Effects of Decaffeinated Coffee AND TEA on Health - dichloromethane used in decaf process is carcinogenic!!!
( _ /)
Effects of Decaffeinated Coffee on Health
The article below is an in-depth review of the current research
available about the affects of decaffeinated coffee on health. It is
primarily intended for health care and medical professionals. If you
would like to read a summary of the main points in this article, click
here.
If you've already decided you need to eliminate, or cut back, on
coffee in your diet, click here for a simple, easy to follow program
to quit coffee painlessly in just two weeks.
Caffeine is often the primary focus when the negative health effects
of coffee are discussed. But there are a number of significant
chemical compounds present in coffee, other than caffeine, which also
have strong effects on the body. Some of the more common active
constituents include chlorogenic acid, caffeol and diterpenes. Many
health conditions that are aggravated by coffee are still affected by
decaffeinated coffee, despite the lowered level of caffeine, due to
these other phytochemicals that remain in decaf coffee after the
decaffeination process. Current studies suggest that, for people who
are sensitive to coffee’s effects, decaffeinated brews may still
exacerbate their health problems. Therefore, the healthiest option may
be to eliminate both regular and decaffeinated coffee from the diet.
Implications of Decaffeination Methods
The decaffeination process itself is not always innocuous. There are
three common decaffeination methods: the use of one of two organic
solvents, either methylene chloride or ethyl acetate; water extraction
known as the Swiss water process or European water process; and
supercritical carbon dioxide. Eighty percent of decaffeinated coffee
is processed with solvents. The health effects of these solvents as
found in decaffeinated coffee are not well known, but studies suggest
that methylene chloride (dichloromethane) is shown to be
carcinogenic,1, 2 and the National Cancer Institute’s list of
chemicals labels it as a possible human carcinogen.3 In the
decaffeination process, the solvents are removed from the coffee
beans, but residues have still been found in decaffeinated coffee and
tea.4 When water and carbon dioxide are used to decaffeinate coffee, a
measurable residue is not left behind in the remaining beans, but high
acidity and other phytochemicals found in coffee remain. Additionally,
in the process of water extraction, unique flavor characteristics of
coffees from different origins are blended and blurred water
extraction due to the intermingling of the flavors from various types
of beans in the water bath. Among the decaffeination methods,
methylene chloride extraction retains the most flavor but leaves a dry
taste in the mouth; both water extraction and carbon dioxide
extraction blur the flavor of the beans and ethyl acetate adds a sweet
fruit flavor. Additionally, inferior beans that may be old or moldy
are often used for decaffeination because the process can remove off
flavors and mask the age or condition of the beans.
Amount of Caffeine in Decaffeinated Coffee
According to FDA guidelines, decaffeinated coffee must have 97% of the
caffeine removed. In actuality, the caffeine content of coffee beans
varies widely; therefore the caffeine content of decaffeinated coffee
also fluctuates, and can be 10mg or more per 12 ounce cup.5 Other
measurements found caffeine levels up to 17.5mg per 16 ounce cup.6
Starbucks reports that there is up to 11mg of caffeine in each 8 oz
cup of Starbucks decaf coffee, but a Starbucks ” tall”, their smallest
serving size, is 12 ounces and a “grande” is 16 oz, giving their
servings 16.5 mg and 22mg respectively. Many coffee drinkers don’t
limit themselves to 12 or 16 ounces but repeatedly fill oversize mugs
or consume larger sizes in coffee shops. The additive effects of
several cups of decaffeinated coffee consumed throughout the day can
be significant if someone is sensitive to caffeine or suffering from a
health condition aggravated by caffeine.
Acidity of Decaffeinated Coffee
It is well-known throughout the coffee industry that decaffeinated
coffee is more acidic than regular coffee due to the fact that
decaffeinated coffee is made from Robusta beans. Robusta beans are
used because they retain more of the coffee flavor after the
decaffeination process; Robusta beans have a higher concentration of
caffeine and are more acidic than other beans. This is problematic for
people with health problems such as acid reflux, GERDS and ulcers
making them susceptible to the detrimental effects of high levels of
acidity.7
All of the food and drink consumed affects the body’s pH balance. In a
condition of homeostasis, the pH should be naturally alkaline, but
consumption of acidic foods including decaffeinated coffee increases
metabolic acidity, producing negative systemic effects.8 One of the
problems associated with metabolic acidity is decreased bone density.
