The Wave theory of light and its affect on Modern phyiscs and ast.

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TABLE OF CONTENT





§ 1. Introduction

§ 2. Huygens

§ 3. Fresnel

§ 4. Maxwell

§ 5. Michelson

§ 6. Kirchhoff

§ 7. Poynting

§ 8. Lorentz

§ 9. Lenard

§ 10. Planck

§ 11. Einstein's Energy Quanta

§ 12. Einstein Inertial Mass

§ 13. Einstein Electrodynamics

§ 14. Minkowski

§ 15. Einstein's Electromagnetic Ether

§ 16. Relativity: Special and General Theory

§ 17. Einstein's Ether

§ 18. Quantum Mechanics

§ 19. Heisenberg

§ 20. Quantum Electrodynamics

§ 21. String Theory


§ 22. Particle Physics

§ 23. Gravitation


§ 24. Astronomy



§ 25. Maxwell's Equations


§ 26. Electromagnetic Transverse Wave Equations of Light



§ 27. Transmission and Reflection Equations




§ 28. Polarization




§ 29. Aperture Diffraction



§ 30 Optic Particle Theory

§ 31. Velocity of Light


§ 32. Conclusion

§ 33. Reference









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The Wave Theory of Light and its affect on Modern Physics and Astronomy

Ben T. Ito

November 5, 2016







This paper will analyze the wave theory of light and its consequence upon modern physics and astronomy. Huygens describes the propagation of light using light waves formed by the motion of an ether that possess a hardness which produces a springiness used to transmit light energy through the ether in the formation of propagating light waves. Bradley's stellar aberration is used to justify the existence of Huygens' ether but aberration does not alter the fact that light propagates in vacuum that is void of matter. Also, the change in the position of Bradley's star is caused by the affects of the earth's daily and yearly motions upon a stationary celestial universe since the change in the position of Bradley's star results in the rotational shift of all the stars' positions in the entire stellar universe that rotation is centered around the North Star; the shapes of the constellations that constitute the stellar universe have not changed since the advent of photography (120 years) which represents a stationary celestial universe. The same method of deception used by ancient scientists to verify that the earth was the center of the solar system is used to justify the existence of Huygens' ether. Fresnel describes diffraction using interfering light-waves produced by the vibration of Huygens' ether yet diffraction forms in vacuum that is void of matter. Maxwell introduces an electromagnetic theory of light based on Faraday's induction effect since induction forms in vacuum but Faraday's induction effect is not luminous. Maxwell is assuming that since light and the radio induction effect propagate at the same velocity that light has an electromagnetic field structure but the velocity of light does not change the fact that Maxwell's theory is based on Faraday's induction effect that is not luminous. Also, the velocity of light has not been accurately measured. Roemer (1676) is accredited as the first to measure the velocity of light but Roemer did not measure or calculate the velocity of light in his three page paper. Huygens measures the velocity of light using Roemer observations of Io's period as a clock. After the earth propagates to the position L forming a path length KL of the earth's orbital diameter, the earth's orbital diameter is used as the distance to calculate the velocity of light but Huygens is viewing Io during the day (fig 1) which is not physically possible. I addition, it is questionable how Huygens obtained the 22 minute time used to calculate the velocity of light since Io completes 90 rotations around Jupiter in a six month time interval when the earth propagates from K to L. Fizeau attempts to measure the velocity of light uses a rotating cogwheel that has 740 small slits but the 2 mm slit width cannot form a light intensity after the light produced by the slits of the rotating cogwheel propagates the distance of 8 km to the reflection mirror and another 8 km back to the cogwheel; Foucault's rotating mirror forms the same intensity problem. Fabry-Perot uses a glass wedge interference effect to obtain a wavelength that is used in a wave equation (λf = c) to calculate the velocity of light but the ether that forms the interfering light waves does not exist (vacuum) which proves the wave equation cannot be used to calculate the velocity of light. The velocity of light has not been accurately measured or calculated; consequently, the velocity of light cannot be used to justify Maxwell's electromagnetic theory of light. Poynting supports Maxwell's theory by deriving an electromagnetic energy equation of light but Poynting's current wire is not luminous. Hertz's spark gap is used to structurally unite light with induction but Hertz's spark gap emits electrons yet Faraday's induction effect is also not an ionization effect. During the production of light, electrons are always emitted but Faraday's induction effect is not an ionization effect which proves light is not an electromagnetic phenomenon. Michelson tests for Fresnel's ether using the ether wind but the result was negative. Furthermore, Michelson's experiment is unnecessary since vacuum is definitive and irreversible experimental proof Fresnel's ether does not exist; also, at the surface of the earth, as time increases, because of the earth's daily motion, the ether wind that is formed by the earth yearly motion's tangential velocity varies from 0 to 30,463 m/s (6:00pm to 12:00am) yet Michelson's experiment is based on a constant magnitude of the ether wind V which proves Michelson's experiment is physically invalid. Lorentz justifies Maxwell's electromagnetic theory of light by altering the coordinate system of Maxwell's equations but modifying the dimensions of Maxwell's equations does not change the fact that Maxwell's equations are derived using Faraday's induction effect that is not luminous and, in the same paper, Lorentz reverses the negative result of Michelson's experiment to justify the existence of Fresnel's ether but vacuum proves Michelson's ether experiment cannot be reversed. Lenard (1899-1902) proves light is composed of particles the energy is dependent on only the frequency which contradicts Fresnel's diffraction mechanism that light wave energy is dependent on the wave amplitude and Maxwell's electromagnetic theory of light since an expanding electromagnetic field cannot sustain a particle structure of a propagating electromagnetic photon; consequently, Planck (1901) and Einstein (1905) attempt to quantize Maxwell's electromagnetic field but quantizing Maxwell's electromagnetic field does not change the fact that an expanding electromagnetic field cannot maintain a particle structure of a propagating electromagnetic photon which proves Planck and Einstein quantization of Maxwell's electromagnetic field are physically invalid. Also, Planck's derivation of the energy element (hv) is physically invalid since Planck's constant contains the units of mass (kg) which conflicts with the structure of a massless electromagnetic photon. Lenard's photoelectric effect proves the wave theory of light and Maxwell's electromagnetic theory of light are physically invalid. In Einstein's (1905) electrodynamics (special relativity), Einstein is justifying Maxwell's electromagnetic theory of light by manipulating the coordinate of Maxwell's equations but altering the coordinate system of Maxwell's equations does not change the fact that Maxwell's equations are derived using Faraday's induction effect that is not luminous, nor is induction an ionization or particle effect. Einstein (1910) describes a massless electromagnetic ether but Maxwell's electromagnetic field originates from Faraday's induction law that is not luminous; plus, an electromagnetic field that is propagating at the velocity of light conflicts with the wave theory of light that is based on a stationary ether since Huygens' ether particles remain stationary after the light wave propagates through the ether. Also, Maxwell's equations denote three dimensional volume (x,y,z) which depicts longitudinal electromagnetic spherical wave; consequently, the electromagnetic transverse wave equations of light cannot be derived using Maxwell's equations (equ 85 - 111). Maxwell's electromagnetic field theory originates from Newtonian physics that represents a force vector interacting with matter but Faraday's electromagnetic field exists in vacuum that is void of matter yet the representation of an electromagnetic field vectors requires matter since a finite volume that contains an electromagnetic field represents an infinite number of positions; when an infinite number of positions is represented with electromagnetic field vectors (energy), an energy divergence is formed; Huygens' ether particles limit the number of positions forming a finite energy but Huygens' ether particles do not exist (vacuum); consequently, Einstein (1905) uses the inertial mass (L/V2) to structurally unify Maxwell's electromagnetic field with matter but Einstein's inertial mass (m = L/V2) is massless since L represents the energy of an electromagnetic photon. Quantum mechanics, quantum electrodynamics, string theory, quantum field theory, quantum chromodynamics, plasma physics, condense matter physics, and particle physics use the gauge transformation of Maxwell's equations but representing Maxwell's equations with a gauge potential does not change the fact that Maxwell's equations are derived using Faraday's induction effect that forms a massless and expanding electromagnetic field cannot be used to represent the particle structure of an atom, ion, nuclei, nucleus, proton, electron or subatomic particles that have a mass. In particle physics, the existence of subatomic particles is justified using the curved ionization bubble tracks of liquid hydrogen that curved paths are used to calculate the mass of a subatomic particle. An accelerated proton beam is incident to a metal target that collision produces subatomic particles which propagate through the steel enclosure (more than a quarter inch thick) of the bubble chamber to form ionization bubble tracks in the liquid hydrogen but subatomic particles that have a mass cannot propagate through the steel enclosure of the bubble chamber without forming a hole in the steel enclosure of the bubble chamber. Rutherford's gold foil experiment is used to justify subatomic particles propagating through the steel enclosure of the bubble chamber but Rutherford's beta particles cannot propagate through a quarter inch thick steel plate and alpha particles can be stop using a single sheet of paper. X-rays and gamma rays propagate through steel but X-rays and gamma rays are massless. Muons produced by the atmospheric decay of cosmic rays are used to justify subatomic particles propagating through the bubble chamber but a muon is 200 times more massive than an electron. An ach welder's electron beam can cut and weld steel; henceforth, subatomic particles that have a mass and energy larger than the electrons of a ach welder cannot propagate through the steel enclosure of the bubble chamber without producing a hole in the steel enclosure of the bubble chamber resulting in an explosion of the liquid hydrogen. I predict that a radioactive isotope was inserted into the bubble chamber to form the ionization bubble tracks in the liquid hydrogen since the liquid hydrogen ionization bubble tracks where initially discovered in the research and construction of thermonuclear warheads. The Soudan muon detector that is located at the bottom of a 1,800 meters deep mine shaft is used to justify subatomic particles propagating through the bubble chamber but muons that have a mass larger than an electron cannot propagate through more than 1,400 meters of bedrock. It is more likely that the Soudan muon detector is detecting radioactive isotopes that exist at the bottom of the mine. The CERN accelerator is comprised of a 27 km circumference vacuum tube that the proton beam propagates through but a magnet can only change the direction of the proton beam; it is questionable the purpose of the 27 km circumference CERN vacuum tube since the proton (hadron) beam cannot be accelerated while propagating through the 27 km circumference CERN vacuum tube. In gravitational physics, Weber detected gravity waves that have the frequency of 1662 Hz using the vibration of a 750 pound aluminum beam to justify the existence of gravity waves yet the vacuum of celestial space does not transmit sound nor does sound propagate at the velocity of light. Wheeler describes electromagnetic gravitational waves that Thorne, Gertsenshtein, and Ohanian state propagate at the velocity of light. The European pulsar timing array (EPTA) uses a radio telescope array to detected gravity waves with the frequency of 10-8 Hz which is not in the range of radio frequencies. The Caltech-MIT laser interferometer gravitational wave observatory (LIGO) detected gravity waves that originate from the merging of two blackbody holes 1.3 billion light years from the earth. The described gravity waves propagate to the earth at the velocity of light and produce 35 to 250 Hz acoustical chirps that vibrate the armature of a laser interferometer forming the signal of the celestial gravity waves but the LIGO gravity waves represent the frequency of sound that cannot propagate in the vacuum of celestial space at the velocity of light. Furthermore,..Chilean astronomers discovered a planet orbiting the star Proxima Centauri using the La Silla telescope (Escude, p. 408–409) based on the dimming that occurs when a planet 4.22 ly from the earth moves between the star Proxima Centauri and the La Silla telescope but the variation of the intensity of a distance star is within the thermodynamic variations of the earth's atmosphere. In addition, the Institute of Astronomy in Cambridge detected a black hole of the Perseus Clustera that is 250 millions light years from the earth, using the Chandra X-ray space telescope but X-rays cannot be focused using a lens which would make it extremely difficult to produce an X-ray image of a blackhole. In addition, to view the stars that surround the 250 million ly blackhole, that are used to identify the existence of the blackhole, would require a resolution of more than 10-8 arcsec yet the Hubble resolution is .1 arcsec.




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§ 1. Introduction




The ancient Greeks believed the eye sent out feelers that emanated from the eye and felt the object being observed. In another ancient Greek theory, the outer surface (simulacra) of the object peels off the object and propagates to the eye then enters the eye forming the image of the object. There were numerous ancient Greek theories regarding vision. Most, if not all, of the ancient Greek writings were saved by Middle Eastern scholars since the Romans attempted to destroy all of the ancient Greek writings. In the ninth century AD, Iraqi scholars studying the ancient Greek writings resulted in the advent of the light ray theory. In Abu Yūsuf Yaʻqūb ibn ʼIsḥāq aṣ Ṣabbāḥ al Kindī (b. 801 AD) paper "De radiis stellarum", the theory of vision is described using light rays that interaction with the eye formed vision. In Abū ʿAlī al Ḥasan ibn al Ḥasan ibn al Haytham (b. 965) paper "Opticae Thesaurus", the light ray theory is enhanced using the anatomy of the eye where light rays interacting with the eye's lens and retina formed vision. The common availability of glass resulted in the invention of the two lens magnifier that Syrian scholar Ala Al Din Abu'l Hasan Ali Ibn Ibrahim Ibn al Shatir (b. 1304) used to observe the celestial universe and formed the theory that planets revolved around the sun described in the paper "The Final Quest Concerning the Rectification of Principles". Copernicus (b. 1474) plagiarized al Shatir's diagrams and calculations and described planets orbiting the sun in "On the Revolutions of the Celestial Spheres" (1543). Galileo (b. 1564) used the design of the Middle Eastern two lens magnifier in the construction of the astronomic telescope. In 1610, Galileo discovered the rings of Saturn and supported the heliocentric model which at the time was highly controversial which resulted in a life sentence of home incarceration for Galileo's outspoken criticism of the Ptolemy model that was enshrined in Christian theology. Leibniz (b. 1646) studied the area problem of Kepler's planetary orbital ellipse and used the equation of an ellipse to form the derivative which resulted in the discovery of the anti-derivative (integration) that was used to calculate the exact area of an ellipse. Newton's original method of integration using a summation does not produce an exact area of an ellipse since the edges of Newton's summation rectangles are outside the area of the ellipse which mathematically represents an area approximation which conflicts with the exact area of Leibniz's integral. Newton's summation's dx --> 0 also represents an area approximation since no matter how small the value of dx the ellipse area cannot be increased to form an inexact area represented using Newton's summation rectangles of width dx. Mathematician use Newton's summation to imply that the integration was derived using a summation but the integration was derived by guessing which conflicts with mans desire in explaining the most important discovery of mathematics using a clear defined system of analyze. Newton's (b. 1643) equations of motion are based on Leibniz's derivative. Newton (1704) discovered the chromatic spectrum of light produced by a prism (Newton, p. 69) that represents a particle effect of light since expanding waves of white light cannot generate a spectrum of discrete colors. Huygens (1690) describes the propagation of light using light waves formed by the motion of an Ethereal matter. The observation of the water wave interference resulted in the hypothesis that diffraction was also formed by wave interference. Fresnel (1819) represents diffraction using interfering light-waves created by the vibration of an elastic fluid (ether) based on Huygens principle. Michelson (1881) tests for the existence of Fresnel's stationary ether where the earth's yearly motion forms an ether wind that is tested using an interferometer but the result of Michelson's experiment was negative; furthermore, Michelson's ether experiment is unnecessary since light propagating in vacuum proves Fresnel's ether does not physically exist. Lorentz (1899) reverses the negative result of Michelson's experiment to justify the existence of Fresnel's ether but light propagating in vacuum is definitive and irreversible experimental proof the ether does not exist.


"More artificial theories have been tried out, assuming that the real truth lies somewhere between these two limiting cases: that the ether is only partially carried by the moving bodies. But they all failed! Every attempt to explain the electromagnetic phenomena in moving CS with the help of the motion of the ether, motion through the ether, or both these motions, proved unsuccessful. Thus arose one of the most dramatic situations in the history of science. All assumptions concerning ether led nowhere! The experimental verdict was always negative." (Weaver, p. 145).







Maxwell's (1864) electromagnetic theory of light based on Faraday induction effect was introduced since induction forms in vacuum but Faraday's induction effect is not luminous. Maxwell's theory is based on the assumption that since light and the radio induction effect propagate at the same velocity that light has an electromagnetic field structure but the velocity of light does not change the fact that Maxwell's theory is based on Faraday's induction effect that is not luminous. Furthermore, the velocity of light has not been accurately measured. Roemer (1676) did not measure or calculate the velocity of light in his three page paper (Roemer, p. 276-279). Huygens attempts to measure the velocity of light using the earth's orbital diameter and a 22 minute time based on Roemer's observation of the period of Io but there is an inconsistency regarding Huygens' 22 minute time since the propagation of the earth to L (six months) represents approximately 90 rotations of Io around Jupiter yet Roemer's time delay of 10 minutes represents a single rotation of Io around Jupiter. Fizeau (1849) uses a rotating cogwheel to measure the velocity of light but the light intensity that is emitted through the 2 mm width slits cannot form an intensity after propagating the distance of 8 km to the mirror and another 8km back to the cogwheel. Fabry-Perot (1899) calculates the velocity of light using the glass wedge interference effect to obtain a wavelength that is used in a wave equation (λf = c) to calculate the velocity of light but the ether that forms the interfering light waves does not physically exist (vacuum) which proves the velocity of light cannot be calculated using the wave equation that is based on the formation of interfering light waves. The velocity of light has not been accurately measured or calculated; consequently, the velocity of light cannot be used to justify Maxwell's electromagnetic theory of light. Poynting (1884) supports Maxwell's theory by deriving an electromagnetic energy equation of light but Poynting's current wire is not luminous. Hertz (1887) attempts to structurally unite light with induction using a spark gap experiment that produces light and the radio induction effect but Hertz's spark gap emits electrons yet Faraday's induction effect is also not an ionization effect. The generation of light by a light source is always accompanied by the emission of electrons yet Maxwell's electromagnetic theory of light is based on Faraday's induction effect that is not an ionization effect which proves light is not an electromagnetic phenomenon. Lenard (1899-1902) proves light is composed of particles which conflicts with the continuity of Maxwell's electromagnetic field; furthermore, Maxwell's expanding electromagnetic field cannot maintain a particle structure of a propagating electromagnetic photon. Planck (1901) addresses the results of Lenard's photoelectric effect by quantizing Maxwell's electromagnetic field using the blackbody radiation effect in the derivation of the energy element (hγ) that represents the energy of an electromagnetic photon but the quantization of Maxwell's electromagnetic field does not change the fact that Maxwell's expanding electromagnetic field cannot sustain a particle structure of a propagating electromagnetic photon. Plus, Planck derivation of the energy element (hv) is physically invalid since Planck's constant h = 6.6 × 10-34 m2 kg/s contains the unit of the mass (kg) which conflicts with the structure of a massless electromagnetic photon. Einstein (1905) uses the inertial mass (L/V2) to structurally unify Maxwell's electromagnetic field with matter but Einstein's inertial mass (m = L/V2) is massless since L represents the energy of a massless electromagnetic photon. In Einstein's (1905) electrodynamics (special relativity), Einstein modifies the coordinate system of Maxwell's equations to justify Maxwell's electromagnetic theory of light using Lorentz's theory but manipulating the coordinate system of Maxwell's equations does not change the fact that Maxwell's equations are derived using Faraday's induction experiment that is not luminous nor is induction an ionization or particle effect; Furthermore, Einstein's translation velocity v, based on Lorentz's theory, varies form 0 to 30,463 m/s (6:oo pm to 12:oo am) which conflicts with Einstein's relativity (transformation) that is based on a constant value of the translational velocity v. Einstein (1910) describes an electromagnetic ether but Maxwell's electromagnetic field originates from Faraday's induction effect that is not luminous; also, Maxwell's massless electromagnetic field that is propagating at the velocity of light conflicts with the wave theory of light that represents the wave effects of light using light waves formed by the vibration of a stationary ether, composed of matter since Huygens' ether particles that possess a hardness remain stationary after the light wave propagates through the ether. The analysis of the wave theory of light begins with Huygens' principle.









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§ 2. Huygens





In Huygens' paper, "Treatise on Light" (1690), Huygens describes Roemer's time delay of a single cycle of Io's rotation around Jupiter





"Hence, if light would travel the diameter of the Earth in one second, it would travel each interval FG and KL in 3 1/2 minutes. This should lead to a deviation of about half an hour between two revolutions of this satellite observed in FG and KL respectively. On the other hand, nothing of such a substantial difference has been found." (Roemer, p. 276).




