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சமற்கிருதம் செம்மொழியல்ல: இணையவழி உரையரங்கம்,14.02.2021
சமற்கிருதம் செம்மொழியல்ல இணையவழி உரையரங்கம்
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S. Jayabarathan
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Seshadri Sridharan
S. Jayabarathan
S. Jayabarathan
தேமொழி
rajam
C.R. Selvakumar
பல நல்ல தமிழறிஞர்கள் கலந்துகொள்ளும் இந்தக் கருத்தரங்கம் ஏன் இப்படி
ஒரு தலைப்பிலும் இப்படியான பிற்போக்கான கருத்தியலுடையதாகவும்
நடக்கவிருக்கின்றது. கைகளைக்கொண்டு கதிரவனைமறைப்பது போன்ற செயல்.
சமற்கிருதம் பேரளவான சொல்வளமும, இலக்கிய இலக்கியவளமும கொண்ட
செம்மொழி. சமற்கிருத மொழிக்கும் இலக்கியத்துக்கும் பங்களித்தவர்களில் மிகப்பலர்
தமிழர்கள். தமிழுக்கு சமற்கிருதத்துக்குமான உறவு மிக ஆழமானது நெடுங்காலம்
நிகழ்ந்துவந்த ஒன்று. உலகில் மற்ற யாவரையும்விட தமிழர்களே வல்லுநர்களாக
இருக்கவேண்டியவர்கள். மிக அண்மைக்காலத்துக்கு முன்புவரை தமிழர்களே
சிறந்த அறிஞர்களில் பலராக இருந்து வந்துள்ளனர்.
உண்மையில் தமிழறிஞர்கள் மெய்யான ஆழமான வலுவான சமற்கிருத, கிரேக்க,
இலத்தீன, பாரசீக அறிவு பெற்றவர்களாகத் திகழ வேண்டும். நம்மிடையே
ஒரு 100 அல்லது 200 அறிஞர்களாவது இருக்க வேண்டுவது மிக முக்கியம்.
சமற்கிருத மொழி ஆர்வலர்கள் தமிழ்மீது தகாதவாறு தாக்கம் செலுத்துவதை எதிர்க்கலாம்,
இதே போல இந்தி வழியாக சமற்கிருதத்தைத் திணிப்பதை எதிர்க்கலாம் (எதிர்க்கவேண்டும்)
ஆனால் இம்மொழிகளை வெறுத்தல் அறியாமை. குறிப்பாக சமற்கிருதம்
தமிழர்களின் துணைமொழி என்றே சொல்லலாம். ஆங்கிலம் தமிழின் நண்பன்.
எங்கிருந்து நல்லது வந்தாலும் இனிதே ஏற்கும் நல்லுணர்வு பெருகவேண்டும்.
அன்புடன்
செல்வா
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Selva
___________________
C.R.(Selva) Selvakumar
S. Jayabarathan
Indian campaign of Alexander the Great
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| Alexander's Indian campaign | |||||||
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| Part of the Wars of Alexander the Great | |||||||
 Campaigns and landmarks of Alexander's invasion of northwest Indian subcontinent | |||||||
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| Belligerents | |||||||
| Macedonia | various | ||||||
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| Alexander the Great | various | ||||||
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The Indian subcontinent campaign of Alexander the Great began in 326 BC. After conquering the Achaemenid Empire of Persia, the Macedonian king Alexander, launched a campaign into the Indian subcontinent in present-day Pakistan, part of which formed the easternmost territories of the Achaemenid Empire following the Achaemenid conquest of the Indus Valley (late 6th century BC).
After gaining control of the former Achaemenid satrapy of Gandhara, including the city of Taxila, Alexander advanced into Punjab, where he engaged in battle against the regional king Porus, whom Alexander defeated in the Battle of the Hydaspes in 326 BC,[1][2] but he was so impressed by the demeanor with which the king carried himself that he allowed Porus to continue governing his own kingdom as a satrap.[3] Although victorious, the Battle of the Hydaspes was possibly also the most costly battle fought by the Macedonians.[4]
Alexander's march east put him in confrontation with the Nanda Empire of Magadha. According to the Greek sources, the Nanda army was supposedly five times larger than the Macedonian army.[5] His army, exhausted, homesick, and anxious by the prospects of having to further face large Indian armies throughout the Indo-Gangetic Plain, mutinied at the Hyphasis (modern Beas River) and refused to march further east. Alexander, after a meeting with his officer, Coenus, and after hearing about the lament of his soldiers,[6] eventually relented,[7] being convinced that it was better to return. This caused Alexander to turn south, advancing through southern Punjab and Sindh, along the way conquering more tribes along the lower Indus River, before finally turning westward.[8]
Alexander died in Babylon on 10 or 11 June 323 BC. In c. 322 BC, one year after Alexander's death, Chandragupta Maurya of Magadha founded the Maurya Empire in India.
Contents
Background[edit]
Sources[edit]
Of those who accompanied Alexander to India, Aristobulus, Onesicritus, and Nearchus wrote about the Indian campaign.[9] The only surviving contemporary account of Alexander's Indian campaign is a report of the voyage of the naval commander Nearchus,[10] who was tasked with exploring the coast between the Indus River and the Persian Gulf.[9] This report is preserved in Arrian's Anabasis (c. AD 150). Arrian provides a detailed account of Alexander's campaigns, based on the writings of Alexander's companions and courtiers.[10]
Arrian's account is supplemented by the writings of other authors, whose works are also based on the accounts of Alexander's companions: these authors include Diodorus (c. 21 BC), Strabo (c. AD 23), and Plutarch (c. AD 119).[11]
Socio-political conditions in India[edit]
Alexander's incursion into India was limited to the Indus River basin area, which was divided among several small states. These states appear to have been based on dominance of particular tribes, as the Greek writers mention tribes such as the Malloi as well as kings whose name seem to be tribal designations (such as Porus of the Puru tribe). The Achaemenid Empire of Persia had held suzerainty over the Indus valley in the previous decades, but there was no trace of Achaemenid rule beyond the Indus river when Alexander's army arrived in the region.[12] Strabo, sourcing his information from the earlier writer Eratosthenes, states that the Achaemenid king controlled the area to the west of the Indus.[13] This area (including the Kapisa-Gandhara region) was probably the territory of the Indians, who according to the Greek accounts, fought alongside their overlord Darius III at the Battle of Gaugamela.[14]
Greek writings as well archaeological excavations indicate the existence of an urban economy dependent on agriculture and trade in the Indus basin. The Greeks mention the existence of cities and fortified towns such as Taxila. Arrian mentions that after defeating Porus, Alexander marched eastwards towards the Chenab River, and captured 37 towns: the smallest of these towns had 5,000 or more inhabitants.[15] In the Swat valley, Alexander is said to have seized 230,000 oxen (possibly Zebu), intending to send them to Macedonia for ploughing land.[10] Aristobulus saw rice being grown in paddy fields, Onesicritus reported the existence of a crop called bosmoran (possibly the pearl millet), and Nearchus wrote of "honey-yielding reeds" (presumably the sugarcane).[11] Nearchus also mentions that Indians wore clothes made of cotton. Rock salt was extracted from the Salt Range, and supplied to other parts of India.[15] Some primitive communities existed in the forest, desert, and coastal regions of the subcontinent. For example, Nearchus mentions that people around the Tomeros river (Hingol) subsisted on fishing, and used stone tools instead of iron ones.[15]
The Greek writers mention the priestly class of Brahmanas (as "Brachmanes"), who are described as teachers of Indian philosophy.[16] They do not refer to the existence of any religious temples or idols in India, although such references commonly occur in their descriptions of Alexander's campaigns in Egypt, Mesopotamia and Iran. Greek accounts mention naked ascetics called gymnosophists. A philosopher named Calanus (probably a Greek transcription of the Indian name "Kalyana") accompanied Alexander to Persepolis, where he committed suicide on a public funeral pyre: he was probably a Jain or an Ajivika monk. Curiously, there is no reference to Buddhism in the Greek accounts.[17]
Other than their mention of the Brahmanas, the Greek narratives about Alexander's invasion do not directly mention the caste system. Some Brahmanas acted as advisors to local princes: Alexander had groups of Brahmanas hanged in present-day Sindh for instigating the rulers Musicanus and Sambus to revolt against him. The Greek writings attest the existence of slavery in at least two places: Onesicritus describes slavery in the territory ruled by Musicanus, and Aristobulus mentions poor people selling their daughters publicly in Taxila. Aristobulus also observed Sati, the practice of widows immolating themselves on their husbands' pyre, at Taxila. The practice of exposing dead bodies to vultures, similar to the Magian practice of Tower of Silence, was also prevalent in Taxila.[16]
