksos had been routed from Middle
Egypt and had retreated northward and regrouped in the vicinity of the
entrance of the Fayyum at Atfih. This great Hyksos king had outlived
his first Egyptian contemporary, Seqenenra Tao II, and was still on
the throne (albeit of a much reduced kingdom) at the end of Kamose's
reign. The last Hyksos ruler of the Fifteenth Dynasty, Khamudi,
undoubtedly had a relatively short reign which fell some time within
the first half of the reign of Ahmose, Kamose's successor and the
founder of the Eighteenth Dynasty.

Under Ahmose
Close-up of a drawing of axe blade depicting Ahmose I striking down a
Hyksos soldier, part of the burial equipment of Queen Ahhotep.

Ahmose, who is regarded as the first king of the Eighteenth Dynasty
may have been on the Theban throne for some time before he resumed the
war against the Hyksos.

The details of his military campaigns are taken from the account on
the walls of the tomb of another Ahmose, a soldier from El-Kab, a town
in southern Upper Egypt, whose father had served under Seqenenra Tao
II, and whose family had long been nomarchs of the district. It seems
that several campaigns against the stronghold at Avaris were needed
before the Hyksos were finally dislodged and driven from Lower Egypt.
When this occurred is not known with certainty. Some authorities place
the expulsion as early as Ahmose's fourth year, while Donald Redford,
whose chronological structure has been adopted here, places it as late
as the king's fifteenth year. A soldier (named Ahmose) specifically
states that he followed on foot as his King Ahmose rode to war in his
chariot. This is the first mention of the use of the horse and chariot
by the Egyptians. In the repeated fighting around Avaris, the soldier
captured prisoners and carried off several hands, which when reported
to the royal herald resulted in his being awarded the "Gold of Valor"
on three separate occasions. The actual fall of Avaris is only briefly
mentioned:

"Then Avaris was despoiled. Then I carried off spoil from there:
one man, three women, a total of four persons. Then his majesty gave
them to me to be slaves."[13]

After the fall of Avaris, the fleeing Hyksos were pursued by the
Egyptian army across northern Sinai and into southern Canaan. Here, in
the Negev desert between Rafah and Gaza, the fortified town of
Sharuhen was reduced after, according to the soldier from El-Kab, a
long three-year siege operation. How soon after the sack of Avaris
this Asiatic campaign took place is uncertain. One can reasonably
conclude that the thrust into southern Canaan probably followed the
Hyksos’ eviction from Avaris fairly closely, but, given a period of
protracted struggle before Avaris fell and possibly more than one
season of campaigning before the Hyksos were shut up in Sharuhen, the
chronological sequence must remain uncertain.

Later times

The Hyksos continued to play a role in Egyptian literature as a
synonym for "Asiatic" down to Hellenistic times. The term was
frequently evoked against such groups as the Semites settled in Aswan
or the Delta, and this may have led the Egyptian priest and historian
Manetho to identify the coming of the Hyksos with the sojourn in Egypt
of Joseph and his brothers, and helped modern historians identify the
expulsion of the Hyksos with the Exodus. Significant in this
identification is the fact that some Hyksos pharaohs had names
familiar from Israelite traditions, such as Jacobaam of the 16th
dynasty. It may also indicate that the "expulsion" of the Hyksos
reported in the Egyptian records mainly refers to the expulsion of the
Semitic rulers and military/political elite and does not indicate a
mass expulsion of the lower classes who, in the Ancient World, were
traditionally exploited by their conquerors rather than expelled or
massacred.

There seems to be slight evidence that the Kings of the 19th Egyptian
Dynasty may have had some Hyksos connections:

* Ramesses I had hereditary estates in the vicinity of Avaris.
* Ramesses II:
o Celebrated the 400th anniversary of the worship of Sutekh,
in honor of his father, Seti I (Seth was identified by the Hyksos with
Baal),
o Adopted a Semitic name for one of his favourite daughters
(Bintanath meaning "the daughter of the goddess Anath"),
o Dedicated several of his favourite chariot horses to Anath
(naming them accordingly), and
o Pharaoh Ramesses II moved his capital city back to Avaris
— and named it after himself (Pi Rameses).
* The early Ramesside kings promoted Asiatics to positions of
prominence in the civil administration.
* The anti-Hyksos invectives found during the first part of the
18th dynasty are almost wholly lacking.