"The necessity of the new equation of delayed light was established by all the observations obtained at the Royal Academy and the Observatory during the past 8 years. This was verified later, by the appearance of the first satellite from the shadow of Jupiter, observed in the evening 5h35m45s on November 9 of this year, in Paris, that occurred 10 minutes later than it was expected" (Roemer, p. 276).

"But that which I employed only as a hypothesis, has recently received great seemingness as an established truth by the ingenious proof of Mr. Römer which I am going here to relate, expecting him himself to give all that is needed for its confirmation. It is founded as is the preceding argument upon celestial observations, and proves not only that Light takes time for its passage, but also demonstrates how much time it takes, and that its velocity is even at least six times greater than that which I have just stated. For this he makes use of the Eclipses suffered by the little planets which revolve around Jupiter, and which often enter his shadow: and see what is his reasoning." (Huygens, p. 8-9).




Roemer is accredited as the first to measure the velocity of light but Roemer did not measure or calculate the velocity of light in his three page paper (Roemer, p. 276-279). Roemer observed a 10 minute time delay of Io's period.







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Huygens calculates the velocity of light using the earth's orbital diameter and a time of 22 minutes (fig 1).



"For this he makes use of the Eclipses suffered by the little planets which revolve around Jupiter, and which often enter his shadow: and see what is his reasoning." (Huygens, p. 8-9).



"If one considers the vast size of the diameter KL, which according to me is some 24 thousand diameters of the Earth, one will acknowledge the extreme velocity of Light. For, supposing that KL is no more than 22 thousand of these diameters, it appears that being traversed in 22 minutes" (Huygens, p. 10)


Huygens uses the earth's orbital diameter KL and a 22 time to calculate the velocity of light using Io a moon of Jupiter as a clock but after the earth propagates to the position L where KL represents the earth's orbital diameter that is used to calculate the velocity of light, Huygens is viewing the eclipses of Io during the day which is not physically possible. The same problem occurs in the parallax method in determining the distance to a star. Also, there is a discrepancy how Huygens obtained the time of 22 minutes since a single rotation of Io around Jupiter represents Roemer's 10 minute time delay yet after the earth propagates from K to L in a six month time interval, Io completes approximately 90 rotations around Jupiter.


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Huygens' describes light using spherical waves based on a sound wave analogy.





"We know that by means of the air, which is an invisible and impalpable body, Sound spreads around the spot where it has been produced, by a movement which is passed on successively from one part of the air to another; and that the spreading of this movement, taking place equally rapidly on all sides, ought to form spherical surfaces ever enlarging and which strike our ears. Now there is no doubt at all that light also comes from the luminous body to our eyes by some movement impressed on the matter which is between the two; since, as we have already seen, it cannot be by the transport of a body which passes from one to the other. If, in addition, light takes time for its passage—which we are now going to examine—it will follow that this movement, impressed on the intervening matter, is successive; and consequently it spreads, as Sound does, by spherical surfaces and waves" (Huygens, p. 5).


"It is true that we are here supposing a strange velocity that would be a hundred thousand times greater than that of Sound. For Sound, according to what I have observed, travels about 180 Toises in the time of one Second, or in about one beat of the pulse. But this supposition ought not to seem to be an impossibility; since it is not a question of the transport of a body with so great a speed, but of a successive movement which is passed on from some bodies to others. I have then made no difficulty, in meditating on these things, in supposing that the emanation of light is accomplished with time, seeing that in this way all its phenomena can be explained, and that in following the contrary opinion everything is incomprehensible. For it has always seemed tome that even Mr. Des Cartes, whose aim has been to treat all the subjects of Physics intelligibly, and who assuredly has succeeded in this better than any one before him, has said nothing that is not full of difficulties, or even inconceivable, in dealing with Light and its properties." (Huygens, p. 7).


"the velocity of Light is more than six hundred thousand times greater than that of Sound. This, however, is quite another thing from being instantaneous, since there is all the difference between a finite thing and an infinite. Now the successive movement of Light being confirmed in this way, it follows, as I have said, that it spreads by spherical waves, like the movement of Sound." (Huygens, p. 10).





Huygens' spherical waves are formed by the motion of an ether yet light propagates in vacuum that is void of matter which contradicts the existence of Huygens' ether and spherical waves. A wave is a mechanical entity that is formed by the motion of a medium, composed of matter (solid, liquid or gas). Example, air is the medium that forms sound waves which are produced by the exchange of the kinetic energies of interacting air molecules but sound cannot propagate in vacuum since vacuum is void of air molecules required in forming sound waves yet Huygens is using an acoustical analogy to represent the propagation of light. One of the most important physical characteristic of sound is not applicable to light since light propagates in vacuum that is void of matter yet Huygens is using an acoustical analogy to describe the propagation of light.




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Huygens is describing the formation of light waves produced by the motion of an Ethereal matter (ether).


"Now if one examines what this matter may be in which the movement coming from the luminous body is propagated, which I call Ethereal matter" (Huygens, p. 11).


"But the extreme velocity of Light, and other properties which it has, cannot admit of such a propagation of motion, and I am about to show here the way in which I conceive it must occur. For this, it is needful to explain the property which hard bodies must possess to transmit movement from one to another." (Huygens, p. 13).


"But it is still certain that this progression of motion is not instantaneous, but successive, and therefore must take time. For if the movement, or the disposition to movement, if you will have it so, did not pass successively through all these spheres, they would all acquire the movement at the same time, and hence would all advance together; which does not happen. For the last one leaves the whole row and acquires the speed of the one which was pushed. Moreover there are experiments which demonstrate that all the bodies which we reckon of the hardest kind, such as quenched steel, glass, and agate, act as springs and bend somehow, not only when extended as rods but also when they are in the form of spheres or of other shapes." (Huygens, p. 13).


"Now in applying this kind of movement to that which produces Light there is nothing to hinder us from estimating the particles of the ether to be of a substance as nearly approaching to perfect hardness and possessing a springiness as prompt as we choose. It is not necessary to examine here the causes of this hardness, or of that springiness, the consideration of which would lead us too far from our subject. I will say, however, in passing that we may conceive that the particles of the ether" (Huygens, p. 14).


"But though we shall ignore the true cause of springiness we still see that there are many bodies which possess this property; and thus there is nothing strange in supposing that it exists also in little invisible bodies like the particles of the Ether. Also if one wishes to seek for any other way in which the movement of Light is successively communicated, one will find none which agrees better, with uniform progression, as seems to be necessary, than the property of springiness; because if this movement should grow slower in proportion as it is shared over a greater quantity of matter, in moving away from the source of the light, it could not conserve this great velocity over great distances. But by supposing springiness in the ethereal matter, its particles will have the property of equally rapid restitution whether they are pushed strongly or feebly; and thus the propagation of Light will always go on with an equal velocity." (Huygens, p. 15).




Huygens' light waves are formed by the motion of an ether that hardness forms a springiness that transfers the energy of the luminous source through the stationary ether in the formation of propagating light waves similar to the propagation of sound waves in air yet light propagates in vacuum that is void of matter which proves Huygens' ether and light waves do not exist. Furthermore, sound waves are formed by the interaction of air molecules that are propagating in random directions. The collective motion of interacting air molecules that exchange kinetic energies form sound waves yet a light ray is composed of massless optic particles that are not interacting and propagating in a single direction at a constant velocity which conflicts with Huygens' sound wave analogy.

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Huygens states the ether propagates through glass, water or mercury and exists within the glass vacuum tube.


"This may be proved by shutting up a sounding body in a glass vessel from which the air is withdrawn by the machine which Mr. Boyle has given us, and with which he has performed so many beautiful experiments. But in doing this of which I speak, care must be taken to place the sounding body on cotton or on feathers, in such a way that it cannot communicate its tremors either to the glass vessel which encloses it, or to the machine; a precaution which has hitherto been neglected. For then after having exhausted all the air one hears no Sound from the metal, though it is struck. One sees here not only that our air, which does not penetrate through glass, is the matter by which Sound spreads; but also that it is not the same air but another kind of matter in which Light spreads; since if the air is removed from the vessel the Light does not cease to traverse it as before. And this last point is demonstrated even more clearly by the celebrated experiment of Torricelli, in which the tube of glass from which the quicksilver has withdrawn itself, remaining void of air, transmits Light just the same as when air is in it. For this proves that a matter different from air exists in this tube, and that this matter must have penetrated the glass or the quicksilver, either one or the other, though they are both impenetrable to the air. And when, in the same experiment, one makes the vacuum after putting a little water above the quicksilver, one concludes equally that the said matter passes through glass or water, or through both." (Huygens, p. 11 & 12).




Huygens' light waves are formed by the motion of an ether composed of matter yet light propagates in vacuum that is void of matter which proves Huygens' ether and light waves do not exist; consequently, Huygens cannot explain how the ether exists within the glass vacuum tube since the ether propagating through glass would produce a hole in the glass or shatter the glass and the ether propagating through the water or mercury would be detected.



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Huygens describes spherical waves that originate from a candle flame (fig 2).




"I have then shown in what manner one may conceive Light to spread successively, by spherical waves, and how it is possible that this spreading is accomplished with as great a velocity as that which experiments and celestial observations demand. Whence it may be further remarked that although the particles are supposed to be in continual movement (for there are many reasons for this) the successive propagation of the waves cannot be hindered by this; because the propagation consists nowise in the transport of those particles but merely in a small agitation which they cannot help communicating to those surrounding, notwithstanding any movement which may act on them causing them to be changing positions amongst themselves.




But we must consider still more particularly the origin of these waves, and the manner in which they spread. And, first, it follows from what has been said on the production of Light, that each little region of a luminous body, such as the Sun, a candle, or a burning coal, generates its own waves of which that region is the centre. Thus in the flame of a candle, having distinguished the points A, B, C, concentric circles described about each of these points represent the waves which come from them. And one must imagine the same about every point of the surface and of the part within the flame." (Huygens, p. 17).





Huygens' candle flame produces propagating spherical waves, from points A, B and C, by the motion of an ether that does not exist (vacuum). Huygens dismisses the fact that light propagates in vacuum that is void of matter and describes the "agitation" of the ether particles that form Huygens' spherical waves but the existence of Huygens' spherical waves is contingent on the existence of an ether that does not exist in vacuum. Candle light propagating through a glass vacuum tube is experimental proof the propagation of light does not involve Huygens' ether or spherical waves.




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Huygens represents the propagation of light using partial waves that form the wave DCF (fig 3).


"There is the further consideration in the emanation of these waves, that each particle of matter in which a wave spreads, ought not to communicate its motion only to the next particle which is in the straight line drawn from the luminous point, but that it also imparts some of it necessarily to all the others which touch it and which oppose themselves to its movement. So it arises that around each particle there is made a wave of which that particle is the centre. Thus if DCF is a wave emanating from the luminous point A, which is its centre, the particle B, one of those comprised within the sphere DCF, will have made its particular or partial wave KCL, which will touch the wave DCF at C at the same moment that the principal wave emanating from the point A has arrived at DCF." (Huygens, p. 19).





Huygens' expanding spherical wave are represented with partial waves KCL that originate from points b, b, b, along the wave HI. The far points C, C, C, of the partial waves KCL are used to construct the wave DCF which represents Huygens' partial wave propagation mechanism of light but Huygens' wave HI is arbitrarily creating energy (partial waves) . The sun, a candle flame or a burning piece of coal are light sources that are generating light energy. Huygens represents the formation of spherical waves that originate from points along the wave HI is representing a light beam that is generating its own self energy away from the light source. In addition, only the far points C, C, C, of the partial waves are used to construct the wave DCF. The remaining unused and unwanted partial waves' structures are ignored after the wave DCF is constructed. An enormous amount of structure is arbitrarily created than destroyed in Huygens' propagation mechanism of light. In addition, if the partial waves propagate after constructing the wave DCF, the partial waves' structures would overlap the wave DCF resulting in the increase of the light beam's intensity as the wave DCF propagates which is the reason that Huygens' propagation mechanism abruptly ends after the wave DCF is constructed. In addition, Huygens does not state the distance between the wave HI and DCF or how the wave DCF propagates after being constructed.




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Huygens describes a light beam using expanding partial waves that structure is arbitrarily eliminated at the boundaries.





"To come to the properties of Light. We remark first that each portion of a wave ought to spread in such a way that its extremities lie always between the same straight lines drawn from the luminous point. Thus the portion BG of the wave, having the luminous point A as its centre, will spread into the arc CE bounded by the straight lines ABC, AGE. For although the particular waves produced by the particles comprised within the space CAE spread also outside this space, they yet do not concur at the same instant to compose a wave which terminates the movement, as they do precisely at the circumference CE, which is their common tangent.

And hence one sees the reason why light, at least if its rays are not reflected or broken, spreads only by straight lines, so that it illuminates no object except when the path from its source to that object is open along such lines." (Huygens, p. 21).




A light beam has distinct borders that bound the light intensity to the light beam (fig 2). Expanding partial waves KCL are used in Huygens' partial wave propagation mechanism of light but at the edges of the light beam bounded by the lines ABC and AGE, the expanding partial waves would expand outside the boundary lines and produce an intensity outside the boundary of a light beam. Huygens arbitrarily eliminates the expanding partial waves structures that reach the boundary lines which violates energy conservation.





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Huygens describes the transmission and reflection effects of light (fig 4 & 5) using spherical waves generated by the transmission and reflection surface.


"If one considers further the other pieces H of the wave AC, it appears that they will not only have reached the surface AB by straight lines HK parallel to CB, but that in addition they will have generated in the transparent air, from the centres K, K, K, particular spherical waves, represented here by circumferences the semi-diameters of which are equal to KM, that is to say to the continuations of HK as far as the line BG parallel to AC." (Huygens, p. 24).




Huygens' expanding spherical waves originate from points K, K, K, along the glass surface AB (fig 23). The generation of expanding spherical waves from points along the glass surface is representing the glass surface as a light source that is creating energy (spherical waves) which violates energy conservation. The sun, a candle flame or a burning piece of coal are light sources that are generating light energy represented with spherical wave. The formation of spherical waves from points along the glass surface is representing the glass surface as a light source which is physically invalid. In addition, Huygens' spherical waves that are used to construct the reflection wave NB (fig 4) have varying circumferences. The spherical waves that are closer to the point B have smaller circumferences then the spherical waves that originate near the point B; consequently, the varying circumferences of the spherical waves represent different wave amplitudes and form an inconsistent amplitude along the constructed reflection wave. Furthermore, the points of the spherical waves that are used to construct the reflection wave, propagate different distances to form the reflection wave; consequently, the spherical waves that originate from points closer to the point B would propagate different distances then the spherical waves that originate near the point B yet the formation of the reflection wave require that all the points of the spherical waves used to construct the reflection wave simultaneously form the reflection wave NB. The same problems occurs in the construction of the transmitted light wave NB (fig 5).






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§ 3. Fresnel





In Fresnel's paper, "Memorie su la Diffraction de la Lumiere" (1819), Fresnel describes diffraction using interfering light waves formed by the vibration of the elastic fluid (ether).


"21. If we call λ the length of a light-wave, that is to say, the distance between two points in the ether where vibrations of the same kind are occurring at the same time" (Fresnel, § 21).


"Admitting that light consists in vibrations of the ether similar to sound-waves, we can easily account for the inflection of rays of light at sensible distances from the diffraction body." (Fresnel, § 33).


"To understand how a single luminous particle may perform a large series of oscillations all of which are nearly equal, we have only to imagine that its density is much greater than that of the fluid in which it vibrates---and, indeed, this is only what has already been inferred from the uniformity of the motions of the planets through this same fluid which fills planetary space." (Fresnel, § 33).


"APPLICATIONS OF HUYGENS'S PRINCIPLE TO THE PHENOMENA OF DIFFRACTION




43. Having determined the resultant of any number of trains of light-waves. I shall now show how by the aid of these interference formulae and by the principle of Huygens alone it is possible to explain, and even to compute, all the phenomena of diffraction. This principle, which I consider as a rigorous deduction from the basal hypothesis, may be expressed thus: The vibrations at each point in the wave-front may be considered as the sum of the elementary motions which at any one instant are sent to that point from all parts of this same wave in any one of its pervious* positions, each of these parts acting independently the one of the other. It follows from the principle of the superposition of small motions that the vibrations produced at any point in an elastic fluid" (Fresnel, § 43).




Fresnel is describing interference using interacting light waves formed by the motion of an elastic fluid (ether) based on Huygens' principle but Huygens' principle is based on light waves formed by the motion of an optical ether, composed of matter, yet diffraction forms in vacuum that is void of matter which contradicts Fresnel's diffraction mechanism of light.





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Fresnel describes diffraction using secondary waves that are formed by the wave AMI (fig 6).


"In order to compute the total effect, I refer these partial resultants to the wave emitted by the point M on the straight line CP, and to another wave displaced a quarter of a wave-length with reference to the preceding. This is the process already employed (p. 101) in the general solution of the interference problem. We shall consider only a section of the wave made by the plane perpendicular to the edge of the screen, and shall indicate by dz an element, nn', of the primary wave, and by z its distance from the point M. These, as I have shown, suffice to determine the position and the relative intensities of the bright and dark bands." (Fresnel, § 53).






Fresnel's wave AMI forms expanding and interfering secondary waves when the bottom of the wave AMI touches the diffraction object.The expanding secondary light waves propagate to the diffraction screen and interfere forming the diffraction pattern but the creation of secondary waves (energy) away from the light source is representing the wave AMI as a light source that is arbitrarily generating energy which violates energy conservation. Furthermore, Fresnel's interfering secondary waves that are used to form the diffraction effect conflict with Huygens' partial wave propagation mechanism of light that partial waves do not interfere.





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Fresnel derives a diffraction intensity equation by summating the interfering light waves' amplitudes, at the diffraction screen, using a line integral (equ 1).


"Hence the intensity of the vibration at P resulting from all these small disturbances is




{ [ ʃ dz cos (π z2 (a + b) / abλ) ]2 + [ ʃ dz sin (π z2 (a + b) / abλ)]2 }1/2 "..................................1







(Fresnel, 53). Fresnel is using a line integral to summate (equ 1) the interfering light waves' amplitudes at the diffraction screen (fig 2) but a line integral can only be used to represent the length of the wave AMI. In addition, the limits of Fresnel's integral represents the line AMI yet in Fresnel's derivation of the diffraction intensity equation, the wave amplitudes at a point P on the diffraction screen are summate using a line integral yet the point P on the diffraction screen is not within the limits of the line integral that represent the line AMI which proves Fresnel's derivation of the diffraction intensity equation is mathematically invalid. In addition, during the diffraction effect of light, the crests and nodes of Fresnel's propagating light waves propagate in the forward direction. At the diffraction screen point P, the propagating light waves' amplitudes would oscillate forming an average resultant amplitude of zero; consequently, the oscillation of the propagating light wave's positive and negative amplitudes would eliminate the diffraction pattern. Fresnel omits the time element from the derivation of the diffraction intensity equation of light since propagating light waves eliminate the diffraction pattern but one of the most important physical characteristic of light is omitted from Fresnel's derivation of the diffraction intensity equation since propagating light waves eliminate the diffraction pattern.




Fresnel is using the interfering light waves' amplitudes, at a point P, on the diffraction screen to represent the intensity (energy) of the diffraction effect which depicts a light energy that is dependent on the wave amplitude which conflicts with Lenard's photoelectric effect that proves light is composed of particles that energy is dependent on only the frequency (Lenard, Intro). The intensity of a light beam is represented with the increase in the energy of a light beam but the energies of the individual light particles that compose a light beam is dependent on only the frequency; consequently, the light waves that interacts at a point on the diffraction screen conflict with Lenard's photoelectric effect that proves a light particles energy that interacts at a point on the diffraction screen is dependent on only the frequency which conflicts with Fresnel's diffraction mechanism that is based on light waves that energy is dependent on the wave amplitude. Lenard proves Fresnel's diffraction mechanism is physically invalid.




The formation of the small rectangular aperture diffraction pattern (fig 3) is represented using wave interference but the destructive interference of the light waves' amplitudes (energy) used to form the dark fringes of the diffraction pattern represents the destruction of energy which violates energy conservation; furthermore, the destruction of the light waves' amplitudes (intensity) would result in a reduction in the total light intensity of the diffraction pattern since the destroyed light waves' amplitudes do not contribute to the total light intensity of the diffraction pattern yet more than 80% of the small rectangular aperture diffraction pattern is composed of dark areas which would result in at least a 60% reduction in the total light intensity of the diffraction pattern yet experimentally, the total light intensity that enters a small rectangular aperture (dt = 1s) is equal to the total light intensity of the diffraction pattern which is experimental proof the aperture diffraction effect of light is not formed by Fresnel's wave interference mechanism.