This occurs because minerals appear to have a buffering effect on the
bloodstream and are subsequently leached from the bone to restore
alkalinity to the blood when metabolic levels have shifted too far
into acidity.9 Both regular and decaf coffee consumption impede the
absorption and increase excretion of minerals including calcium,
magnesium, zinc and iron, further increasing mineral loss. 10, 11, 12,
13 Chronic metabolic acidity also stimulates increased cortisol
secretion, activating the body’s stress response14. Elevated cortisol
levels aggravate health conditions sensitive to stress including acid
reflux, ulcers, irritable bowel syndrome, and cardiovascular disease.
Decaf Coffee Increases Heart Attack Risk
Numerous studies show that decaffeinated coffee raises the risk for
heart attacks similar to regular coffee in spite of the lowered levels
of caffeine. Levels of LDL cholesterol, a strong predictor for heart
attacks, have been shown to increase after coffee drinkers switch from
regular coffee to decaf coffee. The results of theses studies suggest
that other constituents in coffee, not removed in the decaffeination
process, are responsible for increasing the risk factors for heart
disease.
Chlorogenic acid is found in both caffeinated and decaffeinated
coffee. Significantly, chlorogenic acid has been implicated to be a
factor that raises plasma levels of homocysteine,15 which is
associated with increased susceptibility of developing cardiovascular
disease. Reducing intake of both caffeinated and decaffeinated coffee
may be important in controlling plasma homocysteine levels.16
Decaf Coffee Produces Adverse Metabolic Effects
Just like regular coffee, decaf coffee produces a variety of adverse
metabolic effects that include stimulating the sympathetic or
autonomic nervous system, which raises heart rate, blood pressure and
causes shaking and tremors commonly thought of as "coffee jitters".
Decaf coffee stimulates the lower GI tract and can cause laxative
effects like regular coffee in spite of the reduced amount of
caffeine. Decaf coffee interferes with the absorption of minerals such
as iron, calcium and magnesium and it increases intraocular pressure
that can be dangerous for people at risk for glaucoma. Clearly
components in coffee other than caffeine strongly affect the body and
produce many of the same effects as regular coffee.
The following characteristics of decaffeinated coffee produce adverse
health effects:
Decaffeinated Coffee Increases Acidity
Decaffeinated Coffee Increases gastrin levels.
Regular coffee, decaffeinated coffee and pure caffeine all stimulate
the release of gastrin after ingestion. Gastrin is the hormone that
stimulates acid release in the stomach. Decaffeinated coffee causes
statistically significant increases in serum gastrin levels,17 and
stimulates trypsin secretion.18
Significantly, GI acid secretion is markedly greater after
decaffeinated and regular coffee than it is after ingestion of
caffeine alone.19, 20 When decaffeinated coffee was compared to a
widely-used protein-based test meal, known to increase gastric
acidity, decaffeinated coffee caused more significant stimulation of
release of gastrin and secretion of acid.21
Decaffeinated Coffee Increases Gastroesopheal Pressure Exacerbating
Heartburn and Acid Reflux
Both decaffeinated and regular coffee cause similar increases in
gastroesopheal sphincter pressure, while pressure changed minimally in
response to pure caffeine, tap water, or black (caffeinated) tea. 22,
23 This indicates that compounds in coffee other than caffeine are
responsible for increased incidence of acid reflux after coffee
consumption.