With the chaos at the end of the 19th Dynasty, the first pharaohs of
the 20th Dynasty in the Elephantine Stele and the Harris Papyrus re-
invigorated an anti-Hyksos stance to strengthen their nativist
reaction towards the Asiatic settlers of the north, who may again have
been expelled from the country. Setnakht, the founder of the 20th
Dynasty, records in a Year 2 stela from Elephantine that he defeated
and expelled a large force of Asiatics who had invaded Egypt during
the chaos between the end Twosret's reign and the beginning of the
20th dynasty and captured much of their stolen gold and silver booty.

The story of the Hyksos was known to the Greeks, who attempted to
identify it within their own mythology with the expulsion of Belus
(Baal?) and the daughters of Danaos, associated with the origin of the
Argive dynasty.

[edit] Who were the Hyksos?

Main article: The origins of the Hyksos

[edit] Hyksos in popular culture

The invasion and subsequent expulsion of the Hyksos form an integral
part in the fictional 'Egypt' novels by Wilbur Smith, notably River
God, The Seventh Scroll and Warlock ("Egyptian Series"), in the Lords
of the Two Lands trilogy by Pauline Gedge which chronicles the
campaigns of Sequenenre, Kamose and Ahmose against them, and in Andre
Norton's novel "Shadow Hawk".

Naguib Mahfouz has written about Theban Wars against hykssos in his
Novel (The struggle of theba)

[edit] Notes

1. ^ Egyptian chronology.
2. ^ Second Intermediate Period (SIP) by Ottar Vendel.
3. ^ Grimal, Nicolas. A History of Ancient Egypt. p.193. Librairie
Arthéme Fayard, 1988.
4. ^ Redford, Donald B. History and Chronology of the 18th Dynasty
of Egypt: Seven Studies, pp.46–49. University of Toronto Press, 1967.
5. ^ Booth, Charlotte. The Hyksos Period in Egypt. p.15-18. Shire
Egyptology. 2005. ISBN 0-7478-0638-1
6. ^ Booth, Charlotte. The Hyksos Period in Egypt. p.29-31. Shire
Egyptology. 2005. ISBN 0-7478-0638-1
7. ^ Pritchard (ed.), Ancient Near Eastern Texts Relating to the
Old Testament (ANET), pp 232f.
8. ^ Winlock, Herbert E. The Rise and Fall of the Middle Kingdom in
Thebes.
9. ^ Booth, Charlotte. The Hyksos Period in Egypt. p.10. Shire
Egyptology, 2005. ISBN 0-7478-0638-1
10. ^ The Hyksos: New Historical and Archaeological Perspectives,
ed. Eliezer Oren, University of Pennsylvania 1997. cf. Janine
Bourriau's chapter of the archaeological evidence covers pages 159-182
11. ^ James K. Hoffmeier, Book Review of 'The Hyksos: New Historical
and Archaeological Perspectives, ed. Eliezer Oren, University of
Pennsylvania 1997.' in JEA 90 (2004), p.27
12. ^ Booth, Charlotte. The Hyksos Period in Egypt. p.10. Shire
Egyptology. 2005. ISBN 0-7478-0638-1
13. ^ ANET, p.233f

