Joe Bruno wrote:
> On Friday, March 18, 2016 at 1:46:11 PM UTC-7, Smiler wrote:
>> On Fri, 18 Mar 2016 01:28:21 -0700, Joe Bruno wrote:
>>
>>> On Friday, March 18, 2016 at 12:36:38 AM UTC-7, hypatiab7 wrote:
>>
>> <snip>
>>
>>>> When you get down to the basics, most religions are the same.
>>>
>>> Why do they all use different books?
>>
>> So the Torah isn't very similar to the OT and also the Koran isn't a
>> version of it too?
>> So much for your 'different books'.
>>
> The Torah is part of the OT.
> Obviously, you never read it or the Koran.
The Torah, or the Pentateuch, is the central reference of the religious
Judaic tradition. It has a range of meanings. It can most specifically mean
the first five books of the twenty-four books of the Tanakh, and it usually
includes the rabbinic commentaries. The term Torah means instruction and
offers a way of life for those who follow it; it can mean the continued
narrative from Genesis to the end of the Tanakh, and it can even mean the
totality of Jewish teaching, culture and practice. Common to all these
meanings, Torah consists of the foundational narrative of the Jews: their
call into being by God, their trials and tribulations, and their covenant
with their God, which involves following a way of life embodied in a set of
moral and religious obligations and civil laws .
In rabbinic literature the word "Torah" denotes both the five books, Torah
Shebichtav, and an Oral Torah, Torah Shebe'al Peh . The Oral Torah consists
of interpretations and amplifications which according to rabbinic tradition
have been handed down from generation to generation and are now embodied in
the Talmud and Midrash.
According to rabbinic tradition, all of the teachings found in the Torah,
both written and oral, were given by God through Moses, a prophet, some of
them at Mount Sinai and others at the Tabernacle, and all the teachings were
written down by Moses, which resulted in the Torah we have today. According
to a Midrash, the Torah was created prior to the creation of the world, and
was used as the blueprint for Creation. The majority of Biblical scholars
believe that the written books were a product of the Babylonian exilic
period, based on earlier written and oral traditions, and that it was
completed by the Persian period . However, it is worth noting that the 2004
discovery of fragments of the Hebrew Bible at Ketef Hinnom dating to the 7th
century BCE, and thus to before the Babylonian captivity, suggests that at
least some elements of the Torah were current before the Babylonian exile.
Traditionally, the words of the Torah are written on a scroll by a sofer on
parchment in Hebrew. A Torah portion is read publicly at least once every
three days, in the halachically prescribed tune, in the presence of a
congregation. Reading the Torah publicly is one of the bases for Jewish
communal life.
Meaning and names
The word "Torah" in Hebrew is derived from the root ירה, which in the hif'il
conjugation means "to guide/teach" . The meaning of the word is therefore
"teaching", "doctrine", or "instruction"; the commonly accepted "law" gives
a wrong impression. Other translational contexts in the English language
include custom, theory, guidance, or system.
The term "Torah" is used in the general sense to include both Rabbinic
Judaism's written law and oral law, serving to encompass the entire spectrum
of authoritative Jewish religious teachings throughout history, including
the Mishnah, the Talmud, the Midrash and more, and the inaccurate rendering
of "Torah" as "Law" may be an obstacle to understanding the ideal that is
summed up in the term talmud torah .
Alternative names
Christian scholars usually refer to the first five books of the Hebrew Bible
as the "Pentateuch", a term first used in the Hellenistic Judaism of
Alexandria, meaning five books, or as the Law, or Law of Moses.
Contents
The Torah starts from the beginning of God's creating the world, through the
beginnings of the people of Israel, their descent into Egypt, and the giving
of the Torah at Mt. Sinai. It ends with the death of Moses, just before the
people of Israel cross to the promised land of Canaan. Interspersed in the
narrative are the specific teachings given explicitly or implicitly
embedded in the narrative .