Nearchus mentions that Indians wrote letters on closely woven cloth; it is possible that this is a reference to a precursor of the Kharoshthi script, which may have developed from the Aramaic alphabet during the Achaemenid rule.[16] While describing a tribe on the coast of present-day Balochistan, Nearchus mentions that they were different from Indians in "their language and customs", which implies that he associated a particular language with the Indians.[18] This does not mean that the Indians spoke a single language: the language that Nearchus associated with India might have been a lingua franca used for official and commercial purposes. This lingua franca was most probably the Gandhari Prakrit, as the Greek names (e.g. "Taxila" and "Sandrokottus") for Indian people and places seem to be derived from this language (e.g. "Takhasila" and "Chandagutta") rather than Sanskrit (e.g. "Takshashila" and "Chandragupta").[17]
Nearchus attests the existence of medical science in India: he mentions that when the Greek physicians failed to provide remedies for snake-bites to Alexander, the king gathered Indian healers who were also able to cure other diseases and painful conditions. The Greek accounts do not mention any other sciences of contemporary India.[17]
Alexander's preparation[edit]
_circa_480_BCE_in_the_Naqsh-e_Roastam_reliefs_of_Xerxes_I.jpg)
After the death of Spitamenes and his marriage to Roxana (Raoxshna in Old Iranian) in 326 BC to cement his relations with his new Central Asian satrapies, Alexander was finally free to turn his attention to India. For Alexander, the invasion of India was a natural consequence of his subjugation of the Achaemenid Empire, as the areas of the Indus valley had long been under Achaemenid control, since the Achaemenid conquest of the Indus Valley circa 515 BC.[19] Alexander was only taking possession of territories which he had obtained from the Achaemenids, and now considered rightfully his own.[19]
Alexander invited all the chieftains of the former satrapy of Gandhara, to come to him and submit to his authority. Ambhi (Greek: Omphis), ruler of Taxila, whose kingdom extended from the Indus to the Jhelum (Greek: Hydaspes), complied. At the end of the spring of 327 BC, Alexander started on his Indian expedition leaving Amyntas behind with 3,500 horse and 10,000 foot soldiers to hold the land of the Bactrians.[20]
Cophen Campaign[edit]
Alexander personally took command of the shield-bearing guards, foot-companions, archers, Agrianians, and horse-javelin-men and led them against the clans – the Aspasioi of Kunar valleys, the Guraeans of the Guraeus (Panjkora) valley, and the Assakenoi of the Swat and Buner valleys.[citation needed]
Alexander faced resistance from Hastin (or Astes), chief of the Ilastinayana (called the Astakenoi or Astanenoi) tribe, whose capital was Pushkalavati or Peukelaotis.[21] He later defeated Asvayanas and Asvakayanas and captured their 40,000 men and 230,000 oxen. Asvakayanas of Massaga fought him under the command of their queen, Cleophis, with an army of 30,000 cavalry, 38,000 infantry, 30 elephants, and 7,000 mercenaries. Other regions that fought Alexander were Abhisara, Aornos, Bazira, and Ora or Dyrta.[22][23][24]
A fierce contest ensued with the Aspasioi, in the course of which Alexander himself was wounded in the shoulder by a dart, but eventually the Aspasioi lost the fight; 40,000 of them were enslaved. The Assakenoi faced Alexander with an army of 30,000 cavalry, 38,000 infantry, and 30 elephants.[25] They had fought bravely and offered stubborn resistance to the invader in many of their strongholds such as the cities of Ora, Bazira, and Massaga. The fort of Massaga could only be reduced after several days of bloody fighting in which Alexander himself was wounded seriously in the ankle. When the Chieftain of Massaga fell in the battle, the supreme command of the army went to his old mother, Cleophis, who also stood determined to defend her motherland to the last extremity. The example of Cleophis assuming the supreme command of the military also brought the entire population of women of the locality into the fighting.[26][27] Alexander was only able to reduce Massaga by resorting to political strategem and actions of betrayal. According to Curtius: "Not only did Alexander slaughter the entire population of Massaga, but also did he reduce its buildings to rubbles".[28] A similar slaughter then followed at Ora, another stronghold of the Assakenoi.
Siege of Aornos[edit]
In the aftermath of general slaughter and arson committed by Alexander at Massaga and Ora, numerous Assakenians fled to a high fortress called Aornos (not definitely identified but somewhere between Shangla, in Swat, and the Kohistan region, both in northern Pakistan). Alexander followed close behind their heels and besieged the strategic hill-fort. The Siege of Aornos was Alexander's last siege, "the climax to Alexander's career as the greatest besieger in history", according to Robin Lane Fox.[29] The siege took place in April 326 BC.[30] It presented the last threat to Alexander's supply line, which stretched, dangerously vulnerable, over the Hindu Kush back to Balkh, though Arrian credits Alexander's heroic desire to outdo his kinsman Heracles, who allegedly had proved unable to take the place Pir-Sar, which the Greeks called Aornis. The site lies north of Attock in what is now the Punjab, Pakistan, on a strongly reinforced mountain spur above the narrow gorges in a bend of the upper Indus. Neighboring tribesmen who surrendered to Alexander offered to lead him to the best point of access.[citation needed]
At the vulnerable north side leading to the fort, Alexander and his catapults were stopped by a deep ravine. To bring the siege engines within reach, an earthwork mound was constructed to bridge the ravine. A low hill connected to the nearest tip of Pir-Sar was soon within reach and taken. Alexander's troops were at first repelled by boulders rolled down from above. Three days of drumbeats marked the defenders' celebration of the initial repulse, followed by a surprise retreat. Hauling himself up the last rockface on a rope, Alexander cleared the summit, slaying some fugitives – inflated by Arrian to a massacre[31] – and erected altars to Athena Nike, Athena of Victory, traces of which were identified by Stein. Sisikottos, or Saśigupta, who had helped Alexander in this campaign, was made the governor of Aornos.[citation needed]
Punjab[edit]
After reducing Aornos, Alexander crossed the Indus to begin campaigning in the Punjab region.
Battle of the Hydaspes River[edit]
The Battle of the Hydaspes River was fought by Alexander in July 326 BC against king Porus (possibly, Paurava) on the Hydaspes River (Jhelum River) in the Punjab, near Bhera. The Hydaspes was the last major battle fought by Alexander.[32] The main train went into what is now modern-day Pakistan through the Khyber Pass, but a smaller force under the personal command of Alexander went via the northern route, resulting in the Siege of Aornos along the way. In early spring of the next year, he combined his forces and allied with Taxiles (also Ambhi), the King of Taxila, against his neighbor, the King of Hydaspes.
Porus was a regional King in India. Arrian writes about Porus, in his own words:
Porus drew up on the south bank of the Jhelum River, and was set to repel any crossings. The Jhelum River was deep and fast enough that any opposed crossing would probably doom the entire attacking force. Alexander knew that a direct crossing would fail, so he found a suitable crossing, about 27 km (17 mi) upstream of his camp. The name of the place is "Kadee". Alexander left his general Craterus behind with most of the army while he crossed the river upstream with a strong contingent. Porus sent a small cavalry and chariot force under his son to the crossing.
According to sources[citation needed], Alexander had already encountered Porus's son, so the two men were not strangers. Porus's son killed Alexander's horse with one blow, and Alexander fell to the ground. Also writing about this encounter, Arrian adds,
The force was easily routed, and according to Arrian, Porus' son was killed. Porus now saw that the crossing force was larger than he had expected, and decided to face it with the bulk of his army. Porus's army were poised with cavalry on both flanks, the war elephants in front, and infantry behind the elephants. These war elephants presented an especially difficult situation for Alexander, as they scared the Macedonian horses.
Alexander started the battle by sending horse archers to shower the Porus's left cavalry wing, and then used his cavalry to destroy Porus's cavalry. Meanwhile, the Macedonian phalanxes had crossed the river to engage the charge of the war elephants. The Macedonians eventually surrounded Porus's force.