Both Regular and Decaf Coffee Increase Metabolic Acidity
Coffee is highly acidic, with pH values ranging from 4.9-5.8.24
Dietary intake strongly influences metabolic acidity.25, 26 The
natural pH of the body is just above 7.0, and metabolic processes
function best at a slightly alkaline pH. In measurements of food
effects on acid/alkaline body chemical balance, coffee is identified
as a substance that increases metabolic acidity.27
Decaffeinated Coffee Interferes with Bone Density
Increased metabolic acidity associated with drinking decaffeinated
coffee interferes with healthy bone density. Numerous studies provide
evidence for the theory that minerals removed from bone have an
alkalizing effect on chronic metabolic acidity.28
Excess acidity has been associated with negative calcium balance and
increased excretion of calcium.29 Chronically, metabolic acidity
alters bone cell function, increasing osteoclastic bone resorption and
decreasing osteoblastic bone formation.30
Calcium is not only necessary for preventing osteoporosis and
maintaining adequate bone density, but adequate calcium is crucial for
a healthy heart and nervous system.
Decaffeinated Coffee Increases Heart Attack Risk
Numerous studies show that decaffeinated coffee raises the risk for
heart attack similar to regular coffee in spite of the lowered levels
of caffeine. A study comparing people who suffered from a myocardial
infarction with community-matched controls demonstrated that drinking
decaffeinated versus caffeinated coffee did not lower a person’s risk
of developing a myocardial infarction. Drinking tea, even containing
caffeine, was associated with a lower risk of myocardial infarction.31
This suggests that substances in coffee other than caffeine contribute
to increased risk of heart attacks and decaffeinated coffee increases
heart attack risk.
Decaffeinated Coffee Increases Plasma Homocysteine Levels
Increased plasma homocysteine intensifies a person’s risk of suffering
from a heart attack, particularly in people who have previously
suffered a heart attack, or who are already at high risk. Homocysteine
negatively affects the vascular endothelium, or lining of the blood
vessels.32
Coffee drinking significantly increases homocysteine in the
bloodstream, even more so than caffeine alone. The negative effect of
coffee occurs with both caffeinated and decaffeinated coffee, and is
noted within hours of coffee consumption.33 Filtering the coffee does
not affect homocysteine; unfiltered coffee as well as filtered coffee
increased homocysteine levels.34, 35
Chlorogenic acid raises plasma homocysteine levels, and is found to
lower blood concentrations of the B vitamin folate. One study observed
a lower rise in plasma homocysteine with simple chlorogenic acid
compared to the greater increase of homocysteine in studies with
coffee; this suggests that chlorogenic acid may not be the only
homocysteine-raising factor in coffee.36
Plasma homocysteine concentrations are higher in coffee drinkers than
non-coffee drinkers and have been shown to increase Plasma
homocysteine concentrations increased after coffee consumption in
people who measured normal homocysteine concentrations before
coffee.37
Decaffeinated Coffee Raises Cholesterol
Upon switching from caffeinated to decaffeinated coffee, levels of
serum LDL cholesterol and apolipoprotein B increased, whereas
discontinuation of caffeinated coffee revealed no change. This finding
suggests that a phytochemical present in coffee other than caffeine is
responsible for the subsequent LDL cholesterol, apolipoprotein B, and
lipase activity.38
Cholesterol-raising diterpenes, kahweol and cafestol, are present in
unfiltered coffee, which includes coffee made in a French press or
cafetiere,39 as well as espresso. Coffee oils other than caffeine have
also been demonstrated to elevate liver enzyme levels, which are an
indicator of injury to or compromise of the cells of the liver,
further inhibiting the liver’s ability to effectively regulate serum
cholesterol.40
Decaffeinated Coffee Produces Adverse Metabolic Effects Just Like
Regular Coffee
Decaffeinated Coffee Stimulates the Sympathetic or Autonomic Nervous
System
Coffee, even decaffeinated, stimulates the sympathetic (fight or
flight) portion of the autonomic nervous system regardless of the
amount of caffeine present.41
Heart rate, arterial blood pressure and muscle sympathetic nervous
activity, including hand shaking, tremors or jitters, are all
stimulated by decaffeinated as well as regular coffee, indicating that
it is a substance other than caffeine present in coffee creating these
effects.42