The Hebrew names for the books of the Torah are derived from their
respective incipits; the common English names for the books are derived from
the Greek Septuagint and reflect the essential theme of each book:
Genesis: "origin"
Exodus: "going out"
Leviticus: "relating to the Levites"
Numbers: numbering of the Israelites
Deuteronomy: "second law"
Genesis
Genesis begins with the so-called "primeval history", the story of the
world's beginnings and the descent from Adam. This is followed by the story
of the three patriarchs, Joseph and the four matriarchs . God gives to the
patriarchs a promise of the land of Canaan, but at the end of Genesis the
sons of Jacob end up leaving Canaan for Egypt due to a regional famine. They
had heard that there was a grain storage and distribution facility in Egypt.
Exodus
Exodus begins the story of God's revelation to his people of Israel through
Moses, who leads them out of Egypt to Mount Sinai. There the people accept
the covenant with God, agreeing to be his people and abide by his holy Law,
in return for his agreeing to be their God, and protect and defend them from
their enemies, and provide for and prosper them . Moses receives the Torah
from God, and teaches His laws and Covenant to the people of Israel. It
also talks about the first violation of the covenant when the Golden Calf
was constructed . Exodus includes the instructions on building the
Tabernacle and concludes with its actual construction .
Leviticus
Leviticus begins with instructions to the Israelites on how to use the
Tabernacle, which they had just built . This is followed by rules of clean
and unclean, which includes the laws of slaughter and animals permissible to
eat, the Day of Atonement, and various moral and ritual laws sometimes
called the Holiness Code . Leviticus 26 provides a detailed list of rewards
for following God's commandments and a detailed list of punishments for not
following them.
Numbers
Numbers tells how Israel consolidated itself as a community at Sinai, set
out from Sinai to move towards Canaan and spied out the land . Because of
unbelief at various points, but especially at Kadesh Barnea, the Israelites
were condemned to wander for forty years in the desert in the vicinity of
Kadesh instead of immediately entering the Promised Land. Even Moses sins
and is told he would not live to enter the land . At the end of Numbers
Israel moves from Kadesh to the plains of Moab opposite Jericho, ready to
enter the Promised Land.
Deuteronomy
Deuteronomy is a series of speeches by Moses on the plains of Moab opposite
Jericho. Also referred to as Mishneh Torah in Hebrew the essential gist of
the entire book is a rebuke to the Children of Israel to not worship
idolatry, to not follow in the ways of Cana'an, and to cleave to God. Moses
proclaims the Law, gives instruction concerning covenant renewal at Shechem
and gives Israel new laws . At the end of the book Moses is allowed to see
the promised land from a mountain, and then dies. The text emphasises that
no one knows where Moses was finally buried . Knowing that he was nearing
the end of his life, Moses had appointed Joshua his successor, bequeathing
to him the mantle of leadership. Soon afterwards Israel begins the conquest
of Canaan.
Authorship
Jewish tradition as expressed in the commentary of Rashi, Deuteronomy 34:5
states: The Talmud holds that the Torah was written by Moses, with the
exception of the last eight verses of Deuteronomy, being written by Joshua
describing his death and burial. Alternatively, Rashi quotes from the Talmud
that "God spoke them, and Moses wrote them with tears. The Mishnah includes
the divine origin of the Torah as an essential tenet of Judaism. The modern
scholarly consensus is that the Torah has multiple authors, known as the
Documentary hypothesis, and that its composition took place over centuries.
This contemporary common hypothesis among biblical scholars states that the
first major comprehensive draft of the Pentateuch was composed in the late
7th or the 6th century BC, and that this was later expanded by the addition
of various narratives and laws into a work very like the one existing
today.
"The consensus of scholarship is that the stories are taken from four
different written sources and that these were brought together over the
course of time to form the first five books of the Bible as a composite
work. The sources are known as J, the Jahwist source, E, the Elohist source,
P, the priestly source, and D, the Deuteronomist source. ... Thus the
Pentateuch comprises material taken from six centuries of human history,
which has been put together to give a comprehensive picture of the creation
of the world and of God's dealings with his peoples, specifically with the
people of Israel." .