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§ 4. Maxwell




In Maxwell's paper, "Dynamical Theory of the Electromagnetic Field" (1864), Maxwell states the ether exists within Geissler's glass vacuum tube.


"It may be filled with any kind of matter, or we may endeavour to render it empty of all gross matter, as in the case of Geissler’s tubes and other so called vacua. There is always, however, enough of matter left to receive and transmit the undulations of light and heat, and it is because the transmission of these radiations is not greatly altered when transparent bodies of measurable density are substituted for the so-called vacuum, that we are obliged to admit that the undulations are those of an ethereal substance, and not of the gross matter, the presence of which merely modifies in some way the motion of the ether." (Maxwell, Intro).



The wave theory of light is based on light waves formed by the vibration of an ether, composed of matter, but the wave effects of light form in vacuum that is void of matter which contradicts the wave theory of ight. When confronted with the problem of the ether and vacuum, Maxwell cannot coherently explain how the ether exists in vacuum.




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Maxwell is assuming that since light and the radio induction effect propagate at the same velocity that light has an electromagnetic field structure.




"This velocity is so nearly that of light, that it seems we have strong reason to conclude that light itself (including radiant heat, and other radiations if any) is an electromagnetic disturbance in the form of waves propagated through the electromagnetic field according to electromagnetic laws." (Maxwell, Intro).




"Maxwell jumped to a conclusion. He concluded that light is one form of electromagnetic wave. He had no real evidence for this, but he felt that the coincidence of that tremendous speed was not a coincidence at all." (Bova, p. 159).



Maxwell justifies the electromagnetic theory of light using the assumption (hypothesis) that since the radio induction effect and light propagate at the same velocity that light has an electromagnetic field structure but the velocity of light does not change the fact that Maxwell's theory is based on Faraday's induction effect that is not luminous. In addition, the velocity of light has not been accurately measured. Roemer did not calculate or measure the velocity of light in his 1667 paper. Huygens (1690) attempts to measure the velocity of light using the earth's orbital diameter KL (fig 23) and a time of 22 minute, based on Roemer's observation of the period of Io that is used as a clock but after the earth propagates to the position L which forms the path of light propagating the distance of the earth's orbital diameter KL, Huygens is viewing Io during the day which is not physically possible. Also, it is questionable how Huygens obtained the time of 22 minutes since a single rotation of Io around Jupiter produces a time delay of 10 minutes yet after the earth propagates from the initial position of K to the position L in a six month time interval, Io completes approximately 90 rotations around Jupiter which conflicts with Roemer's 10 minute time delay of a single rotation of Io around Jupiter. It appears that Huygens arbitrarily and fictitiously created the value of the 22 minute time that is used to calculate the velocity of light. Bradley's (1729) stellar aberration is used to calculate the velocity of light but the change in the position of Bradley's star is caused by the affects of the earth's daily and yearly motions upon a stationary celestial universe since the change in the position of Bradley's star results in the rotational shift of all the stars' positions in the entire stellar universe that rotation is centered around the North Star; the shapes of the constellations that constitute the stellar universe have not changed shape since the advent of photography because the celestial universe is stationary. The stars that you see in the sky at night are not in motion. The earth is in motion around the sun and is rotating on its axis which is causing Bradley's aberration. The same method of deception and manipulation that was used to justify that the earth was the center of the solar system and universe is used to calculate the velocity of light. Fizeau (1848) attempts to measure the velocity of light uses a high velocity rotating cogwheel (200 rps) that has 750 small slits but the approximate 2 mm slit width cannot produce an intensity after light beam propagates through the slits and propagates the distance of 8 km and reflected back to the cogwheel and propagating an additional 8 km back to the cogwheel. Foucault's rotating mirror forms the same intensity problem. Fabry-Perot (1899) uses a glass wedge interference effect to obtain a wavelength that is used in a wave equation (λf = c) to calculate the velocity of light but the optical ether, composed of matter, that forms the interfering light waves which produces Fabry-Perot glass wedge interference effect does not exist (vacuum) which proves the wave equation cannot be used to calculate the velocity of light since the wave equation is representing the structure of a light wave. Michelson's (1826) also attempts to calculate the velocity of light using an interference effect formed by an interferometer but Michelson's interference effect is also based on interfering light waves formed by the motion of Fresnel's optical ether, composed of matter, that does not physically exist; consequently, the velocity of light has not been measured or calculated and cannot be used to justify Maxwell's electromagnetic theory of light.





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Maxwell's equations are derived using Faraday's induction effect.







"PART III. - GENERAL EQUATIONS OF THE ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELD." (Maxwell, Part III).







"the total electromagnetic momentum of the circuit, or the number of lines of magnetic force which pass through it, the variations of which measure the total electromotive force in the circuit. This electromagnetic momentum is the same thing to which Professor Faraday has applied the name of the Electrotonic State. If the circuit be the boundary of the elementary area dydz." (Maxwell, Part III).








"Equations of Magnetic Force.





uα = dH/dy - dG/dz............................................2




uβ = dF/dz - dH/dx.............................................3




uλ = dG/dx - dF/dy.............................................4




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Equations of Currents...




dλ/dy - dβ/dz = 4πp'............................................5




dα/dz - dλ/dx = 4πq'............................................6




dβ/dx - dα/dy = 4πr'............................................7





We may call these the Equations of Currents." (Maxwell, Part III).







Maxwell's equations are derived using Faraday's induction effect produced by the magnetic flux (α, β, λ) and internal conduction wire electric field (F, G, H) that forms the induction current in a wire loop.





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Maxwell's electromagnetic theory of light is based on Maxwell's equations that are derived using Faraday induction effect.


"ELECTROMAGNETIC THEORY OF LIGHT" (Maxwell, Part VI).


"(93) If we combine the equations of Magnetic Force (B) with those of Electric Force (B) with those of Electric Current, and put for brevity" (Maxwell, Part VI).




"the total electromagnetic momentum of the circuit, or the number of lines of magnetic force which pass through it, the variations of which measure the total electromotive force in the circuit. This electromagnetic momentum is the same thing to which Professor Faraday has applied the name of the Electrotonic State. If the circuit be the boundary of the elementary area dydz." (Maxwell, Part III).





Maxwell's (1864) electromagnetic theory of light based on Faraday's induction effect was introduced since induction forms in vacuum but Faraday's induction effect is not luminous. Maxwell uses the velocity of light to justify the structural unification of light with induction but the velocity of light does not change the fact that Faraday's induction effect is not luminous. Poynting (1884) supports Maxwell's theory by deriving an electromagnetic energy equation of light but Poynting's current wire is not luminous. Hertz (1887) attempts to structurally unite light with induction but Hertz's spark gap emits electrons yet Faraday's induction effect is also not an ionization effect. In addition, Lenard proves light is composed of particles which conflicts with the continuity of Maxwell's electromagnetic field since as a light ray propagates, the optic particles that composed a light ray form spaces between optic particles that distances between optic particles increase due to the dispersion of a light; consequently, Lenard's optic particles eliminate the continuity of Maxwell's electromagnetic field and proves Maxwell's theory is physically invalid. Furthermore, Maxwell's expanding electromagnetic field cannot maintain the particle structure of a propagating electromagnetic photon. Since as an electromagnetic photon propagates the electromagnetic field structure of an electromagnetic photon expands yet the particle structure of an electromagnetic photon represents a discrete structure which cannot be represented with Maxwell's expanding electromagnetic induction field since an expanding electromagnetic field cannot sustain a particle structure of a propagating electromagnetic photon. Lenard proves light is diametrically not an electromagnetic phenomenon.





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"Maxwell's electrodynamics proceeds in the same unusual way already analyzed in studying his electrostatics. Under the influence of hypotheses which remain vague and undefined in his mind, Maxwell sketches a theory which he never completes, he does not even bother to remove contradictions from it; then he starts changing this theory, he imposes on it essential modifications which he does not notify to his reader; the latter tries in vain to fix the fugitive and intangible thought of the author; just when he thinks he has got it, even the parts of the doctrine dealing with the best studied phenomena are seen to vanish. And yet this strange and disconcerting method led Maxwell to the electromagnetic theory of light!" (Duhem, 1902).


"Laudan recalls, with considerable rhetorical effect, James Clerk Maxwell's remark that "the aether was better confirmed than any other theoretical entity in natural philosophy" (Laudan 1984 114; the formulation is Laudan's not Maxwell's). Although we can understand his claim, based as it was on the multiplicity of phenomena to which schemata appealing to wave propagation had been successfully applied, Maxwell was wrong. The entire confirmation of the existence of the ether rested on a series of paths, each sharing a common link. The success of the optical and electromagnetic schemata, employing the mathematical account of wave propagation begun by Fresnel and extended by his successors (including, or course, Maxwell), gave scientists good reason for believing that electromagnetic waves were propagated according to Maxwell's equations. From that conclusion they could derive the existence of the ether---but only supposing in every case that wave propagation requires a medium. Thus the confirmation of the existence of the ether was no better than the evidence for that supposition." (Kitcher, p. 149).


"More artificial theories have been tried out, assuming that the real truth lies somewhere between these two limiting cases: that the ether is only partially carried by the moving bodies. But they all failed! Every attempt to explain the electromagnetic phenomena in moving CS with the help of the motion of the ether, motion through the ether, or both these motions, proved unsuccessful. Thus arose one of the most dramatic situations in the history of science. All assumptions concerning ether led nowhere! The experimental verdict was always negative." (Weaver, p. 145).





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Maxwell represents polarization using transverse waves formed by the motion of the elastic medium (ether).


"(91) At the commencement of this paper we made use of the optical hypothesis of an elastic medium through which the vibrations of light are propagated" (Maxwell, Part VI).


"the disturbance at any point is transverse to the direction of propagation, and such waves may have all the properties of polarized light." (Maxwell, Part VI).




A transverse wave is a surface wave that cannot form within a volume since a disturbance within a volume produces a longitudinal wave that structure oscillates parallel to the direction of propagation; whereas, a transverse wave's structure, because of the surface interaction, oscillates perpendicular to the direction of propagation. A transverse wave is patently a different structure from a longitudinal wave; consequently, after propagating a far distance, in vacuum, an electromagnetic longitudinal wave cannot become a transverse wave (plane wave). Maxwell's equations represent a volume that depicts the formation of a electromagnetic longitudinal spherical wave. Example, using an analogy of water waves, a disturbance within the volume of water forms a longitudinal spherical water wave. A wave formed within a volume produces a longitudinal spherical wave yet Maxwell's is using an electromagnetic transverse wave to represent the structure of light that forms in the volume of free space which is physically invalid since a transverse wave is a surface wave formed by the motion of the surface of a medium composed of matter. Without the surface interface, a transverse wave cannot physically exist. The surface of water produces a transverse water wave but beneath the surface of the water only a longitudinal water wave can be formed within a volume of the water. The oscillation of the water's surface produces a transverse water wave that is formed by the motion of the water's surface in the transverse direction by the affect of gravity upon the water's surface. As the amplitude of a transverse water wave rises above the surface water line gravity forces the water downward resulting in the negative amplitude of a transverse water wave. Without the surface oscillation, a transverse water wave cannot be formed. A disturbance at the bottom of the ocean forms a longitudinal water wave that propagates to the ocean's surface. At the surface, the longitudinal wave's kinetic energy vibrates the surface water molecules producing a transverse water wave on the surface of the ocean; consequently, a transverse light wave cannot form in vacuum since the formation of a transverse wave requires a surface composed of matter which proves Maxwell's polarization mechanism, based on transverse light waves, is physically invalid.



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Maxwell is suggesting that the vibration of the electric field forms a light wave.





"(100) The equations of the electromagnetic field, deduced from purely experimental evidence, show that transversal vibrations only can be propagated. If we were to go beyond our experimental knowledge and to assign a definite density to a substance which we should call the electric fluid, and select either vitreous or resinous electricity as the representative of that fluid, then we might have normal vibrations propagated with a velocity depending on this density. We have, however, no evidence as to the density of electricity, as we do not even know whether to consider vitreous electricity as a substance or as the absence of a substance.




Hence electromagnetic science leads to exactly the same conclusions as optical science with respect to the direction of the disturbances which can be propagated through the field; both affirm the propagation of transverse vibrations, and both give the same velocity of propagation. On the other hand, both sciences are at a loss when called on to affirm or deny the existence of normal vibrations." (Maxwell, Part VI).

Maxwell is describing an electric field that is vibrating forming light waves but Maxwell's electric field originate from Faraday's induction effect that electric field only forms within the conduction wire which conflicts with Maxwell's electric field that exists outside Faraday's conduction wire. Also, an electric field is massless which conflicts with Maxwell's representation of a vibration of an electric field since an electric field is associated with matter yet light propagates in vacuum that is void of matter which proves Maxwell's electric field cannot be used to represent massless light since an electric field is associated with matter yet light propagates through a glass vacuum tube. An electric field propagating in vacuum within a finite volume of the glass vacuum tube represents an infinite number of position within the volume of the glass vacuum tube. When an infinite number of positions, within the glass vacuum tube, is represented with electric field vectors (energy), an infinite energy is produced which violates energy conservation. Huygens' ether particles limit the number of positions but Huygens' ether, composed of matter, does not physically exist which proves Maxwell's electric field cannot be used to represent the structure of an electric light wave.

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Maxwell derives a wave propagation equation of light using Maxwell's equations.





"(93) If we combine the equations of Magnetic Force (B) with those of Electric Currents (C)...........


Absolute Values of the Electromotive and Magnetic Forces called into play in the Propagation of Light.


(108) If the equation of propagation of light is







F = A cos [(2π/λ)(z - Vt)]"...................................................8







(Maxwell, Part VI). Maxwell's propagation equation of light is derived using Maxwell's equations (equ 4-9) that are based on Faraday's induction effect that is not luminous, nor is induction an ionization or particle effect. Maxwell's propagating light wave is formed by the motion of the optical ether, composed of matter, yet light propagates in vacuum that is void of matter which proves Maxwell's wave propagation is physically invalid.




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[numbernu...@gmail.com]

In Michelson's paper, "The Relative Motion of the Earth and the Lumiferous Ether" (1881), Michelson tests for Fresnel's ether, composed of matter.


"The undulatory theory of light assumes the existence of a medium called the ether, whose vibrations produce the phenomena of heat and light, and which is supposed to fill all space. According to Fresnel, the ether, which is enclosed in optical media, partakes of the motion of these media, to an extent depending on their indices of refraction. For air, this motion would be but a small fraction of that of the air itself and will be neglected." (Michelson, p. 120).


"Assuming then that the ether is at rest, the earth moving through it, the time required for light to pass from one point to another on the earth's surface, would depend on the direction in which it travels." (Michelson, p. 120).





"The interpretation of these results is that there is no displacement of the interference bands. The result of the hypothesis of a stationary ether is thus shown to be incorrect, and the necessary conclusion follows that the hypothesis is erroneous." (Michelson, p. 128).


Michelson is testing for the existence of an ether wind produced by the earth's yearly rotational motion around the sun through Fresnel's stationary ether that exists in all of the celestial universe. At a point on the surface of the earth, the earth's yearly motion forms an ether wind that is pointing tangent to the earth's surface. The affect of the ether wind on the velocities of two light rays that are used to form a diffraction effect are used to test for the existence of the ether wind. Initially, the incident beam interacts with a beam splitter forming two light rays. One ray propagates parallel to the direction of the ether wind and the second ray propagates perpendicular to the ether wind. Only the velocity of the ray that is propagating parallel to the ether wind is affected by the ether wind. Both light rays are used to form an interference effect. Rotating Michelson's experimental apparatus, at certain angles, both light rays velocities would be altered by the ether wind which would alter the velocities of both light waves and result in the shift of the interference effect but after the rotation of the interferometer no change in the interference effect is observed which represents the negative result of Michelson's experiment but the velocity of light is four order of magnitude greater than the maximum velocity of the ether wind (Vmax = 30,463 m/s); consequently, the ether wind cannot produce the shift of the interference effect. Furthermore, Michelson's experiment is based on a constant magnitude of the ether wind but the magnitude of the ether wind varies as time increases. At 6:00 pm, because of the earth's daily motion, the magnitude of the earth's yearly tangential velocity vector that forms the ether wind is zero (fig 7) and increases to 5,000 m/s at 7:00 pm. At midnight, the earth's yearly tangential velocity vector equals 30,463 m/s and produces an ether wind that is pointing in the eastern direction; consequently, the magnitude of the ether wind varies from 0 to 30,463 m/s as time increases which proves Michelson's experiment, based on a constant magnitude of the ether wind, is physically invalid. Furthermore, Michelson experiments is unnecessary since vacuum is definitive and irreversible experimental proof Fresnel's ether does not exist.






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"Michelson did not conclude that the Earth travels at zero speed through the aether; he concluded, rather, that despite the care and precautions taken the device was too susceptible to extraneous facts, such as temperature and vibration, and was not suitable for measuring that speed. His exploration filed, he thought, to yield the interesting data he had hoped for. He could have sought an explanation for his 'null' outcome other than the inadequacy of his interferometer. If he had had sufficient confidence in the non-existence of the effect he tried to measure, he might have looked for a theoretical explanation. As it was, within a few years Albert Einstein had developed a theory from which it followed that the looked-for effect does not exist. Not that his theory ended the exploration. For perhaps, despite Einstein's theory, Michelson's effect does exist and it really was the inadequacies of his device which prevented him from detecting it. There have been enough surprise in the history of physics to make us cautious in ruling out the possibility of such a result (Collins and Pinch 1993: ch 2)."(Gower, p. 241).




"If there is such a pervading medium, the question immediately arises as to our motion with to it. Maxwell did his own experiments to find evidence of such an ether drift, looking in fact for a shift of spectral lines when observations are taken at successive seasons of the year--that is, when the earth is moving in different directions through a supposed fixed ether. His results were negative, and were in a sense a precursor of the famous Michelson-Morley experiment in which it is established definitively that no such "absolute" measurement is possible. The absence of measurable motion with respect to space is one foundation of relativity theory. Though his own study was relatively crude, Maxwell's negative result must have left him puzzled. We know that the question was in fact on his mind and would surely have been pursued had he lived longer." (Simpson, p. 129) .

"More artificial theories have been tried out, assuming that the real truth lies somewhere between these two limiting cases: that the ether is only partially carried by the moving bodies. But they all failed! Every attempt to explain the electromagnetic phenomena in moving CS with the help of the motion of the ether, motion through the ether, or both these motions, proved unsuccessful. Thus arose one of the most dramatic situations in the history of science. All assumptions concerning ether led nowhere! The experimental verdict was always negative." (Weaver, p. 145).

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§ 6. Kirchhoff





The Huygens-Fresnel wave theory of light is based on spherical waves.


"10-4. Defects of Fresnel's Theory...


3. To these difficulties regarding the nature of the secondary sources there is added the difficulty of explaining the existence of the obliquity factor and, in particular, why the sources do not radiate backwards....In addition, one can easily "forget" the backwave." (Longhurst, p. 188).




Huygens' propagation and Fresnel's diffraction mechanisms are based on spherical waves that would form a retrogressive wave but the backward retrogressive wave is not experimentally observed. During the propagation of light, a light beam does not produce an intensity that is propagating in the retrogressive direction and, during Fresnel's diffraction effect, a diffraction pattern that forms in the retrogressive direction towards the light source is not experimentally observed; consequently, the physical non existence of the retrogressive wave proves the wave theory of light is physically invalid.





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In Kirchhoff's formulation of Huygens' Principle (1883), Kirchhoff eliminates the retrogressive wave, using Green's theorem,


"8.3 Kirchhoff's diffraction theory


8.3.1 The integral theorem of Kirchhoff


The basic idea of the Huygens-Fresnel theory is that the light disturbance at a point P arises from the superposition of secondary waves that proceed from a surface situated between this point and the light source. This idea was put on a sounder mathematical basis by Kirchhoff†....................If U' is any other function which satisfies the same continuity requirements as U, we have by Green's theorem" (Born and Wolf, p. 417-418).







"∭(Ψ2 ∇2 Ψ1 - Ψ1 ∇2Ψ2) dV = ∬ (Ψ2 [dΨ1/dn] - Ψ1 [dΨ2/dn]) dS" ..............................9







(Longhurst, p. 190). The mathematical manipulation of a spherical waves structure to eliminate the retrogressive component of a spherical wave is physically invalid.



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Longhurst uses equation 9 to derive an obliquity factor that eliminates the retrogressive wave formed by a spherical wave.


