The Ocean – A Climate Champion? How to Boost Marine Carbon Dioxide Uptake.

[Michael Hayes]

" What action should we take for the effective mitigation of climate change? Measures to avoid greenhouse gas emissions are surely the main priority – but the truth is that in the coming decades, we will also have to remove large quantities of carbon dioxide from the atmosphere and store it securely. Can – indeed, should – the ocean aid us in this task? The new World Ocean Review (WOR 8) explores this issue with reference to the oceans' role in the Earth's carbon cycle and looks at the benefits, risks and knowledge gaps around the main marine carbon dioxide removal techniques."

https://oceanrep.geomar.de/id/eprint/60095/?fbclid=IwAR3GwEBf1VyNk59vM_dq06Qbl2FmegiNaLXynsbR5sZY80I6QdMwffWdAKY

MH] This work is an encyclopedia of current mCDR issues. Yet, the gyre regions are only disused 5 times, and all are rather brief and decidedly negative. As such, this work is overwhelming focused upon coastal water mCDR efforts where the environmental, policy  and socioeconomic limiting factors are the greatest of the entire marine space. 

Success in most complex undertakings often comes down to knowing which battles to avoid, or finding the path of least resistance, and developing technologies that can meet global scale mCDR needs via far offshore resources is more than likely the path of least resistance at the STEM, policy, and socioeconomics in achieving >10 GtC/y of scale in the shortest time plausible. Oceanic desert cover 40% of this planet and they are simply factored out of the mCDR discussion.

[Tom Goreau]

We recently did a Biorock bivalve mariculture project with Chilean oceanographers under a floating salmon farm in a fjord in southern Patagonia. Very interesting results in increasing biodiversity of shellfish and reducing weedy hydroid overgrowth, but very challenging to work there, and it would be much harder in the open ocean. Good luck!

 

I’d far rather work with the local Indigenous Huilliche people who have maintained coastal fish and shellfish ponds for thousands of years, to grow back their ecosystems and carbon being killed by pollution and dead zones caused by industrial salmon farms that reportedly provide 70% of US salmon imports.

 

Along with critical shellfish beds, 20 kilometers of the world’s ONLY known shallow cold water coral reefs have been killed there!

 

Thomas J. F. Goreau, PhD
President, Global Coral Reef Alliance

Chief Scientist, Blue Regeneration SL
President, Biorock Technology Inc.

Technical Advisor, Blue Guardians Programme, SIDS DOCK

37 Pleasant Street, Cambridge, MA 02139

gor...@globalcoral.org
www.globalcoral.org
Skype: tomgoreau
Tel: (1) 617-864-4226 (leave message)

 

Books:

Geotherapy: Innovative Methods of Soil Fertility Restoration, Carbon Sequestration, and Reversing CO2 Increase

http://www.crcpress.com/product/isbn/9781466595392

 

Innovative Methods of Marine Ecosystem Restoration

http://www.crcpress.com/product/isbn/9781466557734

 

Geotherapy: Regenerating ecosystem services to reverse climate change

 

No one can change the past, everybody can change the future

 

It’s much later than we think, especially if we don’t think

 

Those with their heads in the sand will see the light when global warming and sea level rise wash the beach away

 

“When you run to the rocks, the rocks will be melting, when you run to the sea, the sea will be boiling”, Peter Tosh, Jamaica’s greatest song writer

 

 

 

 

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[Michael Hayes]

Tom

I read a paper just yesterday on how cultivating abalone under floating open bottom fish farms is a good thing to do.

I don't see why physically working in the oceanic deserts would be any more difficult than working in coastal waters. The difference in transport costs is a realitively minor C and cost factor, especially if biofuel is a coproduct of the offshore operations.

Would the coastal remediation operations appreciate C neutral biofuel at sub market prices? Likely so. Can biofuel be produced in coastal waters? Not at the vast scale that marine deserts can likely provide for, and the social license, not to mention regulatory license, to carpet coastal waters with biofuel operations will more than likely never be achieved, ever.

The work at the scale and with the environmental/socioeconomic focus that you support is highly important for many reasons, yet that should not devalue the possibility of work on a truely vast scale within oceanic deserts, or devalue even proposing such work. Both coastal water efforts and marine desert work is within our collective abilities and both are clearly needed. Coastal remediation work will be largely useless if scaling CDR work to >10 GtC/y can not be achieved rather soon.