Diodorus wrote about the battle tactics of war elephants:
The fighting style of Porus' soldiers was described in detail by Arrian:
According to Curtius Quintus, Alexander towards the end of the day sent a few ambassadors to Porus:
According to Plutarch this was one of Alexander's hardest battles:
Plutarch also wrote that the bitter fighting of the Hydaspes made Alexander's men hesitant to continue on with the conquest of India, considering that they would potentially face far larger armies than those of Porus if they were to cross the Ganges River.[33]
Porus was one of many local kings who impressed Alexander. Wounded in his shoulder, standing over 2 m (6 ft 7 in) tall, but still on his feet, he was asked by Alexander how he wished to be treated. "Treat me, Alexander, the way a King treats another King", Porus responded. Other historians question the accuracy of this entire event, noting that Porus would never have said those words.[34][dubious – discuss] Philostratus the Elder in the Life of Apollonius of Tyana writes that in the army of Porus there was an elephant who had fought bravely against Alexander's army and Alexander dedicated it to Helios (Sun) and named it Ajax, because he thought that a so great animal deserved a great name. The elephant had gold rings around its tusks and an inscription was on them written in Greek: "Alexander the son of Zeus dedicates Ajax to Helios" (ΑΛΕΞΑΝΔΡΟΣ Ο ΔΙΟΣ ΤΟΝ ΑΙΑΝΤΑ ΤΩΙ ΗΛΙΩΙ).[35]
Alexander did not continue, thus leaving all the headwaters of the Indus River unconquered. He later founded Alexandria Nikaia (Victory), located at the battle site, to commemorate his triumph. He also founded Alexandria Bucephalus on the opposite bank of the river in memory of his much-cherished horse, Bucephalus, who carried Alexander through the Indian subcontinent and died heroically during the Battle of Hydaspes.[31]
Musicanus[edit]
Musicanus (Ancient Greek: Μουσικανὸς,[36] Indian: Mûshika[citation needed]) was an Indian king at the head of the Indus, who raised a rebellion against Alexander the Great around 323 BC. Peithon, one of Alexander's generals, managed to put down the revolt:
- "Meantime he was informed that Musicanus had revolted. He dispatched the viceroy, Peithon, son of Agenor, with a sufficient army against him, while he himself marched against the cities which had been put under the rule of Musicanus. Some of these he razed to the ground, reducing the inhabitants to slavery; and into others he introduced garrisons and fortified the citadels. After accomplishing this, he returned to the camp and fleet. By this time Musicanus had been captured by Peithon, who was bringing him to Alexander." - Arrian Anabasis[37]
Patala[edit]
The King of Patala came to Alexander and surrendered. Alexander let him keep possession of his own dominions, with instructions to provide whatever was needed for the reception of the army.[36]
Revolt of the army[edit]
East of Porus's kingdom, near the Ganges River (the Hellenic version of the Indian name Ganga), was the powerful Nanda Empire of Magadha and the Gangaridai Empire of Bengal. Fearing the prospects of facing other powerful Indian armies and exhausted by years of campaigning, his army mutinied at the Hyphasis River (the modern Beas River), refusing to march further east.[38]
Alexander, using the incorrect maps of the Greeks, thought that the world ended a mere 1,000 kilometres (620 mi) away, at the edge of India. He therefore spoke to his army and tried to persuade them to march further into India, but Coenus pleaded with him to change his mind and return, saying the men "longed to again see their parents, their wives and children, their homeland". Alexander, seeing the unwillingness of his men, agreed and turned back.
Campaign against the Malli[edit]
Along the way, his army conquered the Malli clans (in modern-day Multan). During a siege, Alexander jumped into the fortified city with only two of his bodyguards and was wounded seriously by a Mallian arrow.[33] His forces, believing their king dead, took the citadel and unleashed their fury on the Malli who had taken refuge within it, perpetrating a massacre, sparing no man, woman or child.[42] However, due to the efforts of his surgeon, Kritodemos of Kos, Alexander survived the injury.[43] Following this, the surviving Malli surrendered to Alexander's forces, and his beleaguered army moved on, conquering more Indian tribes along the way.
Aftermath[edit]
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Alexander sent much of his army to Carmania (modern southern Iran) with his general Craterus, and commissioned a fleet to explore the Persian Gulf shore under his admiral Nearchus while he led the rest of his forces back to Persia by the southern route through the Gedrosian Desert (now part of southern Iran) and Makran (now part of Pakistan). In crossing the desert, Alexander's army took enormous casualties from hunger and thirst, but fought no human enemy. They encountered the "Fish Eaters", or Ichthyophagi, primitive people who lived on the Makran coast of the Arabian Sea, who had matted hair, no fire, no metal, no clothes, lived in huts made of whale bones, and ate raw seafood obtained by beachcombing.[citation needed] During the crossing, Alexander refused as much water as possible, to share the sufferings of his men.[citation needed]
In the territory of the Indus, Alexander nominated his officer Peithon as a satrap, a position he would hold for the next ten years until 316 BC, and in the Punjab he left Eudemus in charge of the army, at the side of the satrap Porus and Taxiles. Eudemus became ruler of a part of the Punjab after their death. Both rulers returned to the West in 316 BC with their armies. In c. 322 BC BC, Chandragupta Maurya of Magadha, founded the Maurya Empire in India and conquered the Macedonian satrapies during the Seleucid–Mauryan war (305–303 BC).
See also[edit]
References[edit]
Citations[edit]
- ^ Fuller, pg 198
- ^ The Anabasis of Alexander/Book V/Chapter XVIII
- ^ The Anabasis of Alexander/Book V/Chapter XIX
- ^ Peter Connolly. Greece and Rome At War. Macdonald Phoebus Ltd, 1981, p. 66
- ^ Bongard-Levin, G. (1979). A History of India. Moscow: Progress Publishers. p. 264.
- ^ The Anabasis of Alexander by Arrian, Book VI, Chapter XXVII - The Answer of Coenus[non-primary source needed]
- ^ The Anabasis of Alexander by Arrian, Book VI, Chapter XXVIII - Alexander Resolves to Return[non-primary source needed]
- ^ The Anabasis of Alexander/Book V/Chapter XXVIII
- ^ a b R. K. Mookerji 1966, p. 3.
- ^ a b c Irfan Habib & Vivekanand Jha 2004, p. 1.
- ^ a b Irfan Habib & Vivekanand Jha 2004, pp. 1-2.
- ^ Irfan Habib & Vivekanand Jha 2004, pp. 2-3.
- ^ H. C. Raychaudhuri 1988, p. 32-33.
- ^ H. C. Raychaudhuri 1988, p. 33.
- ^ a b c Irfan Habib & Vivekanand Jha 2004, p. 2.
- ^ a b c Irfan Habib & Vivekanand Jha 2004, p. 3.
- ^ a b c Irfan Habib & Vivekanand Jha 2004, p. 4.
- ^ Irfan Habib & Vivekanand Jha 2004, pp. 3-4.
- ^ a b The Achaemenid Empire in South Asia and Recent Excavations in Akra in Northwest Pakistan Peter Magee, Cameron Petrie, Robert Knox, Farid Khan, Ken Thomas p.714
- ^ H. C. Raychaudhuri 1988, p. 46.
- ^ R. K. Mookerji 1966, p. 24.
- ^ R. K. Mookerji 1966, p. 25.
- ^ Ian Worthington 2003, p. 162.
- ^ Narain, A. K. (1965). Alexander the Great: Greece and Rome – 12. pp. 155–165.
- ^ "Quintus Curtius Rufus: Life of Alexander the Great". University of Chicago. Retrieved 30 May 2008.
- ^ Majumdar, R. C. (1971). Ancient India. p. 99.
- ^ Mukerjee, R. K. History and Culture of Indian People, The Age of Imperial Unity, Foreign Invasion. p. 46.
- ^ Curtius in McCrindle, p. 192, J. W. McCrindle; History of Punjab, Vol I, 1997, p 229, Punjabi University, Patiala (editors): Fauja Singh, L. M. Joshi; Kambojas Through the Ages, 2005, p. 134, Kirpal Singh.
- ^ Robin Lane Fox 1973, p. 343.
- ^ H. C. Raychaudhuri 1988, p. 54.
- ^ a b c d Arrian (2004). Tania Gergel (ed.). The Brief Life and Towering Exploits of History's Greatest Conqueror as Told By His Original Biographers. Penguin Books. p. 120. ISBN 0-14-200140-6.
- ^ P.H.L. Eggermont, Alexander's campaign in Southern Punjab(1993).
- ^ a b Plutarch, Alexander. "Plutarch, Plutarch, Alexander (English).: Alexander (ed. Bernadotte Perrin)". Tufts University. Retrieved 30 May 2008. See also: "Alexander is wounded". Main Lesson. Retrieved 30 May 2008.
- ^ Rogers, p.200
- ^ Philostratus the Elder, Life of Apollonius of Tyana, § 2.12
- ^ a b Arrian, Anabasis of Alexander, 6.17
- ^ Arrian Anabasis Book 6b
- ^ Paul J. Kosmin 2014, p. 34.
- ^ Plutarch, Alexander, 62
- ^ A. B. Bosworth 1996, p. 189.