"10-7. Application to Spherical Waves


Equation (10-15) was derived for a surface S which enclosed the point P but not the source (since it was assumed in applying Green's theorem that ψ remains finite throughout the volume of integration). It can be shown that the same result follows if S encloses the source but not the point P. Thus in the case of a single point source the closed surface S may be taken as a spherical wavefront." (Longhurst, p. 192).


"1. The integrand includes an obliquity factor ½(1 + cos θ) which is unity in the forward direction (θ = 0) and zero in the reverse direction (θ = π). The amplitude factor a/λ is also present as was seen to be necessary." (Longhurst, p. 193).




Longhurst is mathematically eliminating the unwanted structure of the retrogressive wave, formed by a spherical wave, using equation 9 but the radial and uniform structure of a spherical wave forms a retrogressive wave which proves Longhurst's elimination of the retrogressive wave is invalid.





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§ 7. Poynting




In Poynting's paper, "On the Transfer of Energy in the Electromagnetic Field" (1884), Poynting's current wire forms electric and magnetic fields, in free space surrounding the current wire (fig 9).


"Applications of the Law of Transfer of Energy.


(1) A straight wire conveying a current.


In this case very near the wire, and within it, the lines of magnetic force are circles round the axis of the wire. The lines of electric force are along the wire, if we take it as proved that the flow across equal areas of the cross section is the same at all parts of the section. If AB, fig. 1, represents the wire, and the current is from A to B, then a tangent plane to the surface at any point contains the directions of both the electromotive and magnetic intensities (we shall write E.M.I. and M.I. for these respectively in what follows), and energy is therefore flowing in perpendicularly through the surface, that is, along the radius towards the axis." (Poynting, p. 350).


Poynting's current wire forms electric and magnetic fields (E.M.I and M.I) in the open space that surrounds a current wire (fig 3), (Poynting, p. 358) which conflicts with Ampere's law that current wire only forms a magnetic field in the open space surrounding the wire (Ampere, fig 14, Plate 2).





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Poynting uses the electric and magnetic fields, formed by a current wire, in an energy equation of light.


"(7) The electromagnetic theory of light.


The velocity of plane waves of polarized light on the electromagnetic theory may be deduced fromthe consideration of the flow of energy.......If E the E.M.I and B the M.I within the volume, supposed so small that the energy within is





KE2 / 8π + uB2 / 8π..................................................................10







(Poynting, p. 358). Poynting's electric E and magnetic B fields originate from a current wire that is not luminous which is experimental proof Poynting's energy equation (equ 10) cannot be used to represent the energy of light.





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§ 8. Lorentz







In Lorentz's paper "Simplified Theory of Electrical and Optical Phenomena in Moving Systems" (1899), Lorentz is representing justify Maxwell's theory by altering the dimensions of Maxwell's equations.






"dBz/dy - dBy/dz = 4πq(px + vx) + 4π(d/dt - px d/dx) Ex..............................................11





dBx/dz - dBz/dx = 4πpqvy + 4π(d/dt - px d/dx) Ey......................................................12









dBy/dx - dBx/dy = 4πqvz + 4π(d/dt - px d/dx) Ez........................................................13




..............................................................................................................




4πV2(dEz /dy - dEy/dz) = - (d/dt - px d/dx) Bx..............................................................14




4πV2(dEx/dz - dEz /dx) = - (d/dt - px d/dx) By..............................................................15




4πV2(dEy/dx - dEx/dy) = - (d/dt - px d/dx) Bx...............................................................16






...In most applications p would be the velocity of the earth in its yearly motion." (Lorentz, § 3).





x' = [V/(V2 - px2)1/2]x,....................................................................................................17





y' = y,...........................................................................................................................18





z' = z,...........................................................................................................................19




t' = t - x px /(V2 - px2).....................................................................................................20





Lorentz justifying Maxwell's electromagnetic theory of light using Maxwell's equations but manipulating the coordinate system of Maxwell's equations does not alter the fact that Maxwell's equations are derived using Faraday's induction effect that is not luminous, nor is induction an ionization or particle effect which is experimental proof light is not an electromagnetic phenomenon.




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Lorentz alters the dimensions of Michelson's experimental apparatus to reverse the negative result of Michelson's experiment to justify the existence of Fresnel's ether, composed of matter (Michelson, p. 120).


"§ 9. Hitherto all quantities of the order p2x /V2 have been neglected. As is well known, these must be taken into account in the discussion of Michelson's experiment, in which two rays of light interfered after having traversed rather long paths, the one parallel to the direction of the earth's motion, and the other perpendicular to it. In order to explain the negative result of this experiment Fitzgerald and myself have supposed that, in consequence of the translation, the dimensions of the solid bodies serving to support the optical apparatus, are altered in a certain ratio." (Lorentz, § 9).




Lorentz is reversing the negative result of Michelson's ether experiment to justify the existence of Fresnel's optical ether by contracting the x dimension of the interferometer's armature, using the constant magnitude of the earth's yearly tangential velocity vector px but at the surface of the earth, the magnitude of the earth's tangential velocity vector px in not constant.. At 6:00 pm, the magnitude of the earth's yearly tangential velocity px is zero (fig 7); at 7:00 pm, the magnitude of px increases to 5,000 m/s since the tangential velocity vector px represents the tangential component of the earth's yearly motion p that magnitude and direction changes because of the earth's daily rotational motion, as time increases. At midnight, the earth's yearly tangential velocity vector px equals 30,463 m/s; consequently, as time increases px varies from 0 to 30,463 m/s yet Lorentz's transformation is based on a constant value of px which proves Lorentz's transformation is physically invalid.




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§ 9. Lenard




In Lenard's (1899-1902) photoelectric experiment, the change in the intensity, of a monochromatic incident light beam, that is past the threshold intensity, does not affect the emitted photoelectrons' maximum kinetic energy (Lenard, Intro). The change in the frequency, of the incident beam, affects the emitted photoelectrons' maximum kinetic energy which is experimental proof light is composed of particles that energy is dependent on only the frequency.





"The first investigator to show that the energy of emission of the photoelectron is independent of the intensity of the light was Lenard1, who found that a seventy fold change in the intensity of the light did not alter the maximum energy of emission of the photoelectron by as much as 1 per cent." (Hughes, p. 27).


"The maximum energy of the electrons released at a photoelectric surface is independent of the intensity of the incident light, but increases linearly with the frequency of light.....The basic theory of the photoelectric effect, which conforms to these laws---both of which are based on experiments by Lenard" (Zworykin, p. 8).





Lenard's photoelectric effect proves light is composed of particles which contradicts the continuity of Maxwell's electromagnetic field since Lenard's particle structure of light contradicts the continuity of Maxwell's electromagnetic field that is based on Faraday's induction effect. As a light ray propagates, the optic particles form spaces between optic particles that distances between light particles increases as the light ray propagates due to the dispersion of light which eliminates the continuity of Maxwell's electromagnetic field; furthermore, Maxwell's electromagnetic field cannot maintain a particle structure of a propagating electromagnetic photon since as an electromagnetic photon propagates the electromagnetic field expands which eliminates the particle structure of an electromagnetic photon. Also, Lenard proves the energy of an optic particle is dependent on the frequency which contradicts the energy of Fresnel's diffraction mechanism that interfering light waves that energy is dependent on the wave amplitude that is used to form the intensity (energy) of Fresnel's diffraction pattern. Lenard proves that Fresnel's diffraction mechanism and Maxwell's electromagnetic theory of light are physically invalid.




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§ 10. Planck





In Planck's paper, "On the Law of Distribution of Energy in the Normal Spectrum" (1901), Planck is supporting Maxwell's electromagnetic theory of light by quantizing Maxwell's electromagnetic field.



"In any case the theory requires a correction, and I shall attempt in the following to accomplish this on the basis of the theory of electromagnetic radiation which I developed." (Planck, Intro).

"In my last article4 I showed that the physical foundations of the electromagnetic radiation theory, including the hypothesis of "natural radiation", withstand the most severe criticism" (Planck, Intro).




Planck quantizes Maxwell's electromagnetic field using the blackbody radiation effect in the derivation of the energy element that represents the energies of Planck's electromagnetic photons emitted by the blackbody radiation effect but Maxwell's expanding electromagnetic field cannot maintain a particle structure of a electromagnetic photon since as an electromagnetic field propagates, the electromagnetic field expands which would eliminate the particle structure of an electromagnetic photon which proves Planck's quantization of Maxwell's electromagnetic field is physically invalid.





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Planck's blackbody derivation is based on the blackbody surface electrons, oscillating a diathermic medium (optical ether), at the frequency of light forming electromagnetic photons that energy is represented with Planck's energy element (hv).


"§ 7. We now want to examine what Wien's displacement law states about the dependence of the entropy S of our resonator on its energy U and its characteristic, particularly in the general case where the resonator is situated in an arbitrary diathermic medium. For this purpose we next generalize Thiesen's form of the law for the radiation in an arbitrary diathermic medium with the velocity of light c. Since we do not have to consider the total radiation, but only the monochromatic radiation, it becomes necessary in order to compare different diathermic media to introduce the frequency v instead of the wavelength λ." (Planck, Part 1, § 7).


"Now according to the well-known Kirchoff-Clausius law, the energy emitted per unit time at the frequency v and temperature T from a black surface in a diathermic medium is inversely proportional to the square of the velocity of propagation c2; hence the energy density U is inversely proportional to c3 and we have:" (Planck, Part 1, § 7).


"the entropy of a resonator vibrating in an arbitrary diathermic medium depends only on the variable U/v, containing besides this only universal constants. This is the simplest form of Wien's displacement law known to me." (Planck, Part 1, § 9).



The motion of a diathermic medium forms Planck's electromagnetic photons but the blackbody radiation effect forms in vacuum that is void of matter which contradicts the existence of Planck's diathermic medium and electromagnetic photon.




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Planck's energy element (hv) is derived using Boltzmann's thermodynamic entropy equation,







S = k log R................................................................................................21







that is used with Planck's blackbody electron (resonator) kinetic energy distribution ratio (Planck, § 3),







R = (N + P)N + P/ NN · PP...........................................................................22







to form (Planck, § 5)







SN = k{N + P) log (N + P) - N log N - P log P)............................................23







Using UN = NU and UN = Pe, equation 23 becomes,







S = k{(1 + U/e) log (1 + U/e) - U/e log U/e}.................................................24







Equation 24 is represented as,







S = f(U/e)....................................................................................................25







The second entropy equation is derived using (Planck, § 8),







T = v · f(U/v)...............................................................................................26







The following equation (Planck, § 9),







1/T = dS/dU................................................................................................27








and equations 27 are used to form,







dS/dU = 1/v · f(U/v)...................................................................................28







Integrating equation 28,







S = f(U/v)...................................................................................................29







Using equations 25 and 29, a proportionality is formed,







e α v...........................................................................................................30







Planck's energy element is derived using equation 30.


"§10. If we apply Wien's displacement law in the latter form to equation (6) for the entropy S, we then find that the energy element e must be proportional to the frequency v, thus:







e = hv".......................................................................................................31







(Planck, § 10). Planck uses the constant (h) in the proportionality (equ 30) to derive the energy element (equ 31) but S = f(U/e) represent the kinetic energies (e = 1/2 mv2) of the blackbody surface electrons that possess a mass which conflicts with the structure of the massless electromagnetic photons emitted by the blackbody. Also, Planck's constant h = 6.6 × 10-34 m2 kg/s contains the units of the mass (kg) which is physically invalid since the kinetic energy cannot be used to represent the energy of a massless electromagnetic photon. Plus, Planck's derivation of the energy element is based on Boltzmann's thermodynamic entropy S = k log (V/Vo) that represents the expansion or contradiction of a gas within a closed volumes V/Vo yet the blackbody radiation effect is an open system that cannot form an equilibrium that is required in the representation of Boltzmann's entropy. Also, the blackbody is emitting photons, represented with the photon entropy (equ 29), outside the blackbody in an every increasing volume that total energy is increasing which conflicts with the constant energy of the electron entropy (equ 25).

Planck derives the energy element (equ 31) using the variables of the entropy functions (equ 25 & 29) but the complete equation of the photon entropy function S = f(U/γ) is derived using, the energy element (hγ) in the complete equation of the electron entropy,






S = f(U/e) = k{(1 + U/e) log (1 + U/e) - U/e log U/e}.................................................32







to form,







S = f(U/γ) = k{(1 + U/hγ) log (1 + U/hγ) - U/hγ log U/hγ}..............................................33







The complete equation of the photon entropy (equ 33) is derived using the energy element but the entropy functions S = f(U/e) and S = f(U/γ) were initially used to derive Planck's energy element which proves Planck's derivation is subterfuge.

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Planck's blackbody intensity equation is derived by differentiating equation 33 with respect to d/dU using,







1/T = dS/dU.........................................................................................34




to form,







U = hv/(ehv/kT - 1) ............................................................................35






Equation 35 is used to derive Planck's blackbody intensity equation,







u = 8πhv3/(ehv/kT - 1) .......................................................................36






Planck's blackbody intensity equation is derived using Boltzmann's entropy (equ 36) that does not represent the emission of light which proves Planck's derivation of the blackbody intensity equation is physically invalid.





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§ 11. Einstein's Energy Quanta

In Einstein's photoelectric paper, "On a Heuristic Viewpoint Concerning the Production and Transformation of Light" (1905), Einstein is supporting Maxwell's electromagnetic theory of light by quantizing of Maxwell's electromagnetic field.


"By contrast, the electromagnetic state of a region of space is described by continuous functions and, hence, cannot be determined exactly by any finite number of variables. Thus, according to Maxwell's theory, the energy of purely electromagnetic phenomena (such as light) should be represented by a continuous function of space. By contrast, the energy of a material body should be represented by a discrete sum over the atoms and electrons; hence, the energy of a material body cannot be divided into arbitrarily many, arbitrarily small components. However, according to Maxwell's theory (or, indeed, any wave theory), the energy of a light wave emitted from a point source is distributed continuously over an ever larger volume." (Einstein1, Intro).


"These electrons also interact with the free molecules and electrons by conservative potentials when they approach very closely. We denote these electrons, which are bound at points of space, as "resonators", since they absorb and emit electromagnetic waves of a particular period." (Einstein1, § 1).




Einstein's quantization of Maxwell's electromagnetic field does not change the fact that Maxwell's expanding electromagnetic field cannot maintain a particle structure of a propagating electromagnetic photon.




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Einstein uses Wien's blackbody intensity equation (Einstein1, § 4),







p = α v3 e-βv/T............................................................................................37







to derive a blackbody entropy equation,







S - So = (E/βv) ln V/Vo..............................................................................38







Einstein uses Boltzmann's thermodynamic entropy,







S - So = (R/N) ln W....................................................................................39







Monochromatic radiation of low density behaves---as long as Wien's radiation formula is valid--in a thermodynamic sense, as if it consisted of mutually independent energy quanta of magnitude Rβv/N." (Einstein1, § 6).


Einstein is equating equations 35 and 36 to derive the energy quanta,







E = Rβv/N...................................................................................................40







Einstein's energy quanta (Rβv/N) is derived by equating equations 38 and 39 since Einstein energy quanta contains Boltzmann's constants R and N but Boltzmann's gas molecule constant R and N that represent gas molecules that possess a mass cannot be used to derive an energy quanta that represents the energy of a massless electromagnetic photon.


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"Einstein's earliest scientific work dealt with electromagnetism, thermodynamics, and a statistical approach to the entropy function. His 1905 paper "On the Movement of Small particles Suspended in a Stationary Liquid Demanded by the Molecular-Kinetic Theory of Heat" provided crucial support for the physical validity of Avogadro's hypothesis and molecular-kinetic theory. The photoelectric-effect paper, "On a Heuristic Point of View about the Creation and Conversion of Light," demonstrated the necessity of incorporating the atomistic (or quantum) idea into the electromagnetic theory of light. Here Einstein demonstrated that the mathematical description for the entropy of black-body radiation in a closed volume is identical to that for a gas in the same volume. By analogy, then, electromagnetic radiation may be treated as a dynamic collection of particles, as is the case for a gas, where the energy of the electromagnetic or light particles is proportional to the frequency of radiation." (Nye, p. 460).


"Einstein supported his hypothesis of a quantum structure for radiation by analogizing the entropy of monochromatic radiation to the entropy of an ideal gas. He showed that a decrease in entropy corresponding to a reduction in volume for radiation of fixed energy has the same functional form as the decrease in entropy associated with a reduction in volume for an ideal gas. Evidence that warrants treating the gas statistically thereby supports a quantum structure for the gas. Yet such evidence sustains no logical relation to Einstein's hypothesis, nor does it support any theory that entails Einstein's hypothesis." (Laudan, p. 67).




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[numbernu...@gmail.com]

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§ 12. Einstein's Inertial Mass






In Einstein's paper, "Does the Inertia of a Body depend upon its Energy Content?" (1905), Einstein describes the inertial mass.


"There I based myself upon the Maxwell-Hertz equations for empty space along with Maxwell's expression for the electromagnetic energy" (Einstein3, p. 639).


"Let this body simultaneously emit plane waves of light of energy L/2" (Einstein3, p. 640).


"The kinetic energy of the body with respect to (ξ,η,ς) decreases as a result of the emission of light..... If a body releases the energy L in the form of radiation, its mass decreases by L/V2." (Einstein3, p. 641).






Einstein uses the inertial mass L/V2 to structurally unify Maxwell's electromagnetic field with matter but Einstein's inertial mass (m = L/V2) is massless since L represents the energy of an electromagnetic photon.




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§ 13. Einstein Electrodynamics





In Einstein's paper, "On the Electrodynamics of Moving Bodies" (1905), Einstein states the luminiferous ether is superfluous.


"The introduction of a “luminiferous ether” will prove to be superfluous inasmuch as the view here to be developed will not require an “absolutely stationary space” provided with special properties, nor assign a velocity-vector to a point of the empty space in which electromagnetic processes take place." (Einstein2, Intro).




Einstein states that the ether is superfluous and justifying the wave theory of light by altering the dimensions of Maxwell's equations based on Lorentz theory.




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Einstein is justifying Maxwell's theory by altering the CS of Maxwell's equations using Lorentz's thoery.


"§ 6. Transformation of the Maxwell-Hertz equations for empty space. On the nature of the electromotive forces that arise upon motion in a magnetic field.


Let the Maxwell-Hertz equations for empty space be valid for the system at rest K, so that we have







dX/dt = dN/dy - dM/dz.................................................41






dY/dt = dL/dz - dN/dx..................................................42






dZ/dt = dM/dx - dL/dy..................................................43







......................................................................................






dL/dt = dY/dz - dZ/dy...................................................44








dM/dt = dZ/dx - dX/dz..................................................45








dN/dt = dX/dy - dY/dx..................................................46










where (X,Y,Z) denotes the vector of the electric force, and (L,M,N) that of the magnetic force." (Einstein2, § 6).








β = 1/(1 - v2/c2)1/2........................................................47








Applying equation 47 to the coordinate system of Maxwell's equations,







"X' = X............................ L' = L....................................48a,b




Y' = β[Y - (v/c)N]............. M'= β[M + (v/c)Z].................49a,b





Z' = β[Z + (v/c)M],.............N' = β[N - (v/c)Y]"................50a,b






(Einstein2, § 6).






"the electrodynamic foundation of Lorentz's theory of the electrodynamics of moving bodies is in agreement with the principle of relativity." (Einstein2, § 6).




Einstein justifies Maxwell's electromagnetic theory of light by altering the coordinate system of Maxwell's equations but altering the dimensions of Maxwell's equations does not change the fact that Maxwell's equations are derived using Faraday's induction effect that is not luminous nor is induction an ionization or particle effect. In addition, Einstein's translational velocity v that is used in equations (48a,b - 50a,b) originates from Lorentz's transformation (Lorentz, § 3) that translational velocity px varies from 0 to 30,473 m/s as time increase which proves Einstein's special relativity based on a constant velocity v is physically invalid.


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§ 14. Minkowski







In Minkowski's paper, "The Fundamental Equations for Electromagnetic Processes in Moving Bodies" (1908), Minkowski represents the aether with Maxwell's equations.


"§ 2. The Fundamental Equations for Æther.





curl m - dE/dt = pm........................................51




div e = p.........................................................52




curl e + dm/dt = 0...........................................53





div m = 0........................................................54







(Minkowski, Part 1, § 2). Minkowski is representing the aether with Maxwell's equations to depict an electromagnetic aether but Maxwell's equations are derived using Faraday's induction effect that is not luminous.





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§ 15. Einstein's Electromagnetic Ether

In Einstein's paper, "The Principle of Relativity and Its Consequences in Modern Physics" (1910), Einstein describes an electromagnetic ether.