Best

[Wolf Lichtenstein]

Folks -  

Given the relative scale of removals that are necessary - gigaton scale - the fuel consumption of any operation, coastal or deep waters, is de minimis. The average tanker emits around 25 MtCO2e (tonnes) per day, less than a 1000 tonnes per month. A successful ocean going carbon removal project, I would hope, will be removing many 100,000's of tonnes a year. 

I do note that engagement with indigenous communities, promoting social, economic and biodiversity benefits that are a result of a well designed carbon project is quite valuable. Not only valuable to the local communities, but to investors and carbon credit buyers.  We need both (all) types of carbon projects - coastal-based and deep ocean removals.  

Regards,

Wolf

To view this discussion on the web visit https://groups.google.com/d/msgid/CarbonDioxideRemoval/CABjtO1fqQU6tANOxo9FFXdiJFRuL%3DjwrS8G5VZ3dTuKib0cjNw%40mail.gmail.com.

[Tom Goreau]

Abalone just love to eat Gracilaria, which are often scarce because they are such desirable food.  

 

We achieve much higher growth rates with Biorock for many species oysters, clams, and other bivalves, increasing growth up to 10 times faster, and with infinitely higher survival under stress than controls (which all died).

 

We grew Gracilaria at record rates in Jamaica for years, so they are easily grown together in mixed or sequential mariculture with shellfish, but we never had a chance to work with abalone, nor to measure Biorock direct stimulation of Gracilaria, had to abandon all our work due to lack of funding around 25 years ago.

 

Biorock greatly stimulates growth and stress resistance of seagrasses and saltmarsh grasses, and fleshy algae growing on Biorock reefs are almost completely consumed by herbivorous fish that scrape them down to limestone, except for the sand producing algae, which generate new sand that piles up underneath and forms new beaches on previously eroding shores.

 

The exception that proves the rule is the algae farms inside territories that are actively defended from grazers by aggressive damselfish, where algae grows in prolific masses. Herbivorous fish look lovingly at them, but are driven off by the persistent little biting pests that fearlessly attack anything that comes close to their algae gardens (diving scientists, and predatory sharks and barracudas too, they go after them all and don’t stop biting until they leave. Fortunately they are small, and have little teeth, they don’t eat the algae but suck up tiny invertebrates living on them. A barracuda bite is far worse, best just take my word for it!

 

Because Biorock stimulates ENTIRE ecosystems, with full biodiversity, much higher productivity can be achieved with internal nutrient cycling than in separate species mariculture (see attachments). No problem to do this in the open sea and produce large amounts of useful carbon products, even in the oceanic deserts if you have intensely recycling ecosystems and the resources to do so.

[Michael Hayes]

The first generation of H²/NH³ fueled ships, even crewless ships, are currently being built. Marine-grade PBRs are not much more than relatively simplistic enclosed 'production barges'. Standard ships supplied with cheap bio oil would be an environmental plus. The tech basket that I propose for use in far offshore mCDR work has no technical barriers at this time. 

Once scaled to ~10 GtC/y of CDR service capabilites, such large offshore biotic production volumes might start to reduce pressures on land/coastal resources. Getting to ~50 GtC/y of offshore biotic mCDR capacity would be be large enough to control whole global agricultural market segments. Offshore PBRs are not limited to saltwater crops, or even aquatic crops. And, if large ag can be convinced that offshore PBR-based cropping is cheaper, more reliable, and environmentally supportable than what they do now, there will be no shortage of funding to get to 10-50 GtC/y CDR scale.

The issue of not only the need for scale but also the need for speed of scale-up is critical. Working around issues, avoiding limiting scenarios, that hender both scale and speed leads one to seriously consider how to best use the least used 40% of the surface of this planet. Atleast to me.

[Michael Hayes]

I'm glad that you're sharing this valuable information with the group and me, Tom

As I've had lots of time to work through the details of ocean desert PBR use, it is easy for me to see how your work can be a huge, possibly make or break, contribution to even largely biologically/physically isolated production work. 

Your work and knowledge is not only important for what happens inside the PBR complex but also what will happen outside the infrastructure. I expect a robust web of flora and fauna to appear....free of charge! Your level of knowledge can help insure that the natural response will be a balanced/healthy response. 