- ^ Megasthenes. Quoted from the Epitome of Megasthenes, Indika. (Diodorus II, 35–42), Ancient India as Described by Megasthenes and Arrian. Translated and edited by J. W. McCrindle.
- ^ Tripathi, Rama Shankar. History of Ancient India.
- ^ "Ancient Surgery:Alexander the Great". Archived from the original on 6 May 2008. Retrieved 15 July 2008.
Sources[edit]
- H. C. Raychaudhuri (1988) [1967]. "India in the Age of the Nandas". In K. A. Nilakanta Sastri (ed.). Age of the Nandas and Mauryas (Second ed.). Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass. ISBN 978-81-208-0466-1.
- Irfan Habib; Vivekanand Jha (2004). Mauryan India. A People's History of India. Aligarh Historians Society / Tulika Books. ISBN 978-81-85229-92-8.
- Arrian (1976) [140s AD]. The Campaigns of Alexander. trans. Aubrey de Sélincourt. Penguin Books. ISBN 0-14-044253-7.
- Ian Worthington (2004). Alexander the Great: Man And God. Pearson. ISBN 978-1-4058-0162-1.
- Ian Worthington (2003). Alexander the Great. Routledge. ISBN 0-415-29187-9.
- Mary Renault (1979). The Nature of Alexander. Pantheon Books. ISBN 0-394-73825-X.
- Paul J. Kosmin (2014). The Land of the Elephant Kings: Space, Territory, and Ideology in Seleucid Empire. Harvard University Press. ISBN 978-0-674-72882-0.
- Peter Green (1992). Alexander of Macedon: 356–323 B.C. A Historical Biography. University of California Press. ISBN 0-520-07166-2.
- Plutarch (2004). Life of Alexander. Modern Library. ISBN 0-8129-7133-7.
- R. K. Mookerji (1966). Chandragupta Maurya and his times (4th ed.). Motilal Banarsidass. ISBN 81-208-0433-3.
- Robin Lane Fox (1973). Alexander the Great. Allen Lane. ISBN 0-86007-707-1.
- Robin Lane Fox (1980). The Search for Alexander. Little Brown & Co. Boston. ISBN 0-316-29108-0.
- Ulrich Wilcken (1997) [1932]. Alexander the Great. W. W. Norton & Company. ISBN 0-393-00381-7.
- This page was last edited on 30 January 2021, at 14:38 (UTC).
- Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization.
S. Jayabarathan
Indian astronomy
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| History of science and technology in the Indian subcontinent |
|---|
| By subject |
Indian astronomy has a long history stretching from pre-historic to modern times. Some of the earliest roots of Indian astronomy can be dated to the period of Indus Valley Civilization or earlier.[1][2] Astronomy later developed as a discipline of Vedanga or one of the "auxiliary disciplines" associated with the study of the Vedas,[3] dating 1500 BCE or older.[4] The oldest known text is the Vedanga Jyotisha, dated to 1400–1200 BCE (with the extant form possibly from 700 to 600 BCE).[5]
Indian astronomy was influenced by Greek astronomy beginning in the 4th century BCE[6][7][8] and through the early centuries of the Common Era, for example by the Yavanajataka[6] and the Romaka Siddhanta, a Sanskrit translation of a Greek text disseminated from the 2nd century.[9]
Indian astronomy flowered in the 5th–6th century, with Aryabhata, whose Aryabhatiya represented the pinnacle of astronomical knowledge at the time. Later the Indian astronomy significantly influenced Muslim astronomy, Chinese astronomy, European astronomy,[10] and others. Other astronomers of the classical era who further elaborated on Aryabhata's work include Brahmagupta, Varahamihira and Lalla.
An identifiable native Indian astronomical tradition remained active throughout the medieval period and into the 16th or 17th century, especially within the Kerala school of astronomy and mathematics.
Contents
History[edit]
Some of the earliest forms of astronomy can be dated to the period of Indus Valley Civilization, or earlier.[1][2] Some cosmological concepts are present in the Vedas, as are notions of the movement of heavenly bodies and the course of the year.[3] As in other traditions, there is a close association of astronomy and religion during the early history of the science, astronomical observation being necessitated by spatial and temporal requirements of correct performance of religious ritual. Thus, the Shulba Sutras, texts dedicated to altar construction, discusses advanced mathematics and basic astronomy.[11] Vedanga Jyotisha is another of the earliest known Indian texts on astronomy,[12] it includes the details about the Sun, Moon, nakshatras, lunisolar calendar.[13][14]
Greek astronomical ideas began to enter India in the 4th century BCE following the conquests of Alexander the Great.[6][7][8][9] By the early centuries of the Common Era, Indo-Greek influence on the astronomical tradition is visible, with texts such as the Yavanajataka[6] and Romaka Siddhanta.[9] Later astronomers mention the existence of various siddhantas during this period, among them a text known as the Surya Siddhanta. These were not fixed texts but rather an oral tradition of knowledge, and their content is not extant. The text today known as Surya Siddhanta dates to the Gupta period and was received by Aryabhata.
The classical era of Indian astronomy begins in the late Gupta era, in the 5th to 6th centuries. The Pañcasiddhāntikā by Varāhamihira (505 CE) approximates the method for determination of the meridian direction from any three positions of the shadow using a gnomon.[11] By the time of Aryabhata the motion of planets was treated to be elliptical rather than circular.[15] Other topics included definitions of different units of time, eccentric models of planetary motion, epicyclic models of planetary motion, and planetary longitude corrections for various terrestrial locations.[15]
Calendars[edit]
The divisions of the year were on the basis of religious rites and seasons (Rtu).[16] The duration from mid March—mid May was taken to be spring (vasanta), mid May—mid July: summer (grishma), mid July—mid September: rains (varsha), mid September—mid November: autumn (sharad), mid November—mid January: winter (hemanta), mid January—mid March: the dews (shishir).[16]
In the Vedānga Jyotiṣa, the year begins with the winter solstice.[17] Hindu calendars have several eras:
- The Hindu calendar, counting from the start of the Kali Yuga, has its epoch on 18 February 3102 BCE Julian (23 January 3102 BCE Gregorian).
- The Vikrama Samvat calendar, introduced about the 12th century, counts from 56 to 57 BCE.
- The "Saka Era", used in some Hindu calendars and in the Indian national calendar, has its epoch near the vernal equinox of year 78.