"When it was realized that a profound analogy exists between the elastic vibrations of ponderable matter and the phenomena of interference and diffraction of light, it could not be doubted that light must be considered as a vibratory state of a special kind of matter. Since, moreover, light can propagate in places devoid of ponderable matter, one was forced to assume for the propagation of light a special kind of matter that is different from ponderable matter, and that was given the name "ether." (Einstein4, § 1).


"The introduction of the electromagnetic theory of light brought about a certain modification of the ether hypothesis. At first the physicists did not doubt that the electromagnetic phenomena must be reduced to the modes of motion of this medium. But as they gradually became convinced that none of the mechanical theories of ether provided a particularly impressive picture of electromagnetic phenomena, they got accustomed to considering the electric and magnetic fields as entities whose mechanical interpretation is superfluous. Thus, they have come to view theses fields in the vacuum as special states of the ether" (Einstein4, § 1).




Einstein describes an electromagnetic ether but Maxwell's electromagnetic field originates from Faraday's induction effect that is not luminous.








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§ 17. Relativity: Special and General Theory






In Einstein paper, "Relativity: Special and General Theory" (1917), Einstein alters the coordinate system to justify light propagating in vacuum based on Lorentz's transformation.


"The relations must be so chosen that the law of transmission of light in vacuo is satisfied for one and the same ray of light (and of course for every ray) with respect to K and K'. For the relative orientation in space of the co-ordinate systems indicated in the diagram (Fig. 2), this problem is solved by means of the equations:





x' = (x - vt)/(1 - v2/c2)1/2....................................................55





y' = y................................................................................ 56







z' = z ...............................................................................57







t' = (t - v/c2)/(1 - v2/c2)1/2..................................................58




This system of equations is known as the "Lorentz transformation" (Einstein6, § 11).




Einstein justifies light propagating in vacuum using Lorentz's transformation but as time increases Lorentz translational velocity v varies from 0 to 30,463 m/s yet Einstein's transformation is based on a constant value of v which proves Einstein's special relativity is physically invalid.



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Einstein describes the inertial mass (m).


"XV. General Results of the Theory


IT is clear from our previous considerations that the (special) theory of relativity has grown out of electrodynamics and optics. In these fields it has not appreciably altered the predictions of theory, but it has considerably simplified the theoretical structure, i.e. the derivation of laws, and—what is incomparably more important—it has considerably reduced the number of independent hypotheses forming the basis of theory. The special theory of relativity has rendered the Maxwell-Lorentz theory so plausible, that the latter would have been generally accepted by physicists even if experiment had decided less unequivocally in its favor." (Einstein6, § 15).


"Hence we can say: If a body takes up an amount of energy Eo, then its inertial mass increases by an amount






Eo/c2.......................................................................................................59






the inertial mass of a body is not a constant, but varies according to the change in the energy of the body. The inertial mass of a system of bodies can even be regarded as a measure of its energy. The law of the conservation of the mass of a system becomes identical with the law of the conservation of energy, and is only valid provided that the system neither takes up nor sends out energy. Writing the expression for the energy in the form





mc2 + Eo/ (1 - v2/c2)1/2.............................................................................60







we see that the term mc2, which has hitherto attracted our attention, is nothing else than the energy possessed by the body before it absorbed the energy Eo." (Einstein6, § 15).




Einstein structurally unifies Maxwell's electromagnetic field with matter using the inertial mass Eo/c2 (equ 59) but Einstien's inertial mass (m = Eo/c2) is massless since Eo represents the energy of a massless electromagnetic photon.




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Einstein is justifying the existence of Fresnel's ether (Michelson-Morley, p. 333) using the reversal of the negative result of Michelson-Morley experiment based on Lorentz's theory.


"On the other hand, all coordinate systems moving relatively were to be regarded as in motion with respect to the æther. To this motion against the æther ("æther-drift") were attributed more complicated laws which were supposed to hold relative to. Strictly speaking, such an æther-drift ought also to be assumed relative to the earth, and for a long time the efforts of physicists were devoted to attempts to detect the existence of an æther-drift at the earth's surface....Although the estimated difference between these two times is exceedingly small, Michelson and Morley performed an experiment involving interference in which this difference should have been clearly detectable. But the experiment gave a negative result — a fact very perplexing to physicists. Lorentz and FitzGerald rescued the theory from this difficulty by assuming that the motion of the body relative to the æther produces a contraction of the body in the direction of motion, the amount of contraction being just sufficient to compensate for the difference in time mentioned above." (Einstein6, § 16).




Einstein is using the reversal of Michelson'-Morley experiment, based on Lorentz's theory, to justify the existence of Fresnel's ether but Lorentz is using the constant magnitude of the earth's yearly tangential velocity vector px but at the surface of the earth, the magnitude of the earth's tangential velocity vector px in not constant.. At 6:00 pm, the magnitude of the earth's yearly tangential velocity px is zero (fig 7); at 7:00 pm, the magnitude of px increases to 5,000 m/s since the tangential velocity vector px represents the tangential component of the earth's yearly motion p that magnitude and direction changes because of the earth's daily rotational motion, as time increases. At midnight, the earth's yearly tangential velocity vector px equals 30,463 m/s. As time increases px varies from 0 to 30,463 m/s yet Lorentz's transformation is based on a constant value of px which proves Lorentz's transformation is physically invalid. In addition, the GVE (glass vacuum tube experiment) proves Fresnel's ether does not physically exist.




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§ 18. Einstein's Ether







In a lecture, by Einstein, on May 5th 1920, at the University of Leyden, Einstein is justifying the existence of the optical ether.


"Such was the state of things when H. A. Lorentz entered upon the scene. He brought theory into harmony with experience by means of a wonderful simplification of theoretical principles. He achieved this, the most important advance in the theory of electricity since Maxwell, by taking from ether its mechanical, and from matter its electromagnetic qualities. As in empty space, so too in the interior of material bodies, the ether, and not matter viewed atomistically, was exclusively the seat of electromagnetic fields. According to Lorentz the elementary particles of matter alone are capable of carrying out movements; their electromagnetic activity is entirely confined to the carrying of electric charges. Thus Lorentz succeeded in reducing all electromagnetic happenings to Maxwell's equations for free space.




As to the mechanical nature of the Lorentzian ether, it may be said of it, in a somewhat playful spirit, that immobility is the only mechanical property of which it has not been deprived by H. A. Lorentz. It may be added that the whole change in the conception of the ether which the special theory of relativity brought about, consisted in taking away from the ether its last mechanical quality, namely, its immobility. How this is to be understood will forthwith be expounded.........More careful reflection teaches us, however, that the special theory of relativity does not compel us to deny ether. We may assume the existence of an ether; only we must give up ascribing a definite state of motion to it, i.e. we must by abstraction take from it the last mechanical characteristic which Lorentz had still left it. We shall see later that this point of view, the conceivability of which I shall at once endeavour to make more intelligible by a somewhat halting comparison, is justified by the results of the general theory of relativity." (Einstein7, Lecture).






The wave theory of light is justified using Fresnel's diffraction mechanism where interfering light wave are formed by the motion of an ether, composed of matter, yet diffraction forms in vacuum that is void of matter; consequently, Maxwell's electromagnetic theory of light was introduced since induction forms in vacuum that but induction is not luminous. Hertz's spark gap experiment is used to justify Maxwell's theory but the spark gap is also emitting electrons yet induction is not an ionization effect. The production of light is always accompanied by the emission of electrons yet induction is not an ionization effect which proves light is not an electromagnetic phenomenon. In Einstein's (1905) special relativity, Einstein states the "luminiferous ether" is superfluous which is in contradiction with Einstein May 5th 1920 lecture where Einstein supports the existence of Fresnel's ether.




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§ 19. Quantum Mechanics






Quantum mechanics is based on Planck's quantization of Maxwell's electromagnetic field using the blackbody radiation effect to derive an energy element (hv) which represents the energy of an electromagnetic photon but quantizing Maxwell's electromagnetic field does not change the fact that Maxwell's expanding electromagnetic induction field cannot sustain a particle structure of a propagating electromagnetic photon. Furthermore, Planck derivation of the energy element (hv) is physically invalid since Planck's constant h = 6.6 × 10-34 m2 kg/s contains the units of the mass (kg) yet light is composed of massless particles. Furthermore, Maxwell's massless electromagnetic field cannot be used to represent the structure of an electron, proton, nuclei, ion, atom, or molecule that has a mass which proves the quantum mechanics based on Planck's quantization of Maxwell's electromagnetic field is physically invalid.






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Davisson–Germer (1927) electron scattering experiment is used to justify electron wave interference but the destructive wave interference of electrons to form the non-electron fringes of Davission-Germer electron scattering pattern represents the arbitrary elimination of electrons which is physically invalid. de Broglie's electron matter wave is used to represent the structure of an atom (fig 23) but the atomic electron matter wave conflicts with the particle structure of an electron. Also, the atomic electron matter wave cannot be represented in a Cartesian, cylindrical or spherical coordinate system since the described coordinate system represent a specific symmetric structure that does not correspond with the structure depict by the atomic electron wave. Furthermore, the atomic electron matter wave does not function in the three dimensional representation of an atom's structure since in the direction perpendicular to the atomic electron matter wave a constant value or zero is formed; consequently, the atomic electron matter wave only function in the two dimensional representation (fig 13) and cannot be represented with a three dimensional coordinate system; consequently, the atomic electron matter wave is transformed into a particle-in-a-box electron matter wave and depicted in a rectangular coordinate system,







-(h2/2u)∇"Ψ(x,y,z) + V(x,y,z) + V(x,y,z)Ψ(x,y,z) = EΨ(x,y,z)...................................................61






but the atomic electron matter wave does not function in three dimensional space. Schrödinger then initiates two additional structural transformations by change the electron matter wave of the particle-in-a-box electron matter wave, of equation 61, into a probability wave, then using a spherical coordinate system (r,Θ,φ,),






-(h2/2u)∇"Ψ(r,Θ,φ) + V(r,Θ,φ) + V(r,Θ,φ)Ψ(r,Θ,φ) = EΨ(r,Θ,φ).................................................62






but the original atomic electron matter wave (fig 23) could not be represented in a spherical coordinate system which proves the derivation of Schrodinger's wave equation is subterfuge.




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Schrödinger probability waves are used to form the structure of the atomic orbitals (fig 12).




"As an alternative, in 1926 German physicist Max Born sharply refined Schrodinger's interpretation of an electron wave, and it is his interpretation--amplified by Bohr and his colleagues--that is still with us today......He asserted that an electron wave must be interpreted from the standpoint of probability." (Greene, p. 105).


"Just a few months after de Broglie's suggestion, Schrodinger took the decisive step toward this end by determining an equation that governs the shape and the evolution of probability waves, or as they came to be known, wave functions." (Greene, p. 107).


"Schrodinger, de Broglie, and Born explained this phenomenon by associating a probability wave to each electron." (Greene, p. 109).






Schrodinger's wave equation (equ 62) is used to derive the equations of the atomic orbitals that is based on destructive wave interference but Schrodinger's electron probability wave can only represent a positive value or zero since the minimum value of a position probability is zero. In addition, Schrodinger's probability waves is not a structure yet the probability waves are used to derive the equations of the atomic orbitals represented with following,




1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s2 3d10 4p6 5s2, 4d10 5p6 6s2 ..........................................63




A probability wave represents an uncertainty which indicates that nothing regarding the atomic structure cannot be determined given the experimental and theoretical limits of physics in the vicinity of the atom yet physicists are using this abstract expression (probability waves) that has absolutely no physical significance to derive the ostensible quantum mechanics structure of an atom where that expression (equ 63) can be found represented on the periodic table.




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Quantum mechanics uses a gauge transformation of Maxwell's equations.




"A similar, but more subtle and deep, situation arises in electrodynamics where one can express the (physical) electric and magnetic fields in terms of scalar (ɸ(r,t)) and vector (A(r,t)) potentials via







B(r,t) = ∇ x A(r,t)......................................................................................64







E(r,t) = - ∇ɸ(r,t) - d/dtA(r,t).......................................................................65







....Such a change in potentials is called a gauge transformation, and will be seen to play and important role in the quantum mechanical treatment of charged particle interactions." (Robinett, p.447); (Cohen-Tannoudji, p. 315).




The gauge transformation is based on Maxwell's equations but representing Maxwell's equations with a potential does not change the fact that Maxwell's equations are derived using Faraday's induction effect that is not luminous nor can the gauge potential of a massless, propagating and expanding electromagnetic field be used to represent the particle structure of an atom, ion, nuclei, neutron, proton or electron that has a mass.




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§ 20. Heisenberg







In Heisenberg's paper, "The Self-energy of the Electron" (1930), Heisenberg describes an electron as a point source that radiates an electric and magnetic fields that exist outside the electron,


"In classical theory, the field strengths E and H become arbitrarily large in the neighborhood of the point-charge e, so that the integral over the energy density 1/8π (E2 + H2) diverges. To overcome this difficulty, one therefore assumes a finite radius ro for the electron in classical electron theory." (Heisenberg, Intro).




Heisenberg electron's electromagnetic field produces an energy divergence when r → 0 using the electric field equation E = kQ/r2. As r approaches the origin the magnitude of E becomes infinite which represents an infinite energy. Heisenberg solves the energy divergence problem using a finite electron radius ro but Heisenberg's electron is radiating an electromagnetic field (energy), as time increases, in the open space that surrounds an electron which represents an electron as a physical source (point source) that is arbitrarily creating energy which represents the creation of energy which violates energy conservation. Also, a finite volume that encloses an electromagnetic field contains an infinite number of positions. When an infinite number of positions is represented with an electromagnetic field vectors an infinite energy is formed. Huygens ether particles limit the number of positions forming a finite energy but Huygens' ether particles do not physically exist (vacuum) which proves Heisenberg's electromagnetic field does not physically exist.





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§ 21. Quantum Electrodynamics





Quantum electrodynamics is based on the quantization of Maxwell's electromagnetic field that is used to represent the structure of a QED electromagnetic photon.


"2.2 Dirac's quantization of the electromagnetic field"(Miller, p. 20).


"Toward future considerations in quantum field theory another noteworthy point about Dirac's paper is his description of photon absorption and emission." (Miller, p. 23).




Quantum electrodynamics is based on Maxwell's electromagnetic theory of light but Maxwell's theory is formed using Faraday's induction effect that is not luminous nor is induction a particle effect.



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In Feynman's paper, "Mathematical Formulation of the Quantum Theory of Electromagnetic Interaction" (1950), Feynman's quantum electrodynamics is based on Maxwell's electromagnetic theory of light.


"This separation is especially useful in quantum electrodynamics which represents the interaction of matter with the electromagnetic field. The electromagnetic field is an especially simple system and its behavior can be analyzed completely." (Feynman, Intro).


"The secret to the success of QED lies in the fact that the QED Lagrangian is invariant under a gauge transformation; that is, the equations of motion are unaffected by the following transformation of the photon field: (Cheng, p. 237).









Feynman's quantum electrodynamics is based on Maxwell's equations which are derived using Faraday's induction effect that is not luminous nor is induction a particle effect.






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In Feynman's book, "QED: The Strange Theory of Light and Matter" (1985), Feynman attempts to represent diffraction using QED photons (fig 13).






"Nature has got it cooked up so we'll never be able to figure out how She does it: if we put instruments in to find out which way the light goes, we can find out, all right, but the wonderful interference effects disappear." (Feynman, p. 81).



Feynman cannot explain diffraction using QED photons since the formation of the dark fringes of the diffraction pattern depicts the destruction of QED photons that violates energy conservation. In addition, the destroyed QED photons do not contribute to the total light intensity of the diffraction pattern which would result in a measurable reduction in the total light intensity of the diffraction pattern since more than 80% of the small rectangular diffraction pattern is composed of dark fringes (fig 11) which would result in at least a 50% reduction in the total light intensity of the diffraction pattern yet the total light intensity (dt = 1s) that enters a small rectangular aperture equals the total light intensity of the diffraction pattern which proves the small rectangular aperture diffraction effect is not formed by interfering photons.





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Quantum electrodynamics use the gauge transformation of Maxwell's equations.


"2.1.3 Local gauge invariance of QED...


The electromagnetic field strengths...do not uniquely define the potential Aμ(x) by the equation







Fμν(x) = dμAν(x) - dν Aμ(x)...........................................66







The gauge transformation







A'μ(x) = Aμ(x) + dμνθ(x)................................................67





leads to the same field strength tensor Fμν(x)." (Becher, p. 62). The gauge transformation is based on Maxwell's equations that are derived using Faraday's induction effect that is not luminous nor is induction a particle effect.




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§ 22. String Theory







String theory is based on Maxwell's electromagnetic theory of light.


"The electromagnetic fields are, in fact, themselves associated with particles called photons. These photons, again, are a different mode of oscillation of the string, in just the same way that the electron is some mode of oscillation of the string. So what we think of as electric charge is really a coupling together of different pieces of string which are oscillating in slightly different ways, and the photon is neither more elementary nor less elementary than the electron." by John Ellis (Davies, p. 154 - 156).


"The theoretical status of the four fundamental interactions was very uneven in the mid-Sixties: only the electromagnetic interaction could afford an (almost1) entirely satisfactory description (hence a 3-star status) according to quantum electrodynamics (QED), the quantum-relativistic extension of Maxwell's theory." by Gabriele Veneziano (Cappelli, p. 17).


"In four-dimensional spacetime, Maxwell theory gives rise to D - 2 = 2 single-photon states for any fixed spatial momentum. This is indeed familiar to you, at least classically. An electromagnetic plane wave which propagates in a fixed direction and has some fixed wavelength (i.e., fixed momentum), can be written as a superposition of two plane waves that represent independent polarization states." (Zwiebach, p. 180).


"The captivating thing about the early string theories was that although they had this apparent problem in fact they avoid it in a way that is avoided in Maxwell's theory of electromagnetism. But they avoid it in an infinitely more subtle way, because the problem is infinitely bigger. The fact that it can be avoided at all is remarkable." (Davies, p. 110).




An oscillating string forms a transverse wave that is used to justify the structure of a transverse electromagnetic photon but an oscillating string is composed of matter which proves that the oscillating string analogy cannot be applied to massless light.

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String theory uses the gauge transformation of Maxwell's equations.


"We can write the gauge transformations more explicitly in component form. Using (3.19) and (3.12), we find







Φ --> Φ' - 1/c (dε/dt)...........................................................68







A --> A + ∇ε.......................................................................69







The gauge transformation of a gradient to a vector does not change its curl, so B = ∇ x A is unchanged. The scalar potential Φ also changes under gauge transformations. This is necessary to keep E unchanged." (Zwiebach, 43).




String theory uses the gauge transformation of Maxwell's equations but representing Maxwell's equations with a potential does not change the fact that Maxwell's equations are derived using Faraday's induction effect that is not luminous, nor is induction an ionization or particle effect.




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§ 23. Particle Physics







Particle physics is based on Maxwell's theory.


"Each of these particles, called a fermion, spins and exists in two spin (or polarization) states called left-handed (i.e. appears to be spinning clockwise as viewed by and observer that it is approaching) and right-handed (i.e. spinning anti-clockwise) spin states. One may add a fifth particle, the photon to this list. The photon is a quantum of electromagnetic field. It is a boson and carries spin 1, is electrically neutral and has zero mass" (Fayyazuddin, p. 1).