[Michael MacCracken]

Dear Michael--Perhaps I've missed the discussion and consideration, but I've not seen an answer to the amount of nutrients that get transferred from being available on land to being tied up in the deep ocean, so a net lo of terrestrial fertility--and how sustainable this diversion from food production and soil fertility is?

Mike MacCracken

To view this discussion on the web visit https://groups.google.com/d/msgid/CarbonDioxideRemoval/CABjtO1dHK8ETQcKEP9BgGk0Qf%2B-_RTspBACJpvBH90Eud8hGsQ%40mail.gmail.com.

[Michael Hayes]

Thanks for the question, Michael.

1) The nutrients below the desert photic layer can be pulled up for use, or the PBRs can rest below the photic zone. Few life forms use that nutrient load. 

2) The use of dead zone benthic water is an interest as chemosynthetic cultivation of microalgae needs anoxic water, and that hypoxic water would need less energy to render it fully anoxic than other water sources. As it is well known, the nutrient content of dead zones is high in nitrogen and phosphorus.

3) Treated municipal waste water can be transported to the offshore site(s) and processed to fully reclaim nutrients and freshwater. This would obviously reduce coastal water fouling. Azolla is rather good at decontamination of waste water.

4) Azolla is a nitrogen fixing plant, and photobioreactors are not limited to saltwater cultivation, or even aquatic crops. Azolla also produces high levels of protein.

For most of the above options transportation C and cost factors are the primary issues, yet the proccesed nutrients can be returned to land in the form of food, feed, fertilizer, fuel etc. Sending Biochar to shore in vast quantities would likely improve the overall C math greatly.

Trasportation of bulk raw resources is always less effecient than transporting processed goods, and bringing people to the resources is better still. Vast scale processing platforms out in the dead calm hot oceanic deserts may not seem like a great living space to many, yet there likely will be many millions that would want the option if offered. Recycling their waste should be rather easy and cheap.

Working out exactly what the C math would be for this level of complex system of systems operation is far beyond me, and likely any one human as there are so many resource and operational options available. Yet, the CDR MRV values can be estimated system by system by a team of relevant experts. Reliance upon AI will likely be needed at the full conceptual evaluation level and will also likely be needed at the long-term operational level.

Paradigm shifts are not simple.

Best regards 

[Bhaskar M V]

Diatoms are the best feed for Abalones, especially in the initial stages / post-larval stage.

A couple of papers on the feeding habits of Abalones:

https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/13235818.1997.10673688 

Contribution of diatoms as food sources for post-larval abalone Haliotis discus hannai on a crustose coralline alga

"The results of this study indicate that diatoms are essential for the rapid growth of post-larval abalone on the CCA. It is considered that the CCA L. yessoense itself is not principal food source for post-larval H. discus hannai from approximately 500 11m to at least 3 mm shell length."

https://aquadocs.org/bitstream/handle/1834/17927/1_Creencia%20et%20al.%20Diatoms%20in%20the%20stomach%20of%20abalone_PalSci_2016.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y

Composition, size and relative density of diatoms in the stomach of 4 to 75 day-old juvenile abalone Haliotis diversicolor (Reeve)  

"The diatoms present in the stomach of tokobushi were Thalassiosira, Melosira, Triceratium, Odontella, Asterionella, Licmophora, Thalassionema, Cocconeis, Navicula and Nitzschia. Only four varieties of diatoms were observed in 4 to 10 day-old tokobushi which coincided with initial feeding. The number and size of diatoms increased in 13 to 75 day-old juvenile, which were exhibited in its exponential growth pattern."

Regards

Bhaskar

[Jeff Suchon]

And you don't need MIRRORS! THAT'S 100% BS. Just hihly reflective surfaces.

God. The answers are bs.

To view this discussion on the web visit https://groups.google.com/d/msgid/CarbonDioxideRemoval/004e3534-aa4c-4fdf-88aa-27d0bad25357n%40googlegroups.com.

[Michael Hayes]

Jeff, et al.,

No one in this thread mentioned that increasing albedo is not needed. Albedo, however, is not the topic of this thread or the topic of the lead publication that deals with state of the art mCDR knowledge. 

Adding albedo tech, such as MEERS and MCB, to a vast scale far offshore mCDR infrastructure would be a natural fit. Including other non-CDR techs into the system of systems will likely happen if such a large mCDR infrastructure gets developed and deployed. 