- The Saptarshi calendar traditionally has its epoch at 3076 BCE.[18]
J.A.B. van Buitenen (2008) reports on the calendars in India:
Astronomers[edit]
| Name | Year | Contributions |
|---|---|---|
| Lagadha | 1st millennium BCE | The earliest astronomical text—named Vedānga Jyotiṣa details several astronomical attributes generally applied for timing social and religious events.[19] The Vedānga Jyotiṣa also details astronomical calculations, calendrical studies, and establishes rules for empirical observation.[19] Since the texts written by 1200 BCE were largely religious compositions the Vedānga Jyotiṣa has connections with Indian astrology and details several important aspects of the time and seasons, including lunar months, solar months, and their adjustment by a lunar leap month of Adhimāsa.[20] Ṛtús are also described as yugāṃśas (or parts of the yuga, i.e. conjunction cycle) .[20] Tripathi (2008) holds that ' Twenty-seven constellations, eclipses, seven planets, and twelve signs of the zodiac were also known at that time.'[20] |
| Āryabhaṭa | 476–550 CE | Āryabhaṭa was the author of the Āryabhatīya and the Āryabhaṭasiddhānta, which, according to Hayashi (2008), “circulated mainly in the northwest of India and, through the Sassanian Dynasty (224–651) of Iran, had a profound influence on the development of Islamic astronomy. Its contents are preserved to some extent in the works of Varāhamihira (flourished c. 550), Bhāskara I (flourished c. 629), Brahmagupta (598–c. 665), and others. It is one of the earliest astronomical works to assign the start of each day to midnight.”[15] Aryabhata explicitly mentioned that the Earth rotates about its axis, thereby causing what appears to be an apparent westward motion of the stars.[15] In his book, Aryabhata, he suggested that the Earth was sphere, containing a circumference of 24,835 miles (39,967 km).[21] Aryabhata also mentioned that reflected sunlight is the cause behind the shining of the Moon.[15] Aryabhata's followers were particularly strong in South India, where his principles of the diurnal rotation of the Earth, among others, were followed and a number of secondary works were based on them.[3] |
| Brahmagupta | 598–668 CE | Brāhmasphuṭasiddhānta (Correctly Established Doctrine of Brahma, 628 CE) dealt with both Indian mathematics and astronomy. Hayashi (2008) writes: “It was translated into Arabic in Baghdad about 771 and had a major impact on Islamic mathematics and astronomy.”[22] In Khandakhadyaka (A Piece Eatable, 665 CE) Brahmagupta reinforced Aryabhata's idea of another day beginning at midnight.[22] Brahmagupta also calculated the instantaneous motion of a planet, gave correct equations for parallax, and some information related to the computation of eclipses.[3] His works introduced Indian concept of mathematics based astronomy into the Arab world.[3] He also theorized that all bodies with mass are attracted to the earth.[23] |
| Varāhamihira | 505 CE | Varāhamihira was an astronomer and mathematician who studied and Indian astronomy as well as the many principles of Greek, Egyptian, and Roman astronomical sciences.[24] His Pañcasiddhāntikā is a treatise and compendium drawing from several knowledge systems.[24] |
| Bhāskara I | 629 CE | Authored the astronomical works Mahābhāskariya (Great Book of Bhāskara), Laghubhaskariya (Small Book of Bhaskara), and the Aryabhatiyabhashya (629 CE)—a commentary on the Āryabhatīya written by Aryabhata.[25] Hayashi (2008) writes 'Planetary longitudes, heliacal rising and setting of the planets, conjunctions among the planets and stars, solar and lunar eclipses, and the phases of the Moon are among the topics Bhāskara discusses in his astronomical treatises.'[25] Bhāskara I's works were followed by Vateśvara (880 CE), who in his eight chapter Vateśvarasiddhānta devised methods for determining the parallax in longitude directly, the motion of the equinoxes and the solstices, and the quadrant of the sun at any given time.[3] |
| Lalla | 8th century CE | Author of the Śiṣyadhīvṛddhida (Treatise Which Expands the Intellect of Students), which corrects several assumptions of Āryabhaṭa.[26] The Śisyadhīvrddhida of Lalla itself is divided into two parts:Grahādhyāya and Golādhyāya.[26] Grahādhyāya (Chapter I-XIII) deals with planetary calculations, determination of the mean and true planets, three problems pertaining to diurnal motion of Earth, eclipses, rising and setting of the planets, the various cusps of the Moon, planetary and astral conjunctions, and complementary situations of the Sun and the Moon.[26] The second part—titled Golādhyāya (chapter XIV–XXII)—deals with graphical representation of planetary motion, astronomical instruments, spherics, and emphasizes on corrections and rejection of flawed principles.[26] Lalla shows influence of Āryabhata, Brahmagupta, and Bhāskara I.[26] His works were followed by later astronomers Śrīpati, Vateśvara, and Bhāskara II.[26] Lalla also authored the Siddhāntatilaka.[26] |
| Bhāskara II | 1114 CE | Authored Siddhāntaśiromaṇi (Head Jewel of Accuracy) and Karaṇakutūhala (Calculation of Astronomical Wonders) and reported on his observations of planetary positions, conjunctions, eclipses, cosmography, geography, mathematics, and astronomical equipment used in his research at the observatory in Ujjain, which he headed[27] |
| Śrīpati | 1045 CE | Śrīpati was an astronomer and mathematician who followed the Brahmagupta school and authored the Siddhāntaśekhara (The Crest of Established Doctrines) in 20 chapters, thereby introducing several new concepts, including Moon's second inequality.[3][28] |
| Mahendra Sūri | 14th century CE | Mahendra Sūri authored the Yantra-rāja (The King of Instruments, written in 1370 CE)—a Sanskrit work on the astrolabe, itself introduced in India during the reign of the 14th century Tughlaq dynasty ruler Firuz Shah Tughlaq (1351–1388 CE).[29] Sūri seems to have been a Jain astronomer in the service of Firuz Shah Tughluq.[29] The 182 verse Yantra-rāja mentions the astrolabe from the first chapter onwards, and also presents a fundamental formula along with a numerical table for drawing an astrolabe although the proof itself has not been detailed.[29] Longitudes of 32 stars as well as their latitudes have also been mentioned.[29] Mahendra Sūri also explained the Gnomon, equatorial co-ordinates, and elliptical co-ordinates.[29] The works of Mahendra Sūri may have influenced later astronomers like Padmanābha (1423 CE)—author of the Yantra-rāja-adhikāra, the first chapter of his Yantra-kirṇāvali.[29] |
| Nilakantha Somayaji | 1444–1544 CE | In 1500, Nilakantha Somayaji of the Kerala school of astronomy and mathematics, in his Tantrasangraha, revised Aryabhata's model for the planets Mercury and Venus. His equation of the centre for these planets remained the most accurate until the time of Johannes Kepler in the 17th century.[30] Nilakantha Somayaji, in his Āryabhaṭīyabhāṣya, a commentary on Āryabhaṭa's Āryabhaṭīya, developed his own computational system for a partially heliocentric planetary model, in which Mercury, Venus, Mars, Jupiter and Saturn orbit the Sun, which in turn orbits the Earth, similar to the Tychonic system later proposed by Tycho Brahe in the late 16th century. Nilakantha's system, however, was mathematically more efficient than the Tychonic system, due to correctly taking into account the equation of the centre and latitudinal motion of Mercury and Venus. Most astronomers of the Kerala school of astronomy and mathematics who followed him accepted his planetary model.[30][31] He also authored a treatise titled Jyotirmīmāṁsā stressing the necessity and importance of astronomical observations to obtain correct parameters for computations. |
| Acyuta Piṣāraṭi | 1550–1621 CE | Sphuṭanirṇaya (Determination of True Planets) details an elliptical correction to existing notions.[32] Sphuṭanirṇaya was later expanded to Rāśigolasphutānīti (True Longitude Computation of the Sphere of the Zodiac).[32] Another work, Karanottama deals with eclipses, complementary relationship between the Sun and the Moon, and 'the derivation of the mean and true planets'.[32] In Uparāgakriyākrama (Method of Computing Eclipses), Acyuta Piṣāraṭi suggests improvements in methods of calculation of eclipses.[32] |
Instruments used[edit]
Among the devices used for astronomy was gnomon, known as Sanku, in which the shadow of a vertical rod is applied on a horizontal plane in order to ascertain the cardinal directions, the latitude of the point of observation, and the time of observation.[33] This device finds mention in the works of Varāhamihira, Āryabhata, Bhāskara, Brahmagupta, among others.[11] The Cross-staff, known as Yasti-yantra, was used by the time of Bhaskara II (1114–1185 CE).[33] This device could vary from a simple stick to V-shaped staffs designed specifically for determining angles with the help of a calibrated scale.[33] The clepsydra (Ghatī-yantra) was used in India for astronomical purposes until recent times.[33] Ōhashi (2008) notes that: "Several astronomers also described water-driven instruments such as the model of fighting sheep."[33]
The armillary sphere was used for observation in India since early times, and finds mention in the works of Āryabhata (476 CE).[34] The Goladīpikā—a detailed treatise dealing with globes and the armillary sphere was composed between 1380 and 1460 CE by Parameśvara.[34] On the subject of the usage of the armillary sphere in India, Ōhashi (2008) writes: "The Indian armillary sphere (gola-yantra) was based on equatorial coordinates, unlike the Greek armillary sphere, which was based on ecliptical coordinates, although the Indian armillary sphere also had an ecliptical hoop. Probably, the celestial coordinates of the junction stars of the lunar mansions were determined by the armillary sphere since the seventh century or so. There was also a celestial globe rotated by flowing water."[33]
An instrument invented by the mathematician and astronomer Bhaskara II (1114–1185 CE) consisted of a rectangular board with a pin and an index arm.[33] This device—called the Phalaka-yantra—was used to determine time from the sun's altitude.[33] The Kapālayantra was an equatorial sundial instrument used to determine the sun's azimuth.[33] Kartarī-yantra combined two semicircular board instruments to give rise to a 'scissors instrument'.[33] Introduced from the Islamic world and first finding mention in the works of Mahendra Sūri—the court astronomer of Firuz Shah Tughluq (1309–1388 CE)—the astrolabe was further mentioned by Padmanābha (1423 CE) and Rāmacandra (1428 CE) as its use grew in India.[33]
Invented by Padmanābha, a nocturnal polar rotation instrument consisted of a rectangular board with a slit and a set of pointers with concentric graduated circles.[33] Time and other astronomical quantities could be calculated by adjusting the slit to the directions of α and β Ursa Minor.[33] Ōhashi (2008) further explains that: "Its backside was made as a quadrant with a plumb and an index arm. Thirty parallel lines were drawn inside the quadrant, and trigonometrical calculations were done graphically. After determining the sun's altitude with the help of the plumb, time was calculated graphically with the help of the index arm."[33]
Ōhashi (2008) reports on the observatories constructed by Jai Singh II of Amber:
The seamless celestial globe invented in Mughal India, specifically Lahore and Kashmir, is considered to be one of the most impressive astronomical instruments and remarkable feats in metallurgy and engineering. All globes before and after this were seamed, and in the 20th century, it was believed by metallurgists to be technically impossible to create a metal globe without any seams, even with modern technology. It was in the 1980s, however, that Emilie Savage-Smith discovered several celestial globes without any seams in Lahore and Kashmir. The earliest was invented in Kashmir by Ali Kashmiri ibn Luqman in 1589–90 CE during Akbar the Great's reign; another was produced in 1659–60 CE by Muhammad Salih Tahtawi with Arabic and Sanskrit inscriptions; and the last was produced in Lahore by a Hindu metallurgist Lala Balhumal Lahuri in 1842 during Jagatjit Singh Bahadur's reign. 21 such globes were produced, and these remain the only examples of seamless metal globes. These Mughal metallurgists developed the method of lost-wax casting in order to produce these globes.[35]
Global discourse[edit]
Indian and Greek astronomy[edit]
According to David Pingree, there are a number of Indian astronomical texts that are dated to the sixth century CE or later with a high degree of certainty. There is substantial similarity between these and pre-Ptolomaic Greek astronomy.[36] Pingree believes that these similarities suggest a Greek origin for certain aspects of Indian astronomy. One of the direct proofs for this approach is the fact quoted that many Sanskrit words related to astronomy, astrology and calendar are either direct phonetical borrowings from the Greek language, or translations, assuming complex ideas, like the names of the days of the week which presuppose a relation between those days, planets (including Sun and Moon) and gods.