Torah and Judaism
Rabbinic writings offer various ideas on when the Torah was composed. The
revelation to Moses at Mount Sinai is considered by most to be the
revelatory event. According to the tradition of the Orthodox rabbis, this
occurred in 1312 BCE;.
The Talmud presents two opinions as to how exactly the Torah was written
down by Moses. One opinion holds that it was written by Moses gradually as
it was dictated to him, and finished it close to his death, and the other
opinion holds that Moses wrote the complete Torah in one writing close to
his death, based on what was dictated to him over the years.
The Talmud says that the last eight verses of the Torah that discuss the
death and burial of Moses could not have been written by Moses, as writing
it would have been a lie, and that they were written after his death by
Joshua. Abraham ibn Ezra and Joseph Bonfils observed that phrases in those
verses present information that people should only have known after the time
of Moses. Ibn Ezra hinted, and Bonfils explicitly stated, that Joshua wrote
these verses many years after the death of Moses. Other commentators do not
accept this position and maintain that although Moses did not write those
eight verses it was nonetheless dictated to him and that Joshua wrote it
based on instructions left by Moses, and that the Torah often describes
future events, some of which have yet to occur.
The Talmud says that God dictated four books of the Torah, but that Moses
wrote Deuteronomy in his own words .
All classical rabbinic views hold that the Torah was entirely Mosaic and of
divine origin. Present-day Reform and Liberal Jewish movements all reject
Mosaic authorship, as well as most shades of Conservative Judaism.
Ritual use
Torah reading is a Jewish religious ritual that involves the public reading
of a set of passages from a Torah scroll. The term often refers to the
entire ceremony of removing the Torah scroll from the ark, chanting the
appropriate excerpt with traditional cantillation, and returning the scroll
to the ark. It is distinct from academic Torah study.
Regular public reading of the Torah was introduced by Ezra the Scribe after
the return of the Jewish people from the Babylonian captivity, as described
in the Book of Nehemiah. In the modern era, adherents of Orthodox Judaism
practice Torah reading according to a set procedure they believe has
remained unchanged in the two thousand years since the destruction of the
Temple in Jerusalem . In the 19th and 20th centuries CE, new movements such
as Reform Judaism and Conservative Judaism have made adaptations to the
practice of Torah reading, but the basic pattern of Torah reading has
usually remained the same:
As a part of the morning prayer services on certain days of the week, fast
days and holidays, as well as part of the afternoon prayer services of
Shabbat, Yom Kippur and fast days, a section of the Pentateuch is read from
a Torah scroll. On Shabbat mornings, a weekly section is read, selected so
that the entire Pentateuch is read consecutively each year.The division of
parashot found in the modern-day Torah scrolls of all Jewish communities is
based upon the systematic list provided by Maimonides in Mishneh Torah, Laws
of Tefillin, Mezuzah and Torah Scrolls, chapter 8. Maimonides based his
division of the parashot for the Torah on the Aleppo Codex. Conservative and
Reform synagogues may read parashot on a triennial rather than annual
schedule,, On Saturday afternoons, Mondays, and Thursdays, the beginning
of the following Saturday's portion is read. On Jewish holidays, the
beginnings of each month, and fast days, special sections connected to the
day are read.
Jews observe an annual holiday, Simchat Torah, to celebrate the completion
and new start of the year's cycle of readings.
Torah scrolls are often dressed with a sash, a special Torah cover, various
ornaments and a Keter, although such customs vary among synagogues.
Congregants traditionally stand in respect when the Torah is brought out of
the ark to be read, while it is being carried, and lifted, and likewise
while it is returned to the ark, although they may sit during the reading
itself.