Best regards 

To view this discussion on the web visit https://groups.google.com/d/msgid/CarbonDioxideRemoval/CAKHEY4cmUmtkf7XrK58P3_cP_%2BAGNn4HZA_oCd%2BM%3D7Ne8G6X4w%40mail.gmail.com.

[Michael MacCracken]

Dear Michael--I'd urge a much more thorough look at this issue given the magnitude that is being proposed. I'm not an expert in marine biochemistry, but there are multiple requirements, and the proposal is very extensive areal coverage. Am I wrong that Nature never in Earth history was naturally sequestering the amounts of carbon being suggested as the amount that will be done, so this would be quite a geoengineering effort? While it may seem innocuous, it really needs very careful analysis and investigation.

Best, Mike

[Bhaskar M V]

Michael MacCracken

"Am I wrong that Nature never in Earth history was naturally sequestering the amounts of carbon being suggested as the amount that will be done, ..."

Michael Hayes 

1) The nutrients below the desert photic layer can be pulled up for use, or the PBRs can rest below the photic zone. Few life forms use that nutrient load. 

Sunlight can be piped to, and Electric lights can be installed, below the photic zone, where Macro-Nutrients, Silica and Micro-nutrients are available.

2) The use of dead zone benthic water is an interest as chemosynthetic cultivation of microalgae needs anoxic water, and that hypoxic water would need less energy to render it fully anoxic than other water sources. As it is well known, the nutrient content of dead zones is high in nitrogen and phosphorus.

The Nutrients in the 'Dead Zones' can be used to grow beneficial Phytoplankton - Diatom Algae. 

3) Treated municipal waste water can be transported to the offshore site(s) and processed to fully reclaim nutrients and freshwater. This would obviously reduce coastal water fouling. Azolla is rather good at decontamination of waste water.

UNTreated sewage and Fertilizer runoff can be used close to the coast to grow Diatom Algae, this is more economical than growing Azolla.

4) Azolla is a nitrogen fixing plant, and photobioreactors are not limited to saltwater cultivation, or even aquatic crops. Azolla also produces high levels of protein.

Diatom - Zooplankton - Fish is a better solution than Azolla.

Catching fish is easier than harvesting Azolla. 

Growing Diatoms is easier than growing Azolla.

Regards

Bhaskar

Director

Kadambari Consultants Pvt Ltd

Hyderabad. India

Ph. & WhatsApp : +91 92465 08213

https://www.linkedin.com/in/bhaskarmv/

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[Mike Williamson]

The Permian – Triassic extinction created the fossil fuels that we now are trying our best to duplicate. We will have a difficult time matching that without the assistance of an asteroid strike.

Mike

---

From: carbondiox...@googlegroups.com <carbondiox...@googlegroups.com> on behalf of Bhaskar M V <bhaska...@gmail.com>
Sent: Monday, March 18, 2024 9:17 PM
To: Michael MacCracken <mmac...@comcast.net>
Cc: Michael Hayes <electro...@gmail.com>; Wolf Lichtenstein <wo...@evergreencarbon.com>; Tom Goreau <gor...@globalcoral.org>; Carbon Dioxide Removal <CarbonDiox...@googlegroups.com>
Subject: Re: [CDR] The Ocean – A Climate Champion? How to Boost Marine Carbon Dioxide Uptake.

 

To view this discussion on the web visit https://groups.google.com/d/msgid/CarbonDioxideRemoval/CALBeeSoww%2BSS63mNpLdu-Dd_Rb%3DoG4qpKK-Z44DL-nLaROCkWg%40mail.gmail.com.

[Eelco Rohling]

No it didn’t Mike. These resources were mainly built up during (mainly Mesozoic) Ocean Anoxic Events.

Cheers

Eelco

Sent from my iPhone

On 19 Mar 2024, at 07:35, Mike Williamson <mi...@wassoc.com> wrote:



You don't often get email from mi...@wassoc.com. Learn why this is important

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[Tom Goreau]

Petroleum is mostly of Cretaceous age (145-65 My), most coal is older, from the Carboniferous (360-300my).

 

They reflect periods of continuous accumulation of organic carbon from living productive ecosystems.

 

Large extinctions like the Permo-Triassic disrupt this accumulation, not cause it as suggested below.

 

After every global mass extinction coral reefs disappear for several million years until new species can evolve.

 

We’re at the edge of such a mass extinction right now, caused by fossil fuels.