With the rise of Greek culture in the east, Hellenistic astronomy filtered eastwards to India, where it profoundly influenced the local astronomical tradition.[6][7][8][9][37] For example, Hellenistic astronomy is known to have been practiced near India in the Greco-Bactrian city of Ai-Khanoum from the 3rd century BCE. Various sun-dials, including an equatorial sundial adjusted to the latitude of Ujjain have been found in archaeological excavations there.[38] Numerous interactions with the Mauryan Empire, and the later expansion of the Indo-Greeks into India suggest that transmission of Greek astronomical ideas to India occurred during this period.[39] The Greek concept of a spherical earth surrounded by the spheres of planets, further influenced the astronomers like Varahamihira and Brahmagupta.[37][40]
Several Greco-Roman astrological treatises are also known to have been exported to India during the first few centuries of our era. The Yavanajataka was a Sanskrit text of the 3rd century CE on Greek horoscopy and mathematical astronomy.[6] Rudradaman's capital at Ujjain "became the Greenwich of Indian astronomers and the Arin of the Arabic and Latin astronomical treatises; for it was he and his successors who encouraged the introduction of Greek horoscopy and astronomy into India."[41]
Later in the 6th century, the Romaka Siddhanta ("Doctrine of the Romans"), and the Paulisa Siddhanta ("Doctrine of Paul") were considered as two of the five main astrological treatises, which were compiled by Varāhamihira in his Pañca-siddhāntikā ("Five Treatises"), a compendium of Greek, Egyptian, Roman and Indian astronomy.[42] Varāhamihira goes on to state that "The Greeks, indeed, are foreigners, but with them this science (astronomy) is in a flourishing state."[9] Another Indian text, the Gargi-Samhita, also similarly compliments the Yavanas (Greeks) noting that the Yavanas though barbarians must be respected as seers for their introduction of astronomy in India.[9]
Indian and Chinese astronomy[edit]
Indian astronomy reached China with the expansion of Buddhism during the Later Han (25–220 CE).[43] Further translation of Indian works on astronomy was completed in China by the Three Kingdoms era (220–265 CE).[43] However, the most detailed incorporation of Indian astronomy occurred only during the Tang Dynasty (618–907 CE) when a number of Chinese scholars—such as Yi Xing— were versed both in Indian and Chinese astronomy.[43] A system of Indian astronomy was recorded in China as Jiuzhi-li (718 CE), the author of which was an Indian by the name of Qutan Xida—a translation of Devanagari Gotama Siddha—the director of the Tang dynasty's national astronomical observatory.[43]
Fragments of texts during this period indicate that Arabs adopted the sine function (inherited from Indian mathematics) instead of the chords of arc used in Hellenistic mathematics.[44] Another Indian influence was an approximate formula used for timekeeping by Muslim astronomers.[45] Through Islamic astronomy, Indian astronomy had an influence on European astronomy via Arabic translations. During the Latin translations of the 12th century, Muhammad al-Fazari's Great Sindhind (based on the Surya Siddhanta and the works of Brahmagupta), was translated into Latin in 1126 and was influential at the time.[46]
Indian and Islamic astronomy[edit]
In the 17th century, the Mughal Empire saw a synthesis between Islamic and Hindu astronomy, where Islamic observational instruments were combined with Hindu computational techniques. While there appears to have been little concern for planetary theory, Muslim and Hindu astronomers in India continued to make advances in observational astronomy and produced nearly a hundred Zij treatises. Humayun built a personal observatory near Delhi, while Jahangir and Shah Jahan were also intending to build observatories but were unable to do so. After the decline of the Mughal Empire, it was a Hindu king, Jai Singh II of Amber, who attempted to revive both the Islamic and Hindu traditions of astronomy which were stagnating in his time. In the early 18th century, he built several large observatories called Yantra Mandirs in order to rival Ulugh Beg's Samarkand observatory and in order to improve on the earlier Hindu computations in the Siddhantas and Islamic observations in Zij-i-Sultani. The instruments he used were influenced by Islamic astronomy, while the computational techniques were derived from Hindu astronomy.[47][48]
Indian astronomy and Europe[edit]
Some scholars have suggested that knowledge of the results of the Kerala school of astronomy and mathematics may have been transmitted to Europe through the trade route from Kerala by traders and Jesuit missionaries.[49] Kerala was in continuous contact with China, Arabia and Europe. The existence of circumstantial evidence[50] such as communication routes and a suitable chronology certainly make such a transmission a possibility. However, there is no direct evidence by way of relevant manuscripts that such a transmission took place.[49]
In the early 18th century, Jai Singh II of Amber invited European Jesuit astronomers to one of his Yantra Mandir observatories, who had bought back the astronomical tables compiled by Philippe de La Hire in 1702. After examining La Hire's work, Jai Singh concluded that the observational techniques and instruments used in European astronomy were inferior to those used in India at the time - it is uncertain whether he was aware of the Copernican Revolution via the Jesuits.[51] He did, however, employ the use of telescopes. In his Zij-i Muhammad Shahi, he states: "telescopes were constructed in my kingdom and using them a number of observations were carried out".[52]
Following the arrival of the British East India Company in the 18th century, the Hindu and Islamic traditions were slowly displaced by European astronomy, though there were attempts at harmonising these traditions. The Indian scholar Mir Muhammad Hussain had travelled to England in 1774 to study Western science and, on his return to India in 1777, he wrote a Persian treatise on astronomy. He wrote about the heliocentric model, and argued that there exists an infinite number of universes (awalim), each with their own planets and stars, and that this demonstrates the omnipotence of God, who is not confined to a single universe. Hussain's idea of a universe resembles the modern concept of a galaxy, thus his view corresponds to the modern view that the universe consists of billions of galaxies, each one consisting of billions of stars.[53] The last known Zij treatise was the Zij-i Bahadurkhani, written in 1838 by the Indian astronomer Ghulam Hussain Jaunpuri (1760–1862) and printed in 1855, dedicated to Bahadur Khan. The treatise incorporated the heliocentric system into the Zij tradition.[54]
See also[edit]
Further reading[edit]
- Project of History of Indian Science, Philosophy and Culture, Monograph series, Volume 3. Mathematics, Astronomy and Biology in Indian Tradition edited by D. P. Chattopadhyaya and Ravinder Kumar
- Brennand, William (1896), Hindu Astronomy, Chas.Straker & Sons, London
- Maunder, E. Walter (1899), The Indian Eclipse 1898, Hazell Watson and Viney Ltd., London
- Kak, Subhash. Birth and early development of Indian astronomy. Kluwer, 2000.
- Kak, S. (2000). The astronomical code of the R̥gveda. New Delhi: Munshiram Manoharlal Publishers.
- Kak, Subhash C. "The astronomy of the age of geometric altars." Quarterly Journal of the Royal Astronomical Society 36 (1995): 385.
- Kak, Subhash C. "Knowledge of planets in the third millennium BC." Quarterly Journal of the Royal Astronomical Society 37 (1996): 709.