Particle physics uses the gauge transformation of Maxwell's equations to represent the structure of a subatomic particle but representing Maxwell's equations with a gauge potential does not change the fact that Maxwell's equations are derived using Faraday's induction effect that represents a massless and expanding electromagnetic field which conflicts with the discrete particle structure of a subatomic particle that has a mass. The mass of the subatomic particles is measured using the curve paths of the liquid hydrogen bubble tracks within the bubble chamber. An accelerated proton beam is incident to a metallic target that collision produces subatomic particles that propagate through the steel enclosure (more than a quarter inch thick) of the bubble chamber to form the liquid hydrogen bubble tracks but subatomic particles that have a mass cannot propagate through the steel enclosure of the bubble chamber without producing a hole in the bubble chamber. Matter (subatomic particles) propagating through steel requires a hole. Rutherford's experiment is used to justify subatomic particles propagating through the bubble chamber but Rutherford's beta particles (electrons) cannot propagate through a quarter inch thick steel plate and alpha particles can be stop with a single sheet of paper. Gamma and x-rays propagate through steel but gamma and x-rays are massless which poses the question how the subatomic particles that are composed of matter entered by bubble chamber to produce the curved ionization tracks of the liquid hydrogen that is used to measure the mass of the subatomic particles. Muons produced by the atmospheric decay of cosmic rays are used to justify subatomic particles propagating through the steel enclosure of the bubble chamber but a muon is 200 times more massive than an electron. An ach welder's electron beam can cut and weld steel; consequently, muons that are more massive than an electron propagating through the steel enclosure of the bubble chamber would result in the formation of a hole in the bubble chamber and the subsequently explosion of the liquid hydrogen. Subatomic particles that have a mass cannot propagate through the steel enclosure of the bubble chamber without producing a hole in the steel enclosure of the bubble chamber which would result in the release of a tremendous amount of energy. I predict that a radioactive isotope was inserted into the bubble chamber prior to the particle physics experiment to produce the ionization bubble tracks of the liquid hydrogen since there is no logical explanation to justify how the subatomic particles that are composed of matter can exist within the bubble chamber and the liquid hydrogen bubble tracks were first discovered in the research regarding the construction of the thermonuclear hydrogen bomb using radioactive isotopes. The Soudan muon detector that is located at the bottom of a 1,800 meters deep mine shaft is used to justify subatomic particles propagating through the steel enclosure of the bubble chamber but muons that have a mass larger than an electron cannot propagate through more than 1,400 meters of bedrock. It is more likely that the Soudan muon detector is detecting radioactive isotopes that exist at the bottom of the mine.





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Particle physics is based on the gauge transformation of Maxwell's equations.


"2.3 Electromagnetic Field" (Leon, p. 29).







E = - (dA/dt) - ∇φ,........................B = ∇ x A".......................70a,b






(Leon, p. 29); (Martin, p. 290), (Roe, p. 71). Representing Maxwell's equations with an electromagnetic gauge potential does not alter the fact that Maxwell's equations are derived using Faraday's induction effect that represents a massless and expanding electromagnetic field that cannot be used to represent the particle structure of a subatomic particle that has a mass. Einstein's energy equation Eo = mc2 is used to structurally unify Maxwell's electromagnetic field with matter but Einstein's inertial mass (m = Eo/c2) is massless since Eσ represents the energy of an electromagnetic photon (Einstein6, § 15); consequently, the gauge potential of Maxwell's equations cannot be used to represent the structure of a subatomic particle that has a mass.





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[numbernu...@gmail.com]

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§ 24. Gravitation





Newton's gravity equation is represented as






F = (G m1 m2)/r2 .........................................................................................71





Cavendish's experiment is used to derive Newton's constant G. Cavendish uses a torsion mechanism to measure the gravitational force (2 μg) between two lead spheres, m1 = .73 kg and m1 = 158 kg, separated by the distance of .3 m that gravitational force is used to derive Newton's constant G,






F = (6.67384×10−11) x (.73)(158) / (.3)2 ≃ 6 x 10−8 N ≃ 2μg ..................72







Cavendish detected a gravitational force of 2 μg which is 1,000 times smaller than the weight (force) uncertainty of 1 mg in 1797; the most accurate measuring weight device was a counter weight scale that had a measurement uncertainty of 1 mg. To test Cavendish's experiment, a .73 kg lead sphere is suspended using a thin titanium wire and place .01 mm from a larger lead sphere (158 kg). A laser is used to detect the change in the angle of the wire that is suspending the .73 kg lead sphere. As the 158 kg lead sphere is slowly rolled away from the smaller suspended lead sphere no measureable change in the angle of the wire that is suspending the 73 kg lead sphere is detected which contradicts Cavendish's experiment. The torsion mechanism is measuring a gravitational force produced by a 158 kg lead sphere upon a .73 kg lead sphere which is represented with the 2 μg force and Newton's gravity constant (G) but no movement of the wire is detected when the distance between the lead spheres is increased which proves Cavendish's experiment that is used to calculate Newton's constant is physically invalid...Also, Newton's gravity equation is represented with an astronaut with a mass of 50kg in the space station that is approximately 350 mile from the surface of the earth forms a gravitation force using Newton's equation of:


F = (G m1 m2)/r2 = (6.67384×10-11) x (50) x (6 x 1024 ) / (7 x 106)2 ≃ 400 N ....................................73


According to Newton's gravity equation an astronaut in the space station forms a gravitational force of approximately 400 N which is not experimentally observed which proves Newton's gravity equation is physically invalid.






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In Einstein paper, "The Foundation of the Generalised Theory of Relativity" (1916), Einstein represents gravity with Maxwell's electromagnetic field. Einstein's general relativity paper is almost entirely focused on gravity.


"In the following, we differentiate "gravitation-field" from "matter", in the sense that everything besides the gravitation-field will be signified as matter; therefore, the term includes not only "matter" in the usual sense, but also the electro-dynamic field." (Einstein5, § 14).




Einstein uses Maxwell's equations,







dh/dt + rot e = 0...............................................74




div h = 0...........................................................75







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rot h - de'/dt = i................................................76




div e' = p..........................................................77








(Einstein5, § 20).


"On account of (30) the equation (66) becomes equivalent to (57) and (57a) when κσ vanishes. Thus Tνσ are the energy-components of the electro-magnetic field. With the help of (61) and (64) we can easily show that the energy-components of the electro-magnetic field, in the case of the special relativity theory, give rise to the well-known maxwell-poynting expressions.


We have now deduced the most general laws which the gravitation-field and matter satisfy when we use a co-ordinate system for which (-g)1/2 = 1." (Einstein5, § 20).





Einstein is representing gravity with Maxwell's electromagnetic field that is based on Faraday's induction effect but gravity is not an induction effect since a small stone, a glass marble or bowling ball that are affected by gravity but not attracted to a magnet which is experimental proof gravity is not an electromagnetic phenomenon.




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Weber experimentally detected gravitational waves that have the frequency of sound (1662 Hz).


"Further advances are necessary in order to generate and detect gravitational waves in the laboratory." (Weber, Conclusion, 1960).


"A description is given of the gravitational radiation experiments involving detectors at opposite ends of a 1000 kilometer baseline, at Argonne National Laboratory and the University of Maryland. Sudden increases in detector output are observed roughly once in several days, coincident within the resolution time of 0.25 seconds. The statistics rule out an accidental origin and experiments rule out seismic and electromagnetic effects. It is reasonable to conclude that gravitational radiation is being observed." (Weber, Abstract, 1970).


"EXPERIMENTS AT 1662 HERTZ" (Weber, Intro, 1970).




Weber detected gravity waves with the frequency of 1662 Hz using the acoustical vibration of a 750 lb aluminum beam but sound cannot propagate in the vacuum of stellar space nor do sound waves propagate at the velocity of light.





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Gravitation physics is based on Maxwell's electromagnetic theory.


"Although in some sense the preceding arguments may be regarded as a derivation of Maxwell's equations, the limitations of this approach should be kept in mind. Clearly, we have had to make quite a few assumptions to reach Eq. [14]. The objective of our game with electrodynamics was to obtain a prescription for finding the field equations in the hope that an analogous prescription will lead us to the filed equation for gravitation." (Ohanian, p. 135).


"§35.11. CONPARISON OF AN EXACT ELECTROMAGNETIC PLANE WAVE WITH THE GRAVITATIONAL PLANE WAVE." (Misner, Thorne, Wheeler, p. 961).


"It represents an electromagnetic plane wave analogous to the gravitational plane wave of the last few sections." (Misner, Thorne, Wheeler, p. 961).




A small box is completely enclosed in lead plates of thickness of 7.74 cm and electrically grounded which forms an electromagnetically shielded box that does not allow electromagnetic radiation to penetrate. A radio within the shielded box does not function since electromagnetic radiation does not penetrate the shielded box. If gravity is an electromagnetic phenomenon, the electromagnetic gravity effect of the earth's mass would not penetrate the shielded box and objects within the shielded box would levitate.





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Thorne, Gertsenshtein and Ohanian describes gravitational waves that propagates at the velocity of light.


"9.2 The physical and mathematical description of a gravitational wave" by Thorne. (Hawking, p. 338).


"General relativistic gravitational waves are ripples in the curvature of space time that propagates with the speed of light." by Thorne (Hawking, p. 338).


"Because gravitational and electromagnetic waves should propagate with the same speed, they can interact in a coherent way (Gertsenshtein, 1962)." by Thorne (Hawking, p. 361).


"Gravitational effects cannot propagate with infinite speed. This is obvious both from the lack of Lorentz invariance of infinite speed and from the causality violations that are associated with signal speeds in excess of the speed of light. Since the speed of light is the only Lorentz-invariant speed, we expect that gravitational effects propagate in the form of waves at the speed of light." (Ohanian, p. 241).


According to Thorne, Gertsenshtein, and Ohanian electromagnetic gravitational waves propagating at the velocity of light.




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"TABLE 5.1 FREQUENCY BANDS FOR GRAVIATIONAL WAVES





Designation..............................................Frequency...............................Typical sources


Extremely low frequency.......................10-7 to 10-4 Hz..........................Slow binaries, black hole (>108 Mo)

Very low frequency................................10-4 to 10-1 Hz.........................Fast binaries, black holes (<108 Mo), white-dwarf vibrations

Low frequency.......................................10-1 to 102 Hz..........................Binary pulsars, black holes (<105 Mo)

Medium frequency.................................102 to 105 Hz...........................Supernovas, pulsar vibrations

High frequency......................................105 to 108 Hz............................Man-made?

Very high frequency..............................108 to 1011 Hz..........................Blackbody, cosmological?" (Ohanian, p. 242).





"The most promising frequency band is that of medium frequency, from 102 to 105 Hz. There are several probable sources of gravitational waves in this band and, fortunately, detectors that respond to waves in this band can be built. There is little doubt that gravitational waves are incident on the Earth; the question is, can we build a detector sufficiently sensitive to feel them?" (Ohanian, p. 242).








Weber's gravity wave (1662 Hz) is ten order of magnitude greater than the frequency of Wheeler's gravity wave of 10-7 Hz and does not represent a radio wave frequencies that is represented with a range of 3 Hz to 300 GHz. A gravity wave with a frequency of 104 Hz represents a sound wave but sound cannot propagate in the vacuum of stellar space nor can sound propagate at the velocity of light. The LIGO gravitational wave experiment detected gravity waves that originated from the merging of two black holes more than 1.3 billion light years from the earth but the LIGO gravity waves are represented with frequencies between 35 to 250 Hz that produce an acoustical chirp that vibrates the armature of a laser interferometer forming the signal of the gravity waves but the LIGO gravity waves represent the frequency of sound.




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Gravitational physics uses the gauge transformation of Maxwell's equations.


"The gauge transformation [3.49] for huv implies the gauge transformation" (Ohanian, p. 244).


"Associated with an electromagnetic disturbance is a mass, the gravitational attraction of which under appropriate circumstances is capable of holding the disturbance together for a time long in comparison with the characteristic periods of the system. Such gravitational-electromagnetic entities, or "geons"; are analyzed via classical relativity theory." (Wheeler, Abstract).


"In electrodynamics, 21 the wave equation describing electromagnetic waves in vacuum is, in the Lorentz gauge....................Similarly, in general relativity, in the weak field limit, the wave equation describing gravitational waves in vacuum is equation (2.10.11)...........A similar analogy is valid for the gravitomagnetic field. 9 In electrodynamics, 21 from the Maxwell equations (2.8.43) and (2.8.44) and in particular from magnetic monopoles, ∇ · B = 0, one can write B = ∇ x A, where A is the vector potential. From Ampere's law for a stationary current distribution: ∇ x B = (4π/c)j, where j is the current density, one has then:" (Ciufolini and Wheeler, p. 317).


"TABLE 21.2 Gauge Transformations in Linearized Gravity and Electromagnetic







A ---> A + ∇Λ........................Φ --> Φ - dΛ/dt".......................78a,b







(Hartle, p. 462). The gauge transformation is based on Maxwell's equations that are derived using Faraday's induction effect but induction is not a gravitational effect since glass, wood and aluminum are affected by gravity but are unaffected by a 10 tesla magnet that produces Faraday's induction effect which proves gravity is not an electromagnetic phenomenon.




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§ 25. Modern Astronomy






Modern astronomers use parallax to determine the distance to a star. The change in the position of a star is measured after an observer on the earth propagates the distance of the earth's orbital diameter (six months). The earth's orbital diameter is used as the reference distance where the parallax method is dependent on the motion of a star after the earth propagates to the position L that forms a path KL equal to the distance of the earth's orbital diameter KL but the stellar universe is stationary since the shapes of the constellations that constitute the stellar universe do not change, as time increases. The change in the position of a distance star is caused by the earth's daily and yearly motions affect upon the observer's measurement. The change in the position of any star results in the rotational shift of all of the stars' positions in the entire stellar universe that rotation is centered around the North Star; consequently, the Cepheid variable method is used to determine the distance to a 250 ly star but astronomers are using the Hubble that has a resolution of .1 arcsec yet to view the varying intensity of a 250 ly star requires an extrapolated resolution of less than 1 x 10-10 arcsec which is nine orders of magnitude less than the .1 arcsec resolution power of the Hubble. In addition, the image of the Eagle Nebula obtained using the Spitzer space telescope was arbitrarily created using computer induced images since the image of the Eagle Nebula represents a celestial gas cloud (fig 13) but the vacuum of celestial universe cannot support the structure of a gas cloud since the vacuum of celestial space would immediately dissipate a gas. Example, a cumulus cloud is formed by the earth's atmosphere that is supporting the water vapor that constitutes a cumulus cloud. Without an atmosphere it would not be physical possible to form a celestial cloud that is depicted in the photographs of the Eagle Nebula. There are no celestial gas clouds in our solar system yet astronomers are suggesting that a gas cloud constitutes the Eagle Nebula. Furthermore, Chilean astronomers state that a planet has been discovered orbiting the star Proxima Centauri that is 4.22 light years from the earth using the La Silla telescope (Escude, p. 408–409) but the Hubble space telescope that is more powerful than the La Silla telescope (because of the earth's atmosphere) cannot view the lunar lander that is located on the surface of the moon. For the Hubble telescope to view an object on the surface of the moon would require an illuminated object with a diameter of 200 meters. Using a proportionality, for the Hubble to detect a planet 4.22 light years from the earth would require an illuminated planet with a diameter equal to more than ten times the orbital diameter of our solar system! Consequently, Chilean astronomers use the dimming that occurs when a planet, 4.22 light years from the earth, moves between the star Proxima Centauri and the La Silla telescope to justify the existence of a distance planet but if the intensity of a 4.22 ly planet cannot be determined using a telescope then the change in the intensity of a 4.22 ly star caused by the described planet's area affecting the intensity of a star also cannot be detected. The variation of the intensity of a 4.22 light year star is caused by the thermodynamic variations of the earth's atmosphere which cause a star to twinkle that represent the variation of a star's intensity. Furthermore, the Institute of Astronomy in Cambridge detected a blackhole of the Perseus Clustera that is 250 million light years from the earth using the Chandra X-ray space telescope but X-rays cannot be focused which would make it extremely difficult to detect stellar X-rays produced by a 250 million light year blackhole. Also, the detection of a blackhole requires the view of stars that surround the blackbody hole but to detect the stars that surround a 250 million light year blackhole would require a telescopic resolution power of an extrapolated value of 1 x 10-16 arcsec yet the Hubble has a meager comparative resolution power of .1 arsec which is separated by the astounding value of more than 16 orders of magnitude.




The Big Bang expansion theory is justified using the symmetry of a spiral galaxy but the image of a spiral galaxy was arbitrarily created. Example, the image of the Milky Way spiral galaxy that contains the sun and the earth would require that the photographer be many millions of light years away from the earth. Also, the density of the stars of the celestial universe viewed from all direction from the earth is constant. Examining the background stellar universe that constitutes a planisphere, the density of the stars that compose the stellar universe represented with the planisphere is constant yet the image of the Milky Way represents a non-consistent arrangement of stars since the image of the Milky Way galaxy represents a higher density of stars at the center of the Milky Way and along the tentacles of the Milky Way which conflicts with the constant density of stars of the celestial universe viewed from the earth or depicted by a planisphere. If the earth was part of the Milky Way spiral galaxy then the star of the stellar universe would not be constant yet from the earth, the stars of the stellar universe have a constant density in all directions which proves that the hypothesis that the earth is part of the Milky Way spiral galaxy is physically invalid. Furthermore, the red shift is used to justify the Big Bang expansion theory but every star in the universe at different times and positions forms both red and blue shifts since the stellar universe is stationary. When the observer on the surface of the earth propagates towards a star (caused by the earth's daily and yearly motions) the blue shift is produced and when the observer is propagating away from the star, the red shift is observed. The stellar red and blue shifts are formed by the earth's daily and yearly motions effect on the observer viewing the stars of a stationary celestial universe which contradicts the Big Bang theory that is based on a celestial universe that is expanding.




The Caltech-MIT lunar laser ranging experiment is described in Smullin paper "Optical Echoes form the Moon" (1962). The Caltech-MIT lunar reflector experiment is an attempt at measuring the distance from the earth to the moon using a mirrored reflector that was install on the surface of the moon during the Apollo 11 mission. At the earth, a 2.3 W laser is pointed at the lunar reflector that is 238,900 miles from the earth. The laser beam is reflected by the lunar reflector then detected by the Lick observatory but the Hubble space telescope that is more powerful than the Lick telescope requires an illuminated object that has a diameter of 200 meters to form a detectable intensity yet the Caltech-MIT lunar reflector has a surface area of approximately one square meter. In addition, the 2.3 W laser beam, after propagating a distance of 238,900 miles, to the moon, would disperse and forms a beam diameter of approximately 4 miles. An approximately one inch diameter 2.3 W laser beam expands to a diameter of 253,440 inches (4 mile) after propagating 238,900 miles to the moon. Using the said values an expansion proportionality is formed using the one inch diameter of the 2.3 W laser beam that originates at the surface of the earth compared to the 4 mile diameter expansion, of the laser beam's diameter, at the moon which is represented with the following expansion ratio: R = 253,440/1. Using the derived expansion ratio the four mile radius laser beam after being hypothetically reflected at the surface of the moon would form a beam diameter of approximately one million miles after propagating back to the earth which proves the Caltech-MIT lunar reflector experiment is a scientific hoax. The Caltech and MIT scientists are assuming that the laser beam's intensity does not disperse after propagating to the earth and back.