Decaffeinated Coffee Stimulates the Gastrointestinal (GI) Tract to
Overactivity
Coffee produces a laxative effect in susceptible people through
stimulation of rectosigmoid motor activity, as rapidly as four minutes
after drinking. Even modest doses of coffee can have this effect,
whether or not the body is ready to dispose of accumulated waste
products, resulting in loose stools. Studies show that decaffeinated
coffee has a similar stimulant effect on the GI tract proving that the
laxative effect of coffee is not due solely to caffeine.43, 44, 45
Decaffeinated Coffee Interferes with Mineral Absorption
Iron is an essential component of red blood cells, and iron deficiency
is a frequent cause of anemia. Coffee drinking reduces iron
absorption.46, 47 Caffeine is not the only ingredient thought to
interfere with iron absorption; chlorogenic acid, also present in
decaffeinated coffee, reduces the ability of the body to absorb iron
from food sources.48
Coffee consumption, even aside from caffeine, is shown to increase
loss of calcium, magnesium and zinc.49, 50, 51
Decaffeinated Coffee Increases Intraocular Pressure
Both decaffeinated and caffeinated coffee increase intraocular
pressure. Intraocular pressure increases risk of developing glaucoma
and further pressure increases can be dangerous in people who are
already suffering from glaucoma. While caffeinated coffee more
significantly increased intraocular pressure, decaffeinated coffee
also caused a rise in levels of pressure within the eye.52
Decaffeinated Coffee Is Associated with Increased Incidence of
Rheumatoid Arthritis
A recent, large-scale epidemiological study has shown that drinking
more than four cups of decaffeinated coffee per day has been linked to
increased risk of developing rheumatoid arthritis, while caffeine
intake was not associated with greater risk, and drinking more than 3
cups of tea per day was actually associated with decreased risk of
developing rheumatoid arthritis.53
Recommendation:
People most often switch from caffeinated to decaffeinated coffee due
to a desire to improve their health; frequently on their own, but
often due to the advice of their physician or other primary health
care provider.54 But for people with a number of health conditions,
drinking decaffeinated coffee may not necessarily create the desired
health improvements. There are many healthy beverage choices currently
available but coffee drinkers are not usually satisfied by teas, which
taste watery and weak to the coffee palate. A satisfying alternative,
herbal coffee, allows coffee drinkers to keep their same brewing
ritual while enjoying roasted, full body flavor with hearty flavor and
aroma. Herbal coffee has a number of nutritional health benefits and
its natural alkalinity doesn’t provoke the common health problems
associated with coffee’s acidity. Nutrition professionals can support
patients at risk for cardiovascular disease, acid reflux, GERDS and
IBS or IBD by guiding them through the process of substituting a
non-caffeinated, alkaline herbal coffee that brews and tastes just
like coffee.
Kicking the Caffeine Habit:
The social prevalence of coffee drinking and the addictive side
effects of caffeine can cause problems with patient compliance.
Caffeine-free herbal coffee marketed under the brand name of Teeccino®
helps coffee drinkers replace their regular or decaf coffee with a
satisfying alternative. Coffee drinkers need a dark, full-bodied,
robust brew to help satisfy their coffee craving. Teeccino satisfies
the 4 needs coffee drinkers require in a coffee alternative:
Teeccino brews just like coffee, allowing coffee drinkers to keep
their same brewing ritual.
It has a delicious, deep roasted flavor that is very coffee-like.
It wafts an enticing aroma.
People experience a natural energy boost from nutritious Teeccino.
Teeccino offers the following health benefits for people who need to
lose weight:
Beneficial Features of Teeccino Teeccino Ingredients56, 57, 58, 59,
60, 61, 62, 63, 64, 65, 66, 67
Inulin fiber from chicory
Unlike coffee, Teeccino has nutritional value, including soluble
inulin fiber, a pre-biotic that helps support a healthy population of
beneficial microflora.
Inulin improves mineral absorption
65 mg of Potassium
Teeccino is a source of potassium. In liquid form, potassium is easily
absorbed to help relieve muscle fatigue, maintain normal heart rhythm
and blood pressure, and help prevent strokes.
Alkaline – helps reduce acidity
As opposed to acidic coffee, Teeccino is alkaline, which reduces
stomach metabolic acidity.
Gluten Free
Gluten does not extract into boiling water. Tests show Teeccino is
gluten free although it contains barley.