- Kak, S. C. (January 1, 1993). Astronomy of the vedic altars. Vistas in Astronomy: Part 1, 36, 117–140.
- Kak, Subhash C. "Archaeoastronomy and literature." Current Science 73.7 (1997): 624–627.
Notes[edit]
- ^ a b Pierre-Yves Bely; Carol Christian; Jean-René Roy (11 March 2010). A Question and Answer Guide to Astronomy. Cambridge University Press. p. 197. ISBN 9780521180665.
- ^ a b Ashfaque, Syed Mohammad (1977). "Astronomy in the Indus Valley Civilization A Survey of the Problems and Possibilities of the Ancient Indian Astronomy and Cosmology in the Light of Indus Script Decipherment by the Finnish Scholars". Centaurus. 21 (2): 149–193. Bibcode:1977Cent...21..149A. doi:10.1111/j.1600-0498.1977.tb00351.x.
- ^ a b c d e f g Sarma (2008), Astronomy in India
- ^ The Vedas: An Introduction to Hinduism’s Sacred Texts, Roshen Dalal, p.188
- ^ Subbarayappa, B. V. (14 September 1989). "Indian astronomy: An historical perspective". In Biswas, S. K.; Mallik, D. C. V.; Vishveshwara, C. V. (eds.). Cosmic Perspectives. Cambridge University Press. pp. 25–40. ISBN 978-0-521-34354-1.
- ^ a b c d e f Highlights of Astronomy, Volume 11B: As presented at the XXIIIrd General Assembly of the IAU, 1997. Johannes Andersen Springer, 31 January 1999 – Science – 616 pages. page 721 [1]
- ^ a b c Babylon to Voyager and Beyond: A History of Planetary Astronomy. David Leverington. Cambridge University Press, 29 May 2010 – Science – 568 pages. page 41 [2]
- ^ a b c The History and Practice of Ancient Astronomy. James Evans. Oxford University Press, 1 October 1998 – History – 496 pages. Page 393 [3]
- ^ a b c d e f Foreign Impact on Indian Life and Culture (c. 326 B.C. to C. 300 A.D.). Satyendra Nath Naskar. Abhinav Publications, 1 January 1996 – History – 253 pages. Pages 56–57 [4]
- ^ "Star Maps: History, Artistry, and Cartography", p. 17, by Nick Kanas, 2012
- ^ a b c Abraham (2008)
- ^ N. P. Subramania Iyer. Kalaprakasika. Asian Educational Services. p. 3.
- ^ Ōhashi (1993)
- ^ Jyoti Bhusan Das Gupta. Science, Technology, Imperialism, and War. Pearson Education India. p. 33.
- ^ a b c d e Hayashi (2008), Aryabhata I
- ^ a b c J.A.B. van Buitenen (2008)
- ^ Bryant (2001), 253
- ^ See A. Cunningham (1883), A Book of Indian Eras.
- ^ a b Subbaarayappa (1989)
- ^ a b c Tripathi (2008)
- ^ Indian Astronomy. (2013). In D. Leverington, Encyclopedia of the history of Astronomy and Astrophysics. Cambridge, United Kingdom: Cambridge University Press. Retrieved from http://search.credoreference.com/content/entry/cupaaa/indian_astronomy/0
- ^ a b Hayashi (2008), Brahmagupta
- ^ Brahmagupta, Brahmasphutasiddhanta (628) (cf. Al-Biruni (1030), Indica)
- ^ a b Varāhamihira. Encyclopædia Britannica (2008)
- ^ a b Hayashi (2008), Bhaskara I
- ^ a b c d e f g Sarma (2008), Lalla
- ^ Hayashi (2008), Bhaskara II
- ^ Hayashi (2008), Shripati
- ^ a b c d e f Ōhashi (1997)
- ^ a b Joseph, 408
- ^ Ramasubramanian etc. (1994)
- ^ a b c d Sarma (2008), Acyuta Pisarati
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o Ōhashi (2008), Astronomical Instruments in India
- ^ a b Sarma (2008), Armillary Spheres in India
- ^ Savage-Smith (1985)
- ^ Pingree, David (1976). "The Recovery of early Greek Astronomy from India". Journal for the History of Astronomy. Science History Publications Ltd. 7 (19): 109–123. Bibcode:1976JHA.....7..109P. doi:10.1177/002182867600700202. S2CID 68858864.
- ^ a b D. Pingree: "History of Mathematical Astronomy in India", Dictionary of Scientific Biography, Vol. 15 (1978), pp. 533–633 (533, 554f.)
- ^ Pierre Cambon, Jean-François Jarrige. "Afghanistan, les trésors retrouvés: Collections du Musée national de Kaboul". Éditions de la Réunion des musées nationaux, 2006 – 297 pages. p269 [5]
- ^ Pierre Cambon, Jean-François Jarrige. "Afghanistan, les trésors retrouvés: Collections du Musée national de Kaboul". Éditions de la Réunion des musées nationaux, 2006 – 297 pages. p269 [6] "Les influences de l'astronomie grecques sur l'astronomie indienne auraient pu commencer de se manifester plus tot qu'on ne le pensait, des l'epoque Hellenistique en fait, par l'intermediaire des colonies grecques des Greco-Bactriens et Indo-Grecs" (French) Afghanistan, les trésors retrouvés", p269. Translation: "The influence of Greek astronomy on Indian astronomy may have taken place earlier than thought, as soon as the Hellenistic period, through the agency of the Greek colonies of the Greco-Bactrians and the Indo-Greeks.
- ^ Williams, Clemency; Knudsen, Toke (2005). "South-Central Asian Science". In Glick, Tomas F.; Livesey, Steven John; Wallis, Faith (eds.). Medieval Science, Technology, and Medicine: An Encyclopedia. Routledge. p. 463. ISBN 978-0-415-96930-7.
- ^ Pingree, David "Astronomy and Astrology in India and Iran" Isis, Vol. 54, No. 2 (Jun. 1963), pp. 229–246
- ^ "Varahamihira". Encyclopædia Britannica.
Varāhamihira's knowledge of Western astronomy was thorough. In five sections, his monumental work progresses through native Indian astronomy and culminates in two treatises on Western astronomy, showing calculations based on Greek and Alexandrian reckoning and even giving complete Ptolemaic mathematical charts and tables.
- ^ a b c d See Ōhashi (2008) in Astronomy: Indian Astronomy in China.
- ^ Dallal, 162
- ^ King, 240
- ^ Joseph, 306
- ^ Sharma (1995), 8–9
- ^ Baber, 82–89
- ^ a b Almeida etc. (2001)
- ^ Raju (2001)
- ^ Baber, 89–90
- ^ S. M. Razaullah Ansari (2002). History of oriental astronomy: proceedings of the joint discussion-17 at the 23rd General Assembly of the International Astronomical Union, organised by the Commission 41 (History of Astronomy), held in Kyoto, August 25–26, 1997. Springer. p. 141. ISBN 978-1-4020-0657-9.
- ^ S. M. Razaullah Ansari (2002), History of oriental astronomy: proceedings of the joint discussion-17 at the 23rd General Assembly of the International Astronomical Union, organised by the Commission 41 (History of Astronomy), held in Kyoto, August 25–26, 1997, Springer, pp. 133–4, ISBN 978-1-4020-0657-9
- ^ S. M. Razaullah Ansari (2002), History of oriental astronomy: proceedings of the joint discussion-17 at the 23rd General Assembly of the International Astronomical Union, organised by the Commission 41 (History of Astronomy), held in Kyoto, August 25–26, 1997, Springer, p. 138, ISBN 978-1-4020-0657-9
References[edit]
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- This page was last edited on 15 January 2021, at 09:55 (UTC).
Seshadri Sridharan
சமற்கிருத மொழி ஆர்வலர்கள் தமிழ்மீது தகாதவாறு தாக்கம் செலுத்துவதை எதிர்க்கலாம்,
இதே போல இந்தி வழியாக சமற்கிருதத்தைத் திணிப்பதை எதிர்க்கலாம் (எதிர்க்கவேண்டும்)
ஆனால் இம்மொழிகளை வெறுத்தல் அறியாமை. குறிப்பாக சமற்கிருதம்
தமிழர்களின் துணைமொழி என்றே சொல்லலாம். ஆங்கிலம் தமிழின் நண்பன்.
எங்கிருந்து நல்லது வந்தாலும் இனிதே ஏற்கும் நல்லுணர்வு பெருகவேண்டும்.