It is not physically possible to land the Apollo 11 lunar lander onto the surface of the moon. The Surveyor 3 probe was initially sent to the surface of the moon to test for the possibility of landing on the moon yet the photograph of the Surveyor 3 lunar probe from the subsequent Apollo 12 mission (fig 23) does not include a shock zone formed by the thrust of the Surveyor probe's rocket engine. The Surveyor engine's thrust is producing a flame that ambient temperature is over 3000o C which results in a 100 lb rocket thrust tof the Vernier rocket engine which is reducing the speed of the descending Surveyor probe to allow the probe to land on the surface of the moon without disintegrating upon impact; consequently, the Surveyor rocket thrust would result in a shock zone beneath the Surveyor that would have cleared a small area (d = 3 m) of the fine particle matter that layers the surface of the moon but the fine lunar particular matter still remains undisturbed underneath the exhaust nozzle in the Surveyor 3 photograph which suggests that the Lunar Surveyor probe photograph was staged. NASA's explanation is that the Surveyor rocket engine cut off 4.3 meters before landing on the surface of the moon but the Surveyor 3 probe does not contain the amount of fuel required in landing on the surface of the moon. Using the approximation that the amount of fuel required for a rocket to liftoff a payload from the surface of the earth into the earth's orbit is approximately equal to the amount of fuel required in descending a payload from the earth's orbit to the surface of the earth using a rocket engine descent reentry based on the potential energy; consequently, we can use a rocket liftoff payload weight from the surface of the earth to calculate the approximate fuel load required to land on the surface of the moon, using a descent rocket engine, by compensating for the moon's gravity. To liftoff a 100 lb payload from the surface of the earth into orbit would require approximately 10,000 lb of fuel since the TD-2 rocket has a maximum payload weight of 1,000 lb uses 100,000 lb of fuel. Using the moon gravity of .166 g, the 666 lb Surveyor 3 probe without fuel would be equivalent to landing a 100 lb payload onto the surface of the earth from the earth's orbit, using a rocket descent yet the total amount of fuel carried by the Lunar Surveyor 3 probe is 1,600 lb which proves the Lunar Surveyor 3 probe did not land on the surface of the moon. In the descent of the Surveyor probe, after the lander begins to descent to the surface of the moon and achieves a velocity of 550 mph, the Surveyor's rocket engine is activated and fires at full throttle until the Surveyor nears touchdown on the surface of the moon; the thrust of the Vernier rocket engine is 108 lbs; consequently, Surveyor engine does not have the thrust required in landing on the surface of the moon since the 104 lb thrust for 4.8 seconds would not be enough to reduce the reentry velocity, cause by the moon's gravity acting on the Surveyor, sufficient enough to prevent the Surveyor 3 probe from disintegrating upon impact with the surface of the moon which is definitive proof the Surveyor did not land on the surface of the moon. In addition, the Surveyor 3 probe photographs taken during the Apollo 16 mission show boot prints next to the Surveyor 3 probe yet the surface of the moon lacks an atmosphere required in producing the moisture that could form boot prints of the fine particle matter on the surface of the moon. Example, when a person wearing boots walks on dry sand that has been dried in a kiln, an indentation of sand is produced, not a boot printed since the formation of a boot print in sand or the fine particular matter on the surface of the moon would require moisture to support the structure of a boot print. People argue that since talcum powder and flour forms a boot print that the formation of the lunar boot prints is physically possible but talcum powder and flour contain a small amount of water that allows for the formation of a boot print yet the lunar surface lacks moisture required in forming a boot print. In addition, a radio signal cannot be used to communicate with the Surveyor 3 probe because the intensity of a radio signal is dependent on the inverse of the fifth order of the distance I = K/r5. At 50,000 miles (8 x 105 m) from the earth the dispersion of a radio signal would diminish the original intensity of the described radio signal by a factor of 10-25, the strongest radio signal produced on the surface of the earth would be less than the intensity of a cell phone after propagating a distance of 50,000 miles; at 100,000 miles the radio single would disappear yet the moon is located 238,000 miles from the earth. Furthermore, Newton's gravity equation is used in the calculation of the moon's gravity but Cavendish's experiment is used to derive Newton's constant G but Cavendish measured a force of 1.74 x 10-7 N ≃ 2 μg that is 1000 times less than the 1 mg weight measurement uncertainty in 1797; consequently, it is questionable how NASA obtain the .166 g moon gravity since like masses do not physically attract as implied in Newton's gravity equation that is used to calculate the gravity on the surface of the moon. Example, .73 kg and 158 kg masses, separated by 1 cm, located in the international space station do not attract which contradicts Newton's gravity equation. Also, when Newton's gravity equation is used to represented an astronaut with a mass of 50 kg in the international space station that is located approximately 350 miles from the surface of the earth, a gravitational force of F = (G m1 m2)/r2 = (6.7 × 10-11) x (50) x (6 x 1024) / (7 x 106)2 ≃ 400 N is calculated. According to Newton's gravity equation, a 50 kg astronaut in the space station forms a gravitational force of approximately 400 N pointed at the earth which is not experimentally observed since a 50 kg astronaut is weightless in the international space station which proves Newton's gravity equation does not function. Also, a satellite would not be able to orbit the earth according to Newton's gravity equation since a 100 kg satellite that is located 350 miles from the earth's surface is massless yet according to Newton's gravity equation a 100 kg satellite would experience a 800 N force in the direction of the earth which is not experimentally observed since the describe 100 kg satellite is massless. In the descent of the Apollo 11 lunar lander, after the lander begins to descent to the surface of the moon and achieves a velocity of 550 mph, the lander's rocket engine is activated and fires at full throttle until the lander touches down on the surface of the moon; the thrust of the lander's rocket engine is estimated at 10,000 lbs; consequently, the lander does not contain the amount of fuel required to land the lunar lander on the surface of the moon. NASA is assuming a 3,000 thrust can descent the lander on the surface of the moon based on the 18,000 lb of fuel that is contained in the descent stage of the lunar lander. Also, in the Apollo 11 lunar lander descent film, the lunar lander is propagating in the horizontal direction. The reaction control thrusters are located on the accent stage and a thrust from the right control thruster produces a horizontal motion of the lander if the reaction control thrusters are positioned at the center of mass of the lander but during the lander descends the center of mass would vary because of the decrease in the fuel. An off centered right horizontal thrust would cause the lunar lander to tip downward resulting in the spinning and subsequent crash of the lunar lander. In the testing the lunar land’s descent onto the surface of the moon, a Bell Aerosystems Lunar Landing Research Vehicle (LLRV) that main engine is a GE CF-700-2V jet engine is used but the primary engine of the LLRV is a jet yet a jet engine cannot operate in the descent on the surface of the moon since the moon does not have an atmosphere that is required in the functioning of a jet engine. Also, the Apollo 11 lunar lander descent would require more than 300,000 lb of fuel yet the lunar lander only contains 18,000 lb of fuel which proves the lander did not land on the surface of the moon. Furthermore, the Apollo 11 lunar landing photographs do not show a blast zone produced by the rocket engine thrust during the final decent of the lunar lander onto the surface of the moon with the lander's rocket engine operating at full throttle. At the end of the descent the rocket engine's thrust would result in a blast crater beneath the lander and the accumulation of smoke at the surface caused by the push back of the rocket smoke produced by the interaction of the rocket thrust smoke with the moon's surface yet the lunar descent film does not represent the rocket smoke that would be expected. Plus, after the landing, the close up photographs of the Apollo 11 lunar lander's landing pads do not have any lunar particle matter on the landing pads that would be expected after the rocket engine's thrust disturbs the fine particle matter on the surface of the moon beneath the lander. It appears that the lunar lander photographs were staged. People argue that the Apollo 11 lander's rocket engine thrust decreases to 3,000 lb just before the final landing and would not produce a blast crater but the lunar lander does not contain the amount of fuel required in landing onto the surface of the moon. NASA is assuming that a 3,000 thrust can descent the lander onto the surface of the moon based on the 18,000 lb of fuel that is initially contained in the decent stage of the lunar lander. An argument is that since there is no atmosphere on the moon, the surface lunar dust is not disturbed and only the lunar dust that is contacting the rocket exhaust is affected by the rocket thrust but to land on the surface of the moon would require the use of the minimum amount of fuel; consequently, the rocket engine would be terminated at touchdown and the legs of the lander would absorb the remaining force (momentum). The sudden termination of the rocket engine would result in a blast crater forming beneath the lander since the momentum of the fuel (mass) expectorated by the rocket engine is causing the thrust which would result in the disturbance in the fine particle matter on the surface of the moon resulting in the formation of a blast zone. Furthermore, in the Apollo 11 photographs take on the moon, the shadows appear to be created by more than one light source since the shadows in the lunar surface photographs are in different directions yet the sun intensity would only produce a single directional shadow. The variation in the contour of the lunar surface is used to justify the multiple shadow directions but in one Apollo 11 lunar photograph, the objects are forming shadows in different directions and are located on a level surface; consequently, the contour argument cannot be applied. In another argument, the assumption that the earth and the Lunar lander represent the light sources that form the multiple directional shadows but the Sun is the primary source of light on the surface of the moon and is the only source that forms the shadows since the Sun’s intensity is 20 time greater than the reflected intensity off the earth or the lander.

In addition, the ostensible lunar photographs do not include stars since the pattern of the stars would prove that the astronauts were never on the surface of the moon since the extremely intricate and exact pattern of the stars of the celestial universe represent a specific time and position that the photograph was taken which would be extremely difficult to reproduce if the lunar landing photographs were fakes. No photographs were taken of the stars of the stellar universe that included an astronaut on the surface of the moon; in an on camera interview with the Apollo 11 astronaut Neil Armstrong, after the Apollo 11 mission, Mr. Armstrong stated that he did not recall the stars of the celestial universe while on the surface of the moon but one of the most spectacular view from the surface of the moon would be the brilliance and clarity of the stars because there is no atmosphere. NASA justifies the absents of stars in the Apollo photographs using the explanation that the extremely high intensity of reflected light on the surface of the moon prevents the stars from appearing in the Apollo 11 photographs and also the short exposure time prevents the image of the stars to appear in the photographs. Nonetheless, the Apollo 11 mission astronauts appear extremely disturbed in the interview when the question was asked regarding the absents of the stars in the photographs taken on the surface of the moon. Neil Armstrong never gave an on camera interview after his initial interview that included the question regarding why no stars appear in any of the Apollo 11 photographs. In addition, numerous Apollo 11 photographs taken on the surface of the moon clearly contain a cross hair that is beneath the image which suggests that the Apollo 11 photographs were manipulated since all of the cross hairs would be in front of the image since the cross hair are part of a filter that is attach to the camera lens; therefore, a lunar image would appear behind the cross hairs yet in numerous photographs the cross hairs appear behind the lunar image which suggests that the Apollo 11 lunar photographs were manipulated. People argue that the cross hairs are in fact in front of the lunar image and that the distortion is caused by the intensity of the image but in the official NASA lunar photographs, the lunar image is clearly in front of the cross hairs. In addition, NASA justifies the lunar landing using the Caltech-MIT lunar reflector that was placed onto the surface of the moon during the Apollo 11 mission but the Hubble telescope that is more powerful than the LICK telescope cannot view the lunar lander on the surface of the moon yet the LICK telescope is detecting an intensity of the lunar reflector that has an area of approximately one square meter. There would have been absolutely no question regarding the Apollo 11 lunar landing, if NASA left a radio beacon on the surface of the moon and independent sources could verify the origin of the radio signal. The Caltech-MIT lunar reflector experiment is based on a laser beam's intensity that does not disperse after propagating from the moon and back displacing a total distance of 460,000 miles. Furthermore, in the films of an astronaut walking on the surface of the moon shows the placement of the American flag on the surface of the moon but in the film, the flag appears to be flapping similar to a flag blowing in the wind. The film footage shows the American flag that is producing a horizontal waving or flapping motion but the surface of the moon is approximately a vacuum which conflicts with the waving of the flag which would require an atmosphere similar to that on the surface of the earth which proves the Apollo lunar landing and subsequent lunar walks were staged. Also, the lunar landing films are similar to the movie set of the movie "2001 Space Odyssey" that was released in 1968 approximately one year before the Apollo 11 mission; in the 2001 film, the lunar landing appears to be produced by rocket thrust of compressed air. Finally, the lunar lander does not contain the amount of fuel required in landing the lunar lander on the surface of the moon. The total weight of the Apollo 11 lunar lander without fuel is 15,000 lbs. Using the moon gravity of .166 g the lunar lander weight would be comparable to descending a 2,500 lb payload onto the earth's surface from the earth's orbit, using a rocket descent. Using the extrapolation that the fuel load required in descending a payload onto the surface of the earth is equal to the total amount of rocket fuel required to accent a payload into the earth's orbit, based on the potential energy. The Taep'o-dong 2 rocket has a maximum payload weight of 1,000 lbs and uses 114,913 lb of fuel to reach the earth's orbit; consequently, the moon's gravity of .166 g forms the weight of the lunar lander comparable to 2,500 lb landing onto the surface of the earth from the earth's orbit, using a rocket descent; consequently, more than 200,000 lb of fuel would be required to decent the 15,000 lbs lander from the moon's orbit to the surface of the moon which is not physically possible since the total weight of the lunar lander loaded with fuel is 33,000 lb. Plus, in the accent stage of the lunar mission, the mass of the accent module is 4,740 lb and the fuel weight is 5,187 lb. At a gravity of .166 g, the accent module would be equivalent to the weight of 790 lb that is accented from the surface of the earth that would require approximately 100,000 lb of fuel yet the accent module contains only 5,167 lb of fuel. NASA is assuming a 3,000 lb rocket thrust is ascending the ascent module into the moon's orbit based on the amount of fuel contained in the recent module. Furthermore, the accent film shows the ascent module lifting off from the surface of the moon but no flame of the rocket engine or smoke is depicted yet the Titan II rocket that uses Areozine fuel produces an ignition thrust flame and exhaust smoke that trail from the surface of the earth to over 100 miles in the upward direction yet the Apollo 11 accent film does not show the production of smoke cause by the combustion of the fuel with the oxidizer which would result in a smoke trail of the rocket exhaust. People argue that the moon lacks of an atmosphere prevents the formation of smoke from the rocket engine exhaust but the combustion of the Aerozine fuel with the oxidizer produces the smoke of the rocket exhaust not he earth's atmosphere. The Space Shuttle is used to justify that the lunar lander landed on the surface of the moon but the Space Shuttle cannot land on the surface of the moon since the moon does not contain an atmosphere that is required in utilizing the Space Shuttle's wings and the ceramic tiles used to slow the descent velocity of the Space Shuttle when landing on the surface of the earth.

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, wait a sec! Hubble’s resolution is only 0.1 arcseconds, so the lander is way too small to be seen as anything more than a dot, even by Hubble. It would have to be a lot bigger to be seen at all. In fact, if you do the math (set Hubble’s resolution to 0.1 arcseconds and the distance to 400,000 kilometers) you see that Hubble’s resolution on the Moon is about 200 meters! In other words, even a football stadium on the Moon would look like a dot to Hubble." (By Phil Plait | August 12, 2008, Discover online).


"History shows us examples of scientists who were able to make a great leap forward specifically because they were not limited by the data. One of the most dramatic examples occurs at the beginning of the nineteenth century, when we may find a scientist willing to ignore the limitations of numerical facts for the sake of correct idea or theory, even to the extent of saying that certain numbers probably should be made a little bit bigger, others a little smaller, and so on. It was precisely in this way that Dalton proceeded in developing his atomic theory. Some scientists do not like examples of this sort, because they imply a special virtue "fudging" the evidence or "cooking" the data, and they warn us that we must not ever tell our science students that discoveries have been made in this way." (Suppe, p. 300).




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§ 26. Maxwell's Equations





Maxwell's electric curl equation is derived using Faraday's wire loop induction effect represented with the magnetic flux (fig 15),







emf = - ʃʃ (dB/dt)· dA...........................................79







A second wire loop emf equation is used that represents the internal electric field E that forms the wire loop emf,







emf = ʃ E · dl.......................................................80







Equating equations 79 and 80,







ʃ E · dl = - ʃʃ (dB/dt)· dA.......................................81





Using Stokes' theorem (Hecht, p. 649),







ʃ E · dl = - ʃʃ (∇ x E)· dA......................................82







Equating equations 81 and 82,





- ʃʃ(dB/dt)· dA = ʃʃ (∇ x E)· dA.............................83







Maxwell electric curl equation is derived using equation 83,







∇ x E = - dB/dt...................................................84







Maxwell's electric curl equation (equ 84) is derived using equation 80 but the electric field of equation 80 represents Faraday's induction effect that depicts an internal electric field that forms within the conduction wire yet Maxwell's electric curl equation is used to represent an electromagnetic wave structure of light that propagates in the open space outside the conduction wire which proves Maxwell's electric curl equation is physically invalid. In addition, the magnetic flux of Faraday's induction effect is pointing in the direction of the propagation which represents a longitudinal magnetic wave that conflicts with Maxwell's electromagnetic transverse waves, and the dot product of the electric field E with the normal of the area (equ 79 - 82) represents a longitudinal wave; consequently, Maxwell's equations cannot be used to derive the electromagnetic transverse wave equations of light.




........................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................








Maxwell's magnetic curl equation is derived using Ampere's law (Hecht, p. 42),







ʃ B · dl = ui..........................................................85

..





Maxwell electric current (dE/dt), that forms in the space between a varying capacitor (fig 16), is added to Ampere's law,







ʃ B · dl = ʃʃ (J + ε dE/dt) · dA ..............................86







Using Stokes' theorem, on the left side of equation 81 forms (Hecht, p. 649),







ʃ B · dl = ʃʃ (∇ x B) · dA........................................87







Equating equations 86 and 87, using J = 0,







ʃʃ (ε dE/dt)· dA = ʃʃ (∇ x B) · dA............................88







Maxwell's magnetic curl equation is derived using equation 88,







∇ x B = 1/c (dE/dt)..............................................89









Maxwell's magnetic curl equation (equ 89) is derived using Hecht's electric current (dE/dt) , used in equation 86, that forms in the open space between the plates of a varying capacitor which conflicts with Faraday's wire loop induction effect, of equation 80, that electric field only forms within the current wire that forms the wire loop induction emf; consequently, Maxwell's electric and magnetic curl equations (equ 84 & 89) represent to completely different and incompatible induction mechanisms that cannot be used together in the derivation of the electromagnetic wave equations of light. Furthermore, Hecht's electric current (dE/dt) forms in the open space between the plates of a varying capacitor yet Ampere and Faraday induction laws only represents an external magnetic field (Ampere, fig 14, Plate 2); consequently, Hecht's derivation of Maxwell magnetic curl equation using an electric current in Ampere's law is violating Ampere's law.





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§ 27. Electromagnetic Transverse Wave Equations of Light







The electromagnetic transverse wave equations of light are derived using Maxwell's equations,







∇ x E = - dB/dt........................∇ x B = 1/c (dE/dt).....................................90a,b





∇ · E = 0..................................∇ · B = 0...................................................91a,b







Maxwell's curl equations (equ 90a,b) are expanded to form,







dEz/dy - dEy/dz = - dBx/dt...........................................................................92





dEx/dz - dEz/dx = - dBy/dt...........................................................................93





dEy/dx - dEx/dy = - dBz/dt...........................................................................94




...........................................................





dBz/dy - dBy/dz = 1/c (dEx/dt)....................................................................95





dBx/dz - dBz/dx = 1/c (dEy/dt)....................................................................96





dBy/dx - dBx/dy = 1/c (dEz/dt)..................................................... ..............97





The z-direction electric transverse wave equations is derived using equations 92 and 96 that are used to form (Jenkins, p. 410),






dEy/dz = 1/c (dBx/dt)..............................dBx/dz = 1/c (dEy/dt)...................98a,b







Differentiating equation 98a, with the respect to d/dz, and equation 98b with respect to d/dt produces (Condon, p, 1-108),







d2Ey/d2z = 1/c (d2Bx/dtdz)......................d2Bz/dtdz = 1/c (d2Ey/d2t)...........99a,b







Equating equations 99a,b,







d2Ey/d2z = 1/c2 (d2Ey/d2t)...........................................................................100







Differentiating equation 98a, with the respect to d/dt, and equation 98b with respect to d/dz produces ,







d2Ey/dtdz = 1/c (d2Bx/d2t)......................d2Bx/d2z = 1/c (d2Ey/dtdz)...........101a,b







Equating equations 101a,b forms,







d2Bx/d2z = 1/c2 (d2Bx/d2t)..........................................................................102







Equations 100 and 102 are used to derive the z direction electromagnetic transverse wave equations of light (fig 17),







Ey = Eo cos(kz - wt) ĵ ..............................................................................103




Bx = Bo cos(kz -wt) î ................................................................................104










In the derivation of equations 98a,b, 14 of the 18 differential components that constitute Maxwell's equations are eliminated since Maxwell's equations denotes a three dimensional gradient operator that represents a volume (x,y,z) which depicts an longitudinal wave.




.............................................................................................................................................................................................................................







To test the derivation, the z-directional electric and magnetic transverse wave equations of light (equ 103 & 104) are used in equation 98a,







d/dz[Eo cos(kz - wt)] ĵ = - (1/c) d/dt[Bo cos(kz - wt)] î.........................105







Equation 105 forms,







Eo ĵ = Bo î ............................................................................................106







Equation 98a that is used to derive the electromagnetic transverse wave equations of light (equ 103 &104) produces a unite vector catastrophe (equ 106).







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Part B




In an alternative method, the electromagnetic transverse wave equations of light are derived using Maxwell's equations,







∇ x E = - dB/dt...........................∇ x B = 1/c (dE/dt)....................107a,b







∇ · E = 0.....................................∇ · B = 0..................................108a,b







Applying a curl operator to Maxwell's electric curl equation (equ 107a) forms,







∇ x (∇ x E) = - d/dt (∇ x B)..........................................................109







Using equation 108b, in equation 109, then rearranging,







∇ x (∇ x E) = - 1/c (d2E/d2t)......................................................110




....................................................................................................................................







A second equation is derived using the gradient identity (Klein, p. 523),







∇ x (∇ x E) = E(∇ · E) - ∇2 E.................................................111







and ∇ · E = 0 (equ 108a) to form,







∇ x (∇ x E) = ∇2 E...............................................................112







....................................................................................................................................







Equating equations 110 and 112 (Hobson, p. 23),







d2E/d2t - c2 ∇2E = 0...............................................................113







A similar equation is derived for the magnetic field,







d2B/d2t - c2 ∇2B = 0.............................................................114








The electromagnetic wave equations of light (fig 15) are derived using equations 113 and 114,









E = Eo ei(kr - wt) .................................................................115








B = Bo ei(kr - wt) ..................................................................116















The second order gradients ∇2 E and ∇2 B of equations 113 and 114 denotes an electromagnetic longitudinal spherical waves represented with equations 115 and 116.