[edit] References

* Aharoni, Yohanan and Michael Avi-Yonah, The MacMillan Bible
Atlas, Revised Edition, pp. 30-31 (1968 & 1977 by Carta Ltd.).
* Bimson, John J. Redating the Exodus. Sheffield, England:
Sheffield Academic Press, 1981. ISBN 0-907459-04-8
* von Beckerath, Jürgen. Untersuchungen zur politischen Geschichte
der zweiten Zwischenzeit in Ägypten (1965) [Ägyptologische
Forschungen, Heft 23]. Basic to any study of this period.
* Ellis, Ralph. (2001) Tempest & Exodus: the biblical exodus
inscribed on an ancient Egyptian stele. Edfu: Cheshire ISBN 0953191389
* Ellis, Ralph. Jesus, Last of the Pharaohs
* Gardiner, Sir Alan. Egypt of the Pharaohs (1964, 1961). Still
the classic work in English. See pp. 61–71 for his examination of
chronology.
* Gibson, David J., Whence Came the Hyksos, Kings of Egypt, 1962
* Hayes, William C. "Chronology: Egypt—To End of Twentieth
Dynasty." Chapter 6, Volume 1 of The Cambridge Ancient History,
Revised Edition. Cambridge, 1964. With excellent bibliography up to
1964. This is CAH’s chronology volume: A basic work.
* Hayes, William C. "Egypt: From the Death of Ammenemes III to
Seqenenre II", in Chapter 2, Volume 2 of The Cambridge Ancient
History, Revised Edition (1965) (Fascicle 6).
* Helck, Wolfgang. Die Beziehungen Ägyptens zu Vorderasien im 3.
und 2. Jahrtausend v. Chr. (1962) [Ägyptologische Abhandlungen, Band
5]. An important review article that should be consulted is by William
A. Ward, in Orientalia 33 (1964), pp. 135–140.
* Hornung, Erik. Untersuchungen zur Chronologie und Geschichte des
Neuen Reiches (1964) [Ägyptologische Abhandlungen, Band 11]. With an
excellent fold-out comparative chronological table at the back with
18th, 19th, and 20th Dynasty dates.
* James, T.G.H. "Egypt: From the Expulsion of the Hyksos to
Amenophis I", in Chapter 2, Volume 2 of The Cambridge Ancient History,
Revised Edition (1965) (Fascicle 34).
* Montet, Pierre. Eternal Egypt (1964). Translated by Doreen
Weightman.
* Pritchard, James B. (Editor). Ancient Near Eastern Texts
Relating to the Old Testament(ANET), 3rd edition. (1969). This edition
has an extensive Supplement at the back containing additional
translations. The standard collection of excellent English
translations of ancient Near Eastern texts.
* Redford, Donald B. History and Chronology of the Eighteenth
Dynasty of Egypt: Seven Studies. (1967).
* Redford, Donald B. "The Hyksos Invasion in History and
Tradition" Orientalia 39 (1970).
* Ryholt, Kim SB. The Political Situation in Egypt during the
Second Intermediate Period c.1800-1550 B.C. (1997) by Museum
Tuscalanum Press.
* Van Seters, John. The Hyksos: A New Investigation (1967). Two
reviews of this volume should be consulted: Kitchen, Kenneth A.
"Further Notes on New Kingdom Chronology and History", in Chronique
d’Égypte XLIII, No. 86, 1968, pp. 313–324; and Simpson, William J.
Review, in Journal of the American Oriental Society 90 (1970), pp. 314–
315.
* Säve-Söderbergh, T. "The Hyksos Rule in Egypt", Journal of
Egyptian Archaeology 37 (1951), pp. 53–71.
* Winlock, H. E. The Rise and Fall of the Middle Kingdom in Thebes
(1947). Still a classic with much important information.

[edit] External links

* The Hyksos, Kings of Egypt and the land of Edom based on the
1962 book by David J. Gibson

Retrieved from "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hyksos"

Categories: Dynasties of ancient Egypt | Ancient peoples | Canaan
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ElParedon

unread,

Feb 7, 2008, 8:59:14 AM2/7/08

YEAH, SURE, THEY WERE FUCKING LOST TRIBE OF JEWS! FUCKING IDIOT!
"jgarbuz" <jga...@netzero.com> wrote in message
news:6cf1cc7d-ecaf-4c60...@j78g2000hsd.googlegroups.com...

Hyksos
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

An image representing the Egyptian pharaoh Ahmose I defeating the
Hyksos in battle.
An image representing the Egyptian pharaoh Ahmose I defeating the
Hyksos in battle.