Naturally Caffeine-free
No chemical processing like decaffeinated coffee.
Carob
Consumption of water-soluble fiber from carob lowers elevated blood
cholesterol in healthy people.
Barley
Contains niacin, a B vitamin important for healthy heart function.
Shown to have a beneficial effect on lipid metabolism
Almond
Has a beneficial effect on serum lipid levels
Figs
Contain polyphenols, plant compounds that act as antioxidants.
A good source of potassium
Dates
Contains potassium and magnesium, important for maintaining heart
rhythm, bone health and metabolic alkalinity.
Chicory Root
Has been shown to improve mineral absorption, including magnesium.
Kicking the Coffee Habit: The Pain-free Way to Wean off of Coffee
Start by mixing normal coffee 3/4 to 1/4 Teeccino Herbal Coffee.
Gradually reduce the percentage of coffee over a two to three week
period until only 100% Teeccino Herbal Coffee is brewed. Gradual
reduction of caffeine is recommended.55 Side effects such as
headaches, fatigue, and brain fogginess can be avoided as the body
gradually adjusts to less reliance on stimulants.
Example: Use the following proportions if you make a 10-cup pot of
coffee daily:
Day Regular Coffee Teeccino
Day 1-3: 4 tablespoons 1 tablespoons
Day 4-6: 3 tablespoons 2 tablespoons
Day 7-9: 2 tablespoons 3 tablespoons
Day 10: 1 1/2 tablespoons 3 1/2 tablespoons
Day 11: 1 tablespoon 4 tablespoons
Day 12-13: 1/2 tablespoon 4 1/2 tablespoons
Day 14: none 5 tablespoons
References
Lynge, E. Anntila, A. and Hemminiki, K. 1997. Organic solvents and
cancer. Cancer Causes and Control. 8(3): 406-19.
Liteplo, R.G., Long, G.W. and Meek, M.E. 1998. Relevance of
carcinogenicity bioassays in mice in assessing potential health risks
associated with exposure to methylene chloride. Human and Experimental
Toxicology, 17(2): 84-7.
National Cancer Institute website: http://epi.grants.cancer.gov/.
January 2004.
Page, B.D. and Charbonneau, C.F. 1984. Headspace gas chromatographic
determination of methylene chloride in decaffeinated tea and coffee,
with electrolyte conductivity detection. Journal of the Association of
Official Analytical Chemists, 67(4): 757-61.
Cherniske, S. 1998. Caffeine Blues. Warner Books, New York.
McCusker, R.R., Goldberger, B.A. and Cone, E.J. 2003. Caffeine content
of specialty coffees. Journal of Analytical Toxicology. 27(7):520-2.
Cherniske, S. 1998. Caffeine Blues. Warner Books, New York.
Frassetto, L., Morris, R., Sellmeyer, D., Todd, K. and Sebastian, A.
2001. Diet, evolution and aging: the pathophysiologic effects of the
post-agricultural inversion of the potassium-to-sodium and
base-to-chloride ratios in the human diet. European Journal of
Nutrition 40(5): 200-213.
Tucker, K.L. 2003. Dietary Intake and Bone Status with Aging. Current
Pharmaceutical Design. 9(31):1-18.
Johnson, S. 2001. The multifaceted and widespread pathology of
magnesium deficiency. Medical Hypotheses. 56(2): 163-70.
Morck, T.A., Lynch, S.R. and Cook, J.D. 1983. Inhibition of food iron
absorption by coffee. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition.
37(3):416-20.
Hasling, C., Sondergaard, K., Charles, P. and Mosekilde, L. 1992.
Calcium metabolism in postmenopausal osteoporotic women is determined
by dietary calcium and coffee intake. Journal of Nutrition. 122(5):
1119-26.
Ribeiro-Alves, M.A., Trugo, L.C. and Donangelo, C.M. 2003. Use of oral
contraceptives blunts the calciuric effect of caffeine in young adult
women. Journal of Nutrition. 133: 393-398.
Maurer, M., Riesen, W., Muser, J., Hulter, H.N. and Krapf, R. 2003.