........................................................................................................................................................








The electromagnetic wave equations (equ 103 & 104) and equ (115 & 116) contain the term (kz - wt) and (kr - wt) . Using k = 2π/λ, and ct = z in kz forms,







kz = (2π/λ)(ct)........................................................................117







Simplifying equation 112 using λf = c and w = 2πf forms,







kz = (2π/λ)(λf)t = (2πf)t = wt.................................................118







rearranging equation 113 forms,







kz - wt = 0..............................................................................119







A similar derivation forms kr - wt = 0 which proves the derivation of the electromagnetic wave equations of light (equ 103 & 104) and equ (115 & 116), using Maxwell's equations, is physically invalid.







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§ 28. Transmission and Reflection Equations







The transmission and reflection equations of light are derived using light waves represented with (Hecht, p. 111),







I = Io cos(k1x - wt) ĵ,...................................................................................120





R = Ro cos(k1x - wt) ĵ,...............................................................................121





T = To cos(-k2x + wt) ĵ,..............................................................................122








The incident (I), transmission (T) and reflection (R) light waves' (equ 120 - 122) interaction at the transmission and reflection surface (fig 18) is represented with,







Io cos(k1x - wt) j + Ro cos(k1x - wt) j = To cos(- k2x + wt) j......................123







Using t = 0 and x = 0 equation 123 forms (Hecht, p. 113), (Klein, p. 570),







Io + Ro = To.............................................................................................124

.




The following equation (Hecht, p. 114),







n1Io - n1Ro = n2To.................................................................................125







and equation 124 are used to derive the transmission and reflection equations,







t = 2n1/ (n1 + n2)....................................................................................126







r = (n2 - n1) / (n1 + n2)............................................................................127







Using an air glass surface, n1 = 1 and n2 = 1.5, equation 125 forms,







Io - Ro = 1.5To.......................................................................................128







The difference of the incident (Io) and reflection (Ro) maximum amplitudes (equ 128), derived using equation 125, forms a value that is greater than the sum (equ 124) which proves the derivation of the transmission and reflection equations of light, using equations 124 and 125, is mathematically invalid.







______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________








The quantum mechanic step potential method is used to derive the transmission and reflection equations (Eisberg, p. 211), (McGervey, p. 102). The interaction of the incident, reflection and transmission light waves at the surface interface (x = 0) is represented with (fig 19),







Ioe-ik1x + Roeik1x = Toe-ik2x ....................................................129







Using x = 0 in equation 129 the following equation is formed,







Io + Ro = To........................................................................130





Differentiating equations 129 with respect to x forms,







k1Io - k1Ro = k2To.............................................................131







Replacing k with n since k is proportional to n equation 131 forms,







n1Io - n1Ro = n2To............................................................132







Equations 131 and 132 are used in the derivation of the transmission and reflection equations.







t = 2n1 / (n1 + n2) ...........................................................133







r = (n2 - n1) / (n1 + n2) ...................................................134







Using n1 = 1 and n2 = 1.5 in equation 132,







Io - Ro = (1.5)To ............................................................135







Using a air/glass interface, the difference of the incident and reflection light waves' maximum amplitudes (equ 135) is greater then the sum (equ 130) which proves the quantum mechanics step potential derivation of the transmission and reflection equations (equ 133 & 134) is mathematically invalid.







______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________










§ 29. Polarization









Hecht represents polarization using two adjacent electric transverse waves on the same axis that phase difference between the two adjacent electric transverse waves is used to represent the structure of linear, elliptical and circular polarized light (Hecht, p. 325-328), (fig 17) but the electric field of the electric transverse waves originate from Maxwell's electromagnetic theory of light that is based on Faraday's induction effect that is not luminous. In addition, the electric field of Faraday's induction effect only forms within the conduction wire yet Maxwell's internal electric field is being used to represent the wave structure used to represent polarization that forms outside Faraday's conduction wire; also, Hecht's electric wave conflicts with Ampere and Faraday laws that only represent an external magnetic field. Plus a transverse wave is formed by the motion of a ether composed of matter yet polarized light propagates in vacuum that is void of matter which proves Hecht's polarization mechanism is physically invalid. In addition, an electric transverse wave is a surface wave that cannot form within a volume since the formation of a transverse wave requires a surface which proves Hecht depiction of linear, elliptical and circular polarized light using electric transverse waves is physically invalid. Furthermore, in Hecht's linear polarization mechanism, non-polarized light is represented with six transverse waves on the same axis (fig 18) that represent all the possible angles of linear polarized light. After non-polarized light interacts with the polarization filter, the polarization filter selects the electric transverse waves that correspond with the angle of the linear polarization filter. A linear polarization filter can have any angle between 0 and 360o depending on the orientation of the polarization filter but a transverse wave is a surface wave that cannot form within a volume. Hecht's is ignoring that a transverse wave is a surface wave that cannot form within a volume and uses six transverse waves on the same axis to depict non-polarized light that represents over 1,000 transverse waves that after interacting with the linear polarization filter forms linear polarized light yet a transverse wave is a surface wave that cannot form within volume which proves Hecht's polarization mechanism is physically invalid.










______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________










§ 30. Aperture Diffraction Effect of Light










The derivation of the rectangular aperture diffraction equation of light is described where the aperture emits electric spherical waves represented with (Hecht, p. 464),







dE = (Eo /r) ei(wt - kr) dS..................................................136








The distances from the points in the aperture (y,z) to the diffraction screen point (Y,Z) is represented with (fig 21),







r = R[1 - (Yy + Zz)/R2].................................................137







Simplifying equation 137, using the binomic expansion, then inserting the result in equation 137, using t = 0, then integrating forms,







E = ʃʃ eik(Yy + Zz)/R dS....................................................138







Equation 138 is used to derive the aperture diffraction intensity equation of light,







I = [(sin A)/A]2 [(sin B)/B]2............................................139







Hecht uses a surface integral to summate the interfering light waves' amplitudes at the diffraction screen in the derivation of the aperture diffraction intensity equation of light but a surface integral can only be used to represent an area represented with the limits of the aperture. Hecht use of the surface integral to summate the interfering light waves amplitudes at the diffraction is violating the definition of a surface integral since the point on the diffraction screen where the light waves' amplitudes are summate are not within the range of the limits of the surface area integral represented with the dimensions of the aperture. Also, Hecht is using the electric light waves' amplitudes at a point (Y, Z) on the diffraction screen to depict the formation of the intensity (energy) of the diffraction effect which represents a light energy that is dependent on the light waves' amplitudes that conflicts with Lenard's photoelectric effect that proves light is composed of particles that energy is dependent on the frequency.



During the diffraction effect, the crests and nodes of the light waves propagate in the forward direction; at a point (Y,Z) on the diffraction screen, the propagating light waves' amplitudes oscillate, forming an average resultant amplitude of zero which eliminates the interference effect. Hecht derives the small aperture diffraction intensity equation of light using t = 0 since propagating light waves eliminate the diffraction pattern but the constant time (t = 0) eliminates the propagation of the light waves. One of the most important physical characteristic of light is eliminated from Hecht's derivation of the aperture diffraction intensity equation of light since propagating light waves eliminate the diffraction pattern.


Hecht derives the small rectangular aperture diffraction intensity equation of light using destructive wave interference where the light waves' amplitudes (energy) are destroyed to form the dark fringes of the diffraction pattern which violates energy conservation. In addition, the formation of the dark fringes of the diffraction pattern would result in a measurable reduction in the total light intensity of the diffraction pattern since the destroyed light waves' amplitudes (intensities) do not contribute to the total light intensity of the diffraction pattern yet more than 80% of the small rectangular diffraction pattern is composed of dark areas which would result in a 60% reduction in the total light intensity of the diffraction pattern yet the total light intensity that enters the small rectangular aperture (dt = 1s) equals the total intensity of the diffraction pattern which proves the aperture diffraction effect of light is not formed by wave interference.





______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________







§ 31. Optic Particle Theory








The wave theory of light is based on an optical ether, composed of matter, yet the wave effects of light form in vacuum that is void of matter. Maxwell's electromagnetic theory of light was introduced since induction forms in vacuum but Faraday's induction effect is not luminous. Newton and Lenard prove light is composed of particles; consequently, the diffraction and polarization effects of light are particle effects. In the gird polarization effect, non-polarized light interacts with a fine wire grid (Δx = 10 μm) forming linear polarized light. I hypothesis that the optic particles that enter the wire grid are aligned along the spaces of the wire grid forming linear polarized light. Furthermore, because of Newton and Lenard experiments diffraction is also a particle effect. In an experiment, when two laser beams' intensities are combine, no diffraction pattern is formed on a diffraction screen which is experimental proof diffraction is not a wave effect. In another experiment, a laser beam that diameter is smaller than the diameter of the aperture, enters the aperture, without contacting the aperture edge, no diffraction effect being formed on a diffraction screen. The interaction of the laser beam's intensity with the aperture edge is an essential component in the aperture diffraction mechanism. I predict that the optic particles that contact the aperture edge activate the aperture edge atoms forming an aperture edge effect that re-directs the optic particles that enter the aperture to only the intensity areas of the diffraction pattern; the scalar energy of the re-directed optic particles forms the intensity fringes of the diffraction pattern (fig 20) without involving an ether, wave interference or an electromagnetic field.




______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________







§ 33. Conclusion







The wave theory of light is based on light waves formed by the motion of an optical ether, composed of matter, yet light propagates in vacuum that is void of matter. Bradley's (1725) stellar aberration is used to justify the existence of the ether but stellar aberration does not alter the fact that light propagates in vacuum that is void of matter. In addition, the change in the position of Bradley's star is caused by the affects of the earth's daily and yearly motions affect upon the stars of a stationary stellar universe since the change in the position of Bradley's star results in the rotational shift of all the stars' positions of the entire stellar universe that rotation is centered around the North Star; also, the constellations that constitute the stars of the stellar universe have not changed shapes in the last 120 years since the advent of photography. Fresnel (1819) describes diffraction using interfering light wave formed by the motion of an elastic fluid (ether) yet diffraction forms in vacuum that is void of matter. Maxwell's (1864) electromagnetic theory of light based on Faraday's induction effect was introduced since Faraday's electromagnetic induction effect forms in vacuum but light propagating in vacuum does not change the fact that Faraday's induction effect is not luminous. Michelson tests for the existence of Fresnel's ether but the result was negative; also, Michelson experiment is unnecessary since vacuum proves the ether does not exist. Lorentz (1899) justifies Maxwell's electromagnetic theory of light by manipulating the coordinate system of Maxwell's equations but altering the coordinate system of Maxwell's equations does not change the fact that Maxwell's equations are derived using Faraday's induction effect that is not luminous and, in the same paper, Lorentz reverses the negative result of Michelson's experiment to justify the existence of Fresnel's ether but vacuum proves Michelson's ether experiment cannot be reversed. Lenard (1899-1902) proves light is composed of particles that conflicts with the continuity of Maxwell's electromagnetic induction field; and Maxwell's expanding electromagnetic field cannot maintain a particle structure of a propagating electromagnetic photon, an electromagnetic field expands during propagation which would eliminate the particle structure of an electromagnetic photon. Planck (1901) and Einstein (1905) attempt to mathematically quantize Maxwell's electromagnetic field using the blackbody radiation effect to derive energy equations that represent the energy of an electromagnetic photon but quantizing Maxwell's electromagnetic field does not change the fact that an expanding electromagnetic field cannot sustain a particle structure of a propagating electromagnetic photon. In addition, Planck's derivation of the energy element (hv) is physically invalid since Planck's constant h contains the unit of the mass (kg) which conflicts with the structure of the massless electromagnetic photons emitted by the blackbody. In Einstein's (1905) electrodynamics (special relativity), Einstein justifies Maxwell's electromagnetic theory of light by manipulating the coordinate system of Maxwell's equations but altering the coordinate system of Maxwell's equations does not change the fact that Maxwell's equations are derived using Faraday's induction effect that is not luminous. Einstein (1910) describes an electromagnetic ether but Maxwell's electromagnetic field originates from Faraday's induction effect that is not luminous. Plus, Maxwell's electromagnetic field is propagating at the velocity of light which conflicts with the wave theory of light that is based on a stationary ether composed of matter since Huygens' ether particles that posses a hardness that produces a springiness remain stationary after the light wave propagates through the ether. In Einstein's paper "Special and General Relativity" (1917), Einstein uses the reversal of Michelson-Morley experiment based on Lorentz's theory to justifying the existence of Fresnel's ether (Einstein6, § 16) but vacuum proves that Michelson-Morley ether experiment cannot be reversed; in the same paper, Einstein uses the inertial mass (Eo/c2) to structurally unify Maxwell's electromagnetic field with matter but Einstein's inertial mass (m = Eo/c2) is massless since Eo represents the energy of an electromagnetic photon. Feynman's quantum electrodynamics describes a wave-particle electromagnetic photon but Feynman's electromagnetic field originates from Maxwell's theory that is based on Faraday's induction effect that is not luminous and Maxwell's expanding electromagnetic field cannot maintain a particle structure of a propagating QED photon. In string theory, an oscillating string forms a transverse wave that is used to justify the existence of a transverse electromagnetic photon but an oscillating string is composed of matter which conflicts with the structure of a massless electromagnetic photon.







Quantum mechanics, quantum electrodynamics, string theory, quantum field theory, quantum chromodynamics, plasma physics, condense matter physics, and particle physics use the gauge transformation that is based on Maxwell's equations but representing Maxwell's equations with a gauge potential does not change the fact that Maxwell's equations are derived using Faraday's induction effect that is not luminous nor can the potential of Maxwell's massless and expanding electromagnetic induction field represent the particle structure of an atom, ion, nuclei, neutron, proton, electron or subatomic particles that have a mass. Quantum mechanics is based on Planck's (1901) blackbody quantization of Maxwell's electromagnetic field but a massless and expanding electromagnetic field cannot be used to represent a particle structure of a subatomic particle, electron, proton, neutron, nuclei, atom, or molecule that have a mass. Also, Planck's derivation of the energy element (hv) is invalid since Planck's constant h = 6.6 × 10-34 m2 kg/s contains the units of the mass (kg) which conflicts with the structure of a massless electromagnetic photon emitted by the blackbody. Einstein (1905) uses the inertial mass (L/V2) to structurally unify Maxwell's electromagnetic field with matter, using the inertial mass (m) but Einstein's inertial mass (m = L/V2) is massless since L represents the energy of an electromagnetic photon. Schrodinger's electron probability wave is used to justify wave interference but an electron position probability represents an uncertainty of an atomic electron[s] position and does not represent a physical structure yet the probability waves are used to construction of the quantum mechanics atomic orbitals that is used to represent the structure of an atom which is subterfuge. In particle physics, the existence of subatomic particles is justified using the curved path of the liquid hydrogen ionization bubble tracks that are used to calculate the mass of a subatomic particle. An accelerated proton beam is incident to an external metallic target that collision produces subatomic particles which propagate through the steel enclosure (more than an quarter inch thick) of the bubble chamber to form liquid hydrogen bubble tracks but subatomic particles that have a mass cannot propagate through the bubble chamber without producing a hole in the steel enclosure of the bubble chamber and causing an explosion of the liquid hydrogen. Rutherford's gold foil experiment is used to justify subatomic particles propagating through the steel enclosure of the bubble chamber but Rutherford's beta particles cannot penetrate a quarter inch thick steel plate, and alpha particles can be shielded with a sheet of paper. X-rays and gamma rays propagates through steel but X-rays and gamma rays are massless. Muons that are produced by the atmospheric decay of cosmic rays and the particle physics experiment are used to justify subatomic particles penetrating the steel enclosure of the bubble chamber but a muon is 200 times more massive than an electron yet an electron beam of an ach welder can cut and weld steel. Muons propagating through the steel enclosure of the bubble chamber would result in the formation of a hole in the steel enclosure of the bubble chamber since matter propagating through matter produces a hole which would result in the explosion of the liquid hydrogen. The detection of cosmic rays by the Soudan muon detector that is located at the bottom of a 1,800 meter deep mine shaft is used to justify subatomic particle propagating through the steel enclosure of the bubble chamber but a muon that is 200 times more massive than an electron; consequently, it is unlikely that muons propagate through 1,800 meters of bedrock. It is more likely that the Soudan muon detector is detecting the decay of radioactive isotopes that exists at the bottom of the Soudan mine shaft. In gravitational physics, Weber experimentally detected a gravity wave with the frequency of 1662 Hz using the acoustical vibration of a 750 pound aluminum beam detector yet the vacuum of celestial space does not transmit sound waves. Wheeler describes electromagnetic gravitational waves that Thorne and Ohanian state propagate at the velocity of light conflicts with Weber's gravity waves that have the frequency of sound and would propagate at the velocity of sound. The European pulsar timing array (EPTA) uses an array of radio telescopes to detect stellar gravity waves that have the frequency of 10-9 Hz which is not in the range of radio wave frequencies. The Caltech-MIT laser interferometer gravitational-wave observatory (LIGO) detected celestial gravity waves that have frequencies between 35 to 250 Hz which produce acoustical chirps that vibrate the armature of a laser interferometer that forms the signal produced by the celestial gravity waves but the LIGO gravity waves represent the frequency of sound that cannot propagate in vacuum nor do sound wave propagate at the velocity of light.



Modern astronomers use parallax to determine the distance to a star. The earth's orbital diameter is used as the reference distance; a change in the position of a star, after an observer on the surface of the earth propagates to the position L, where KL represents the distance of the earth's orbital diameter, is used in the calculation of the distance to a star but since the advent of photography, the celestial universe has remained stationary. The shapes of the constellations that constitute the stellar universe represented with a planisphere have not changed shapes in the last 120 years. The change in the position of a distance star is caused by the affects of the earth's daily and yearly motions upon a stationary celestial universe since the change in the position of a single star results in the rotational shift of all the stars' positions in the entire stellar universe that rotation is centered around the North Star. In addition, the photograph of the 7,000 ly Eagle Nebula (fig 13) using the Spitzer telescope is created using computer imaginary since the photograph of the Eagle Nebula represents a celestial gas cloud yet the vacuum of celestial space cannot maintain the structure of a gas cloud represented in the photograph of the Eagle Nebula for more than a couple of minutes. Example, a noctilucent cloud formed by the earth's atmosphere that is supporting the water vapor that constitutes a noctilucent cloud. A stellar gas cloud in the vacuum of celestial space would immediately dissipate after being introduced to a vacuum. There are no celestial gas clouds that exists in the stellar space of our solar system. The celestial gas cloud of the Eagle Nebula was fictional created using a computer algorithm that was used to create the fictitious photographic images of the Eagle Nebula. Also, the Eagle Nebula is viewed using the Spitzer telescope but the Spitzer UV telescope has a maximum resolution of 2 acrsec. The Hubble is ten times more powerful than the Spitzer. More than 10,000 stars form the Eagle Nebula but to view a single star of the Eagle Nebula would require a resolution of approximately .0001 arcsec which proves the Eagle Nebula photographs are fake. Furthermore, Chilean astronomers discovered a planet orbiting the star Proxima Centauri using the La Silla telescope (Escude, p. 408–409) based on the dimming that occurs when a planet 4.22 ly from the earth moves between the star Proxima Centauri and the La Silla telescope but the variation of the intensity of a distance star is within the thermodynamic variations of the earth's atmosphere.



The wave theory of light is based on an optical ether, composed of matter, yet the propagation, diffraction and polarization effects of light form in vacuum that is void of matter. Minkowski (1908) and Einstein (1910) describe an electromagnetic ether but Maxwell's electromagnetic field originates from Faraday's induction effect that is not luminous and Maxwell's electromagnetic field that is propagating at the velocity of light conflicts with Huygens' ether that remains stationary after the light wave energy propagates through the ether. Furthermore, Newton and Lenard proves light is composed of particles. In an experiment, a laser beam that diameter is smaller than the diameter of a small circular aperture, enters the aperture, without the laser beam's intensity contacting the aperture edge which results in no diffraction effect being formed on a diffraction screen. The interaction of the laser beam's intensity with the aperture edge is an essential component in the aperture diffraction mechanism. I predict that the optic particles that contact the aperture edge activate the aperture edge atoms forming an aperture edge effect that re-directs the optic particles that enter a small aperture to only the intensity areas of the diffraction pattern; the scalar energy of the re-directed optic particles forms the intensity of the diffraction pattern (fig 20) without involving an optical ether, wave interference or Maxwell's electromagnetic field.





___________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________







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