Biblical law
The Torah contains narratives, statements of law, and statements of ethics.
Collectively these laws, usually called biblical law or commandments, are
sometimes referred to as the Law of Moses, Mosaic Law, or Sinaitic Law.
The Oral Torah
Rabbinic tradition holds that Moses learned the whole Torah while he lived
on Mount Sinai for 40 days and nights and both the oral and the written
Torah were transmitted in parallel with each other. Where the Torah leaves
words and concepts undefined, and mentions procedures without explanation or
instructions, the reader is required to seek out the missing details from
supplemental sources known as the oral law or oral Torah. Some of the
Torah's most prominent commandments needing further explanation are:
Tefillin: As indicated in Deuteronomy 6:8 among other places, tefillin are
to be placed on the arm and on the head between the eyes. However, there are
no details provided regarding what tefillin are or how they are to be
constructed.
Kashrut: As indicated in Exodus 23:19 among other places, a young goat may
not be boiled in its mother's milk. In addition to numerous other problems
with understanding the ambiguous nature of this law, there are no
vowelization characters in the Torah; they are provided by the oral
tradition. This is particularly relevant to this law, as the Hebrew word for
milk is identical to the word for animal fat when vowels are absent.
Without the oral tradition, it is not known whether the violation is in
mixing meat with milk or with fat.
Shabbat laws: With the severity of Sabbath violation, namely the death
penalty, one would assume that direction would be provided as to how exactly
such a serious and core commandment should be upheld. However, most
information regarding the rules and traditions of Shabbat are dictated in
the Talmud and other books deriving from Jewish oral law.
According to classical rabbinic texts this parallel set of material was
originally transmitted to Moses at Sinai, and then from Moses to Israel. At
that time it was forbidden to write and publish the oral law, as any writing
would be incomplete and subject to misinterpretation and abuse.
However, after exile, dispersion and persecution, this tradition was lifted
when it became apparent that in writing was the only way to ensure that the
Oral Law could be preserved. After many years of effort by a great number of
tannaim, the oral tradition was written down around 200 CE by Rabbi Judah
haNasi, who took up the compilation of a nominally written version of the
Oral Law, the Mishnah . Other oral traditions from the same time period not
entered into the Mishnah were recorded as "Baraitot", and the Tosefta. Other
traditions were written down as Midrashim.
After continued persecution more of the oral law was committed to writing. A
great many more lessons, lectures and traditions only alluded to in the few
hundred pages of Mishnah, became the thousands of pages now called the
Gemara. Gemara is written in Aramaic, having been compiled in Babylon. The
Mishnah and Gemara together are called the Talmud. The Rabbis in Israel also
collected their traditions and compiled them into the Jerusalem Talmud.
Since the greater number of Rabbis lived in Babylon, the Babylonian Talmud
has precedence should the two be in conflict.
Orthodox and Conservative branches of Judaism accept these texts as the
basis for all subsequent halakha and codes of Jewish law, which are held to
be normative. Reform and Reconstructionist Judaism deny that these texts, or
the Torah itself for that matter, may be used for determining normative law
but accept them as the authentic and only Jewish version for understanding
the Torah and its development throughout history. Humanistic Judaism holds
that the Torah is a historical, political, and sociological text, but does
not believe that every word of the Torah is true, or even morally correct.
Humanistic Judaism is willing to question the Torah and to disagree with it,
believing that the entire Jewish experience, not just the Torah, should be
the source for Jewish behavior and ethics.
Divine significance of letters, Jewish mysticism
Kabbalists hold that not only do the words of Torah give a divine message,
but they also indicate a far greater message that extends beyond them. Thus
they hold that even as small a mark as a kotzo shel yod, the serif of the
Hebrew letter yod, the smallest letter, or decorative markings, or repeated
words, were put there by God to teach scores of lessons. This is regardless
of whether that yod appears in the phrase "I am the Lord thy God" or
whether it appears in "And God spoke unto Moses saying" . In a similar vein,
Rabbi Akiva, is said to have learned a new law from every et in the Torah ;
the word et is meaningless by itself, and serves only to mark the direct
object. In other words, the Orthodox belief is that even apparently
contextual text "And God spoke unto Moses saying ..." is no less important
than the actual statement.