S. Jayabarathan
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rajam
On Feb 2,
S. Jayabarathan
தேமொழி
S. Jayabarathan
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தேமொழி
தேமொழி
S. Jayabarathan
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தேமொழி
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தேமொழி
Velmurugan Subramanian
பல நல்ல தமிழறிஞர்கள் கலந்துகொள்ளும் இந்தக் கருத்தரங்கம் ஏன் இப்படி
ஒரு தலைப்பிலும் இப்படியான பிற்போக்கான கருத்தியலுடையதாகவும்
நடக்கவிருக்கின்றது. கைகளைக்கொண்டு கதிரவனைமறைப்பது போன்ற செயல்.
நான் அறியும்வரையில் மெய்யாக யாருக்கும் சமற்கிருதவெறுப்பு இல்லை. சமற்கிருதம் ஒவ்வொருவருக்குள்ளும் ஓர் உணர்வாக மிக ஆழமாகவே பதிந்துள்ளது. சிலரால் அதை கண்டுகொள்ளாமல் விடவும்முடியவில்லை! அதை நேர்மையாகநின்று போற்றிப்பேசவும் முடியவில்லை. அதற்கு வெற்றரசியலைத்தவிர வேறு எந்தக்காரணமும் இருப்பதாக நான் கண்டதே இல்லை.
++++
தமிழை பாதுகாக்கும் இயக்கமொன்று தமிழை போற்றலாம். தனித்தமிழில் நிற்கலாம். மொழிக்கலப்பை/திணிப்பை எதிர்க்கலாம். ஆனால், இன்னொருமொழி ஏன் செம்மொழி இல்லை என்று தமிழர்களுக்கு சொல்லவேண்டும்?. ஆக, இது அம்மொழிமீதான ஒருவிதமான காதலே என்பது என் முடிவு! சமற்கிருதவெறுப்பு என்பது போலி!
சமற்கிருதம் எங்கு வாழ்கிறதோ இல்லையோ நம் பலரின் பெயர்களிலும் பல்வேறு புழங்கற்சொற்களிலும் சிறப்பாக வாழ்ந்துகொண்டிருக்கிறது. இன்னும் வாழும்!
நன்றி
வேல்
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S. Jayabarathan
வள்ளுவர் பெயரில் தில்லு, முள்ளு.
பல நல்ல தமிழறிஞர்கள் கலந்துகொள்ளும் இந்தக் கருத்தரங்கம் ஏன் இப்படி
ஒரு தலைப்பிலும் இப்படியான பிற்போக்கான கருத்தியலுடையதாகவும்
நடக்கவிருக்கின்றது. கைகளைக்கொண்டு கதிரவனைமறைப்பது போன்ற செயல்.
// மிகச்சரியாகச்சொல்லியுள்ளீர்கள் பேரா செல்வா!
நான் அறியும்வரையில் மெய்யாக யாருக்கும் சமற்கிருதவெறுப்பு இல்லை. சமற்கிருதம் ஒவ்வொருவருக்குள்ளும் ஓர் உணர்வாக மிக ஆழமாகவே பதிந்துள்ளது. சிலரால் அதை கண்டுகொள்ளாமல் விடவும்முடியவில்லை! அதை நேர்மையாகநின்று போற்றிப்பேசவும் முடியவில்லை. அதற்கு வெற்றரசியலைத்தவிர வேறு எந்தக்காரணமும் இருப்பதாக நான் கண்டதே இல்லை.
++++
தமிழை பாதுகாக்கும் இயக்கமொன்று தமிழை போற்றலாம். தனித்தமிழில் நிற்கலாம். மொழிக்கலப்பை/திணிப்பை எதிர்க்கலாம். ஆனால், இன்னொருமொழி ஏன் செம்மொழி இல்லை என்று தமிழர்களுக்கு சொல்லவேண்டும்?. ஆக, இது அம்மொழிமீதான ஒருவிதமான காதலே என்பது என் முடிவு! சமற்கிருதவெறுப்பு என்பது போலி!
சமற்கிருதம் எங்கு வாழ்கிறதோ இல்லையோ நம் பலரின் பெயர்களிலும் பல்வேறு புழங்கற்சொற்களிலும் சிறப்பாக வாழ்ந்துகொண்டிருக்கிறது. இன்னும் வாழும்!
நன்றி
வேல்
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S. Jayabarathan
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S. Jayabarathan
Seshadri Sridharan
S. Jayabarathan
- Kumārasambhava describes the birth and adolescence of the goddess Parvati, her marriage to Lord Shiva and the subsequent birth of their son Kumara (Kartikeya).
- Raghuvaṃśa is an epic poem about the kings of the Raghu dynasty.
Minor poems[edit]
Kālidāsa also wrote two khandakavyas (minor poems):
- Descriptive:[18] Ṛitusaṃhāra describes the six seasons by narrating the experiences of two lovers in each of the seasons.[N 1]
- Elegiac: Kālidāsa created his own genre of poetry[18] with Meghadūta (The Cloud Messenger[18]), the story of a Yaksha trying to send a message to his lover through a cloud. Kalidasa set this poem to the mandākrāntā meter, which is known for its lyrical sweetness. It is one of Kalidasa's most popular poems and numerous commentaries on the work have been written.
Plays[edit]
Kālidāsa wrote three plays. Among them, Abhijñānaśākuntalam ("Of Shakuntala recognised by a token") is generally regarded as a masterpiece. It was among the first Sanskrit works to be translated into English, and has since been translated into many languages.[19]
- Mālavikāgnimitram (Pertaining to Mālavikā and Agnimitra) tells the story of King Agnimitra, who falls in love with the picture of an exiled servant girl named Mālavikā. When the queen discovers her husband's passion for this girl, she becomes infuriated and has Mālavikā imprisoned, but as fate would have it, Mālavikā is in fact a true-born princess, thus legitimizing the affair.
- Abhijñānaśākuntalam (Of the recollection of Shakuntala) tells the story of King Dushyanta who, while on a hunting trip, meets Shakuntalā, the adopted daughter of a sage, and marries her. A mishap befalls them when he is summoned back to court: Shakuntala, pregnant with their child, inadvertently offends a visiting sage and incurs a curse, by which Dushyanta will forget her completely until he sees the ring he has left with her. On her trip to Dushyanta's court in an advanced state of pregnancy, she loses the ring, and has to come away unrecognized. The ring is found by a fisherman who recognizes the royal seal and returns it to Dushyanta, who regains his memory of Shakuntala and sets out to find her.
- Goethe was fascinated by Kalidasa's Abhijñānaśākuntalam, which became known in Europe, after being translated from English to German.
- Vikramōrvaśīyam (Urvashi Won by Valour) tells the story of mortal King Pururavas and celestial nymph Urvashi who fall in love. As an immortal, she has to return to the heavens, where an unfortunate accident causes her to be sent back to the earth as a mortal with the curse that she will die (and thus return to heaven) the moment her lover lays his eyes on the child which she will bear him. After a series of mishaps, including Urvashi's temporary transformation into a vine, the curse is lifted, and the lovers are allowed to remain together on the earth.
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C.R. Selvakumar
இப்படியான வன் திணிப்புகளை எதிர்ப்பது மிகவும் தேவை.
அறமன்றத்தலைவரின் கருத்தும் பெரும் வருத்தம் அளிக்கும் ஒன்று.
தமிழுக்கென்ற தொ. கா ஓடையில் ஏன் சமற்கிருதத்தில் செய்தி
படிக்கவேண்டும்? இப்படியான வன்திணிப்புகளால்தான் அம்மொழியின் மீதும்
அதனைத் திணிப்பவர்கள் மீதும் எதிர்ப்புணர்வு பெருகின்றது!
இச்செய்தியை நான் அறிந்திருக்கவில்லை!. நன்றி முனைவர்
தேமொழி அவர்களே!|
அன்புடன்
செல்வா
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S. Jayabarathan
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rajam
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தேமொழி
S. Jayabarathan
சமற்கிருதம் செம்மொழியல்ல இணையவழி உரையரங்கம்
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--அயற் சொற்களையும் அயல் எழுத்துகளையும் நீக்கித்தான் எழுத வேண்டும் என்றாலும் பிறரது கருத்துகளையும் பிற இதழ்கள் அல்லது தளங்களில் வந்த செய்திகளையும் மேலனுப்புகையில் அவ்வாறே பதிவதால் அல்லது அனுப்புவதால் தமிழ்த்தாயே பொறுத்தருள்க.
அன்புடன் இலக்குவனார் திருவள்ளுவன்
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பின்வரும் பதிவுகளைக் காண்க:
www.ilakkuvanar.com
thiru2050.blogspot.com
thiru-padaippugal.blogspot.com
http://writeinthamizh.blogspot.com/
http://literaturte.blogspot.com/
http://semmozhichutar.com
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