[Tom Goreau]

Diatom eating is true of the pelagic larval and perhaps very recently settled juvenile abalones, but the adults, who can live for decades, crawl over the bottom in search of Gracilaria to eat.

 

You can farm abalone easily if you grow enough Gracilaria to keep them growing at maximum rate.

 

Methods to do so, developed by Philippines marine scientists are in a book I edited for the UN 20 years ago.

 

Most people only know the nearly extinct large species of Baja California and Alta California, but there are abundant smaller tropical species in South East Asia.

 

To view this discussion on the web visit https://groups.google.com/d/msgid/CarbonDioxideRemoval/004e3534-aa4c-4fdf-88aa-27d0bad25357n%40googlegroups.com.

[Tom Goreau]

Azolla is very easy to grow, it is deliberately seeded in rice paddies across Asia for the nitrogen benefits it give to rice, and covers the surface as in the photos I posted. But it can only be grown in fresh water, while diatoms grow in all coastal waters, fresh and salt (but different species), so have much greater global carbon sequestration potential.

 

Azolla is not the best plant for sewage purification, which is Vetiveria zizanoides, the world’s best soil erosion prevention plant to keep soil organic carbon on the land where it is most needed, so it doesn’t smother coral reefs. There are about half a dozen vetiver application chapters in the Geotherapy book. I’m developing plans to use it for tertiary sewage treatment to stop severe pollution of rivers and coral reefs in Jamaica.

 

From: Bhaskar M V <bhaska...@gmail.com>
Date: Tuesday, March 19, 2024 at 12:18 

AM

[Eelco Rohling]

Yup indeed. 

See also details in my 2017  general-audience book ‘The Oceans: a Deep History’ (Princeton University Press). 

And comparison of associated rates of change with current processes also in my 2019 general-audience book ‘The Climate Question: Natural Cycles, Human Impact, Future Outlook’ (Oxford University Press).

All this sort of info is out there, in easily digestable form as well as detailed scientific papers.

Eelco Rohling

Sent from my iPhone

On 19 Mar 2024, at 11:12, Tom Goreau <gor...@globalcoral.org> wrote:



[Tom Goreau]

These are great books, clearly and concisely written!

 

It’s worth adding that the amount of coal carbon resources, which are of terrestrial origin, are around 3 times greater than the petroleum resources which are almost all of marine origin.

 

This reflects the fact that the carbon cycle on land produces much more carbon storage than it does in the ocean, where carbon is almost all consumed unless it falls into a dead zone and can make petroleum after around a hundred million years of cooking in the geothermal gradient.

 

From: Eelco Rohling <eelco....@anu.edu.au>
Date: Tuesday, March 19, 2024 at 6:37 

AM

[Bhaskar M V]

Dr Goreau

Sure. Diatoms are essential during the Post Larval and Juvenile stages.

Availability of Diatoms determines the survival rate, so more Juveniles make it to mature stage if Diatoms are available.

Blue Green Algal blooms prevent Gracilaria from growing.

Diatoms keep the water clean and enable Gracilaria and other such species to grow.

Regards

Bhaskar

Director

Kadambari Consultants Pvt Ltd

Hyderabad. India

Ph. & WhatsApp : +91 92465 08213

https://www.linkedin.com/in/bhaskarmv/

[Bhaskar M V]

Mike

The objective is to remove the inventory of up to 450 GtC of Anthropogenic Carbon from atmosphere and oceans, 300 & 150 respectively, 

and 10 GtC per year current emissions.

So comparing it to the total stock of fossil fuels, total amount of Organic Carbon, etc., is not necessary, 

these are in thousands and hundreds of thousands of billions of tons.

We just need to discuss the possible increase in

- Diatom production given the Nutrient availability in Oceans, natural and anthropogenic.

- fish production per year and fish biomass in Oceans, and related issues.

Regards

Bhaskar

Director

Kadambari Consultants Pvt Ltd

Hyderabad. India

Ph. & WhatsApp : +91 92465 08213

https://www.linkedin.com/in/bhaskarmv/

[Eelco Rohling]

For some scale arguments, see https://academic.oup.com/oocc/article/3/1/kgad004/7135823?login=false

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[Michael Hayes]

Michael, et al.,

Around 49 Mya, it is likely that the azolla plant overgrew the Arctic ocean and ended the Thermal Maximum:

https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Azolla_event

It may have taken 800K years to cool the planet, and we obviously do not have that amount of time. However, using PBRs would allow the use of a maximum CO² air content to grow the plant, any photosynthetic plant. Along with a hyper CO² uptake cultivation ability, all CDR technologies, and even a few SRM techniques, would have a platform to work from. That is where the C math becomes truely complex.