The Hyksos (Egyptian heqa khasewet, "foreign rulers"; Greek ?????,
????, Arabic: ?????? ?????? , shepherd kings) were an Asiatic people

who invaded the eastern Nile Delta, initiating the Second Intermediate
Period of Ancient Egypt. They rose to power in the 17th century BC,
(according to the traditional chronology) and ruled Lower and Middle
Egypt for 108 years, forming the Fifteenth and possibly the Sixteenth

Dynasties of Egypt, (c. 1648-1540 BC).[1] This 108-year period follows

" . we are at ease in our (part of) Egypt. Elephantine (at the First

Cataract) is strong, and the middle (of the land) is with us as far as
Cusae [near modern Asyut]. The sleekest of their fields are plowed for
us, and our cattle are pastured in the Delta. Emmer is sent for our

pigs. Our cattle have not been taken away. He holds the land of the
Asiatics; we hold Egypt."[7] "

of Pharaoh for themselves. (in the north of the country - the Hyksos
never penetrated the south)

Josephus, quoting from the work of the historian Manetho, described
the invasion:
" By main force they easily seized it without striking a blow; and
having overpowered the rulers of the land, they then burned our cities

ruthlessly, razed to the ground the temples of gods. Finally, they

appointed as king one of their number whose name was Salitis. "

chariots in 1700-1300 BC, most notably Hurrians in the Near East

Theban offensive

Under Kamose

"his slice of Egypt, dividing up the land with me. My wish is to save

Later times

- and named it after himself (Pi Rameses).

[edit] Notes

of Egypt: Seven Studies, pp.46-49. University of Toronto Press, 1967.

[edit] References

the classic work in English. See pp. 61-71 for his examination of

chronology.
* Gibson, David J., Whence Came the Hyksos, Kings of Egypt, 1962

* Hayes, William C. "Chronology: Egypt-To End of Twentieth

Dynasty." Chapter 6, Volume 1 of The Cambridge Ancient History,
Revised Edition. Cambridge, 1964. With excellent bibliography up to
1964. This is CAH's chronology volume: A basic work.
* Hayes, William C. "Egypt: From the Death of Ammenemes III to
Seqenenre II", in Chapter 2, Volume 2 of The Cambridge Ancient
History, Revised Edition (1965) (Fascicle 6).
* Helck, Wolfgang. Die Beziehungen Ägyptens zu Vorderasien im 3.
und 2. Jahrtausend v. Chr. (1962) [Ägyptologische Abhandlungen, Band
5]. An important review article that should be consulted is by William

A. Ward, in Orientalia 33 (1964), pp. 135-140.

* Hornung, Erik. Untersuchungen zur Chronologie und Geschichte des
Neuen Reiches (1964) [Ägyptologische Abhandlungen, Band 11]. With an
excellent fold-out comparative chronological table at the back with
18th, 19th, and 20th Dynasty dates.
* James, T.G.H. "Egypt: From the Expulsion of the Hyksos to
Amenophis I", in Chapter 2, Volume 2 of The Cambridge Ancient History,
Revised Edition (1965) (Fascicle 34).
* Montet, Pierre. Eternal Egypt (1964). Translated by Doreen
Weightman.
* Pritchard, James B. (Editor). Ancient Near Eastern Texts
Relating to the Old Testament(ANET), 3rd edition. (1969). This edition
has an extensive Supplement at the back containing additional
translations. The standard collection of excellent English
translations of ancient Near Eastern texts.
* Redford, Donald B. History and Chronology of the Eighteenth
Dynasty of Egypt: Seven Studies. (1967).
* Redford, Donald B. "The Hyksos Invasion in History and
Tradition" Orientalia 39 (1970).
* Ryholt, Kim SB. The Political Situation in Egypt during the
Second Intermediate Period c.1800-1550 B.C. (1997) by Museum
Tuscalanum Press.
* Van Seters, John. The Hyksos: A New Investigation (1967). Two
reviews of this volume should be consulted: Kitchen, Kenneth A.
"Further Notes on New Kingdom Chronology and History", in Chronique

d'Égypte XLIII, No. 86, 1968, pp. 313-324; and Simpson, William J.
Review, in Journal of the American Oriental Society 90 (1970), pp. 314-

315.
* Säve-Söderbergh, T. "The Hyksos Rule in Egypt", Journal of

Egyptian Archaeology 37 (1951), pp. 53-71.

[edit] External links

Retrieved from "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hyksos"

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