One kabbalistic interpretation is that the Torah constitutes one long name
of God, and that it was broken up into words so that human minds can
understand it. While this is effective since it accords with our human
reason, it is not the only way that the text can be broken up.
Production and use of a Torah scroll
Manuscript Torah scrolls are still used, and still scribed, for ritual
purposes ; this is called a Sefer Torah . They are written using a
painstakingly careful methodology by highly qualified scribes. This has
resulted in what is, according to B. Barry Levy, "The popular assumption
that no changes were ever introduced into copies of the Bible during
rabbinic times." However, he writes that this "simply does not accord with
the facts." It is believed that every word, or marking, has divine meaning,
and that not one part may be inadvertently changed lest it lead to error.
The fidelity of the Hebrew text of the Tanakh, and the Torah in particular,
is considered paramount, down to the last letter: translations or
transcriptions are frowned upon for formal service use, and transcribing is
done with painstaking care. An error of a single letter, ornamentation, or
symbol of the 304,805 stylized letters that make up the Hebrew Torah text
renders a Torah scroll unfit for use, hence a special skill is required and
a scroll takes considerable time to write and check.
According to Jewish law, a sefer Torah is a copy of the formal Hebrew text
handwritten on gevil or qlaf by using a quill dipped in ink. Written
entirely in Hebrew, a sefer Torah contains 304,805 letters, all of which
must be duplicated precisely by a trained sofer, an effort that may take as
long as approximately one and a half years. Most modern Sifrei Torah are
written with forty-two lines of text per column, and very strict rules about
the position and appearance of the Hebrew letters are observed. See for
example the Mishna Berura on the subject. Any of several Hebrew scripts may
be used, most of which are fairly ornate and exacting.
The completion of the sefer Torah is a cause for great celebration, and it
is a Mitzvah for every Jew to either write or have written for him a Sefer
Torah. Torah scrolls are stored in the holiest part of the synagogue in the
Ark known as the "Holy Ark" Aron in Hebrew means "cupboard" or "closet",
and kodesh is derived from "kadosh", or "holy".
Torah translations
Aramaic
The Book of Ezra refers to translations and commentaries of the Hebrew text
into Aramaic, the more commonly understood language of the time. These
translations would seem to date to the 6th century BCE. The Aramaic term for
translation is Targum. The Encyclopedia Judaica has: At an early period, it
was customary to translate the Hebrew text into the vernacular at the time
of the reading . The targum was done by a special synagogue official,
called the meturgeman ... Eventually, the practice of translating into the
vernacular was discontinued.
However, there is no suggestion that these translations had been written
down as early as this. There are suggestions that the Targum was written
down at an early date, although for private use only. The official
recognition of a written Targum and the final redaction of its text,
however, belong to the post-Talmudic period, thus not earlier than the fifth
century C.E.
Greek
One of the earliest known translations of the first five books of Moses from
the Hebrew into Greek was the Septuagint. This is a Koine Greek version of
the Hebrew Bible that was used by Greek speakers. The Greek version's name
in Latin is the Septuagint: Latin septem meaning seven, plus -gintā meaning
"times ten". It was named Septuagint from the traditional number of its
translators. This Greek version of the Hebrew Scriptures dates from the 3rd
century BCE, originally associated with Hellenistic Judaism. It contains
both a translation of the Hebrew and additional and variant material.
Later translations into Greek include seven or more other versions. These do
not survive, except as fragments, and include those by Aquila, Symmachus,
and Theodotion.
Latin
Early translations into Latin—the Vetus Latina—were ad hoc conversions of
parts of the Septuagint. With St Jerome in the 4th century AD came the
Vulgate Latin translation of the Hebrew Bible.