Importantly, the technologies that have no ability of being economically self supporting can be supported by what should be a profitable biotic mCDR operation to some degree.

I recently came up to speed on "Bubble Stripping", a non-profitable method to accelerate CO² movement from water to air, and would like to include a heavily modified version of that method in a general CDR/SRM offshore platform system of systems. If you're interested, I'll send you a brief early draft of the proposal to modify and use the method.

https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acs.est.5b04733

A general CDR/SRM offshore platform system of systems, with a profitable Biotic CDR system as an anchor method, will likely be continuously updated with new and usefull technologies. Currently, the ability to properly test at a small yet industrial scale is limited for many CDR early stage proposed methods and that holds back proper evaluations and thus timely deployment.

Best regards

[Tom Goreau]

The Wikipedia article misses what was likely the major mechanism causing “rapid” CO2 drawdown in the Azolla Event (rapid on geological scales, i.e. not fast enough to save us now).

 

Azolla grows only in fresh water, but since the planet had much higher CO2 and temperature then, dead Azolla clumps fell into salty water trapped underneath warm fresh water, like a vastly larger tropical Black Sea plus Baltic. Deep water became a dead zone from decomposition, feeding nitrogen and phosphorus to Azolla at the surface during extreme storm wave events.

 

Thomas J. F. Goreau, PhD
President, Global Coral Reef Alliance

Chief Scientist, Blue Regeneration SL
President, Biorock Technology Inc.

Technical Advisor, Blue Guardians Programme, SIDS DOCK

37 Pleasant Street, Cambridge, MA 02139

gor...@globalcoral.org
www.globalcoral.org
Skype: tomgoreau
Tel: (1) 617-864-4226 (leave message)

 

Books:

Geotherapy: Innovative Methods of Soil Fertility Restoration, Carbon Sequestration, and Reversing CO2 Increase

http://www.crcpress.com/product/isbn/9781466595392

 

Innovative Methods of Marine Ecosystem Restoration

http://www.crcpress.com/product/isbn/9781466557734

 

Geotherapy: Regenerating ecosystem services to reverse climate change

 

No one can change the past, everybody can change the future

 

It’s much later than we think, especially if we don’t think

 

Those with their heads in the sand will see the light when global warming and sea level rise wash the beach away

 

“When you run to the rocks, the rocks will be melting, when you run to the sea, the sea will be boiling”, Peter Tosh, Jamaica’s greatest song writer

 

 

 

 

From: Michael Hayes <electro...@gmail.com>
Date: Tuesday, March 19, 2024 at 12:55 

PM

[Michael Hayes]

Tom, et al.,

Freshwater cultivation is more than possible out in the oceanic deserts when using enclosed PBRs. There are multiple ways to obtain freshwater and to recycle it. Terrestrial crops, non aquatic crops, can also be grown with enclosed PBRs. Terrestrial animal farming, not my personal favorite farming segment, can also be supported. 

The size of the PBRs can become rather large. Currently, the largest HDPE pipe is around 2.5 m in diameter and 0.25+ km long. When extruded out on the Ocean, where the extrusion can hang down, the dimensions can reach rather large size.

https://youtu.be/qXtVQWHgNig?si=rZ0eLSuNnydPzLrt

Armoring such pipes/tanks/PBR with Biorock would give the HDPE structures an indefinite service life. Building oceanic structures that can last millennial time spans is doable today.

Best regards

[Michael Hayes]

To add, HDPE can be made with bio oil derived from offshore biotic production that uses HDPE PBRs. That would make such a structure largely self-replicating at the basic materials level. 

Biorock also falls into the 'largely self-replicating' category of maritime building materials. Combing both to rapidly 'grow' an offshore infrastructure simply takes money at this time to start.

[Michael Hayes]

A final note on structures, if 'grown' to provive CDR scale services, an oceanic HDPE structure will itself become a C sink, a C sink that continues to preform an ever larger volume of CDR/SRM services, as well as providing renewable energy production/storage operations.