Arabic
From the eighth century AD, the cultural language of Jews living under
Islamic rule became Arabic rather than Aramaic. "Around that time, both
scholars and lay people started producing translations of the Bible into
Judeo-Arabic using the Hebrew alphabet." Later, by the 10th century, it
became essential for a standard version of the Bible in Judeo-Arabic. The
best known was produced by Saadiah, and continues to be in use today, "in
particular among Yemenite Jewry."
Modern Languages
Jewish Translations
The Torah has been translated by Jewish scholars into most of the major
European languages, including English, German, Russian, French, Spanish and
others. The most well-known German-language translation was produced by
Samson Raphael Hirsch. A number of Jewish English Bible translations have
been published.
Christian Translations
As a part of the Christian Biblical canon, the Torah has been translated
into hundreds of languages.
In other religions
While Christianity includes the five books of Moses among their sacred
texts in its Old Testament, Islam states that only the original Torah was
sent by God. In neither religion does the Torah retain the religious legal
significance that it does in Orthodox Judaism.
Among early centers of Christianity the Septuagint was used by Greek
speakers, while Aramaic Targums were used by Aramaic speakers such as the
Syriac Orthodox Church. It was regarded as the standard form of the Old
Testament in the early Greek Christian Church and is still considered
canonical in the Eastern Orthodox Church. Though different Christian
denominations have slightly different versions of the Old Testament in their
Bibles, the Torah as the "Five Books of Moses" is common among them all.
The Quran refers heavily to Moses to outline the truth of his existence and
the religious guidelines that God had revealed to the Children of Israel.
According to the Qur'an, Allah says "It is He Who has sent down the Book to
you with truth, confirming what came before it. And He sent down the Taurat
and the Injeel ."
Muslims call the Torah the Tawrat and consider it the word of God given to
Moses. However, Muslims also believe that this original revelation was
corrupted over time by Jewish scribes and hence do not revere the present
"Jewish version" Torah as much. The Torah in the Quran is always mentioned
with respect in Islam. The Muslims' belief in the Torah, as well as the
prophethood of Moses, is one of the fundamental tenets of Islam.
The Bahá’í position on the Torah was composed in 1906 by its official
interpreter on all matters religious, Sir ‘Abdu’l-Bahá’ Abbas K.B.E.
"The Torah, held to be the most ancient of histories, existeth today in
three separate versions: the Hebrew, considered authentic by the Jews and
the Protestant clergy; the Greek Septuagint, which was used as authoritative
in the Greek and other eastern churches; and the Samaritan Torah, the
standard authority for that people. These three versions differ greatly, one
from another, even with regard to the lifetimes of the most celebrated
figures. In the Hebrew Torah, it is recorded that from Noah's flood until
the birth of Abraham there was an interval of two hundred and ninety-two
years. In the Greek, that time span is given as one thousand and seventy-two
years, while the Samaritan, the recorded span is nine hundred and forty-two
years. Refer to the commentary by Henry Westcott for tables are supplied
therein which show the discrepancies among the three Torahs as to the birth
dates of a number of the descendants of Shem, and thou wilt see how greatly
the versions differ from one another. Moreover, according to the text of the
Hebrew Torah, from the creation of Adam until Noah's flood the elapsed time
is recorded as one thousand six hundred and fifty-six years, while in the
Greek Torah the interval is given as two thousand two hundred and sixty-two
years, and in the Samaritan text, the same period is said to have lasted one
thousand three hundred and seven years. Reflect now over the discrepancies
among these three Torahs. The case is indeed surprising. The Jews and
Protestants belittle the Greek Torah, while to the Greeks the Hebrew version
is spurious, and the Samaritans deny both the Hebrew and the Greek
versions." ‘Abdu’l Bahá’s elucidations above in 1906 are found in his letter
to Ethel Jenner Rosenberg