Neutralization of Western diet inhibits bone resorption independently
of K intake and reduces cortisol secretion in humans. American journal
of physiology. Renal physiology. 284(1):F32-40.
Olthof, M.R., Hollman, P.C., Zock, P.L. and Katan, M.B. 2001.
Consumption of high doses of chlorogenic acid, present in coffee, or
of black tea increases plasma total homocysteine concentrations in
humans. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition. 73(3):532-8.
Mennen, L.I., Potier de Courcy, G., Guilland, J.-C., Ducros, V.,
Bertrais, S., Nicolas, J.-P., Maurel, M., Zarebska, M., Favier, A.,
Franchisseur, C., Hercberg, S. and Galan, P. 2002. Homocysteine,
cardiovascular disease risk factors, and habitual diet in the French
supplementation with antioxidant vitamins and minerals study. American
Journal of Clinical Nutrition. 76:1279-89.
Acquaviva, F., DeFrancesco, A., Andriulli, A., Piantino, P., Arrigoni,
A., Massarenti, P. and Balzola, F. 1986. Effect of regular and
decaffeinated coffee on serum gastrin levels. Clinical
Gastroenterology. 8(2):150-3.
Coffey, R.J., Go, V.L., Zinsmeister, A.R. and DiMagno, E.P. 1986. The
acute effects of coffee and caffeine on human interdigestive exocrine
pancreatic secretion. Pancreas. 1(1):55-61.
Borger, H.W., Schafmayer, A., Arnold, R., Becker, H.D. and
Creutzfeldt, W. 1976. The influence of coffee and caffeine on gastrin
and acid secretion in man (author's transl)] Deutsche medizinische
Wochenschrift. 101(12):455-7
Cohen, S. and Booth, G.H. Jr. 1975. Gastric acid secretion and
lower-esophageal-sphincter pressure in response to coffee and
caffeine. New England Journal of Medicine, 293(18):897-9.
Feldman, E.J., Isenberg, J.I. and Grossman, M.I. 1981. Gastric acid
and gastrin response to decaffeinated coffee and a peptone meal. JAMA.
246(3):248-50.
Cohen, S. and Booth, G.H. Jr. 1975. Gastric acid secretion and
lower-esophageal-sphincter pressure in response to coffee and
caffeine. New England Journal of Medicine, 293(18):897-9.
Wendl, B., Pfeiffer, A., Pehl, C., Schmidt, T. and Kaess, H. 1994.
Effect of decaffeination of coffee or tea on gastro-esophageal reflux
Alimentary pharmacology & therapeutics. 8(3):283-7.
Borer, L., Magnusson, C., and Fendall, B. 1994. The Chemistry of
Coffee. The Science Teacher. 61(5):36-38.
Remer, T. 2001. Influence of nutrition on acid-base balance-metabolic
aspects. European Journal of Nutrition. 40:214-220.
Alpern, R. and Sakhaee, K. 1997. The clinical spectrum of chronic
metabolic acidosis: homeostatic mechanisms produce significant
morbidity. American Journal of Kidney Disease. 29: 291-302.
Jaffee, R. copyright 2002-2004. Food and Chemical Effects on
Acid/Alkaline Body Chemical Balance. ELISA/ACT Biotechnologies.
Osteoporosis Education Foundation.
Tucker, K.L. 2003. Dietary Intake and Bone Status with Aging. Current
Pharmaceutical Design. 9(31):1-18.
New, S.A. 2003. Intake of fruit and vegetables: implications for bone
health. The Proceedings of the Nutrition Society. (4):889-99.
Bushinsky, D.A. 2001. Acid-base imbalance and the skeleton. European
Journal of Nutrition. 40(5):238-44.
Sesso, H.D., Gaziano, J.M., Buring, J.E. and Hennekens, C.H. 1990.
Coffee and tea intake and the risk of myocardial infarction. American
Journal of Epidemiology. 149(2):162-7.
De Bree, A., Verschuren, W.M.M., Kromhout, D., Kluijtmans, L.A.J. and
Blom, H.J. 2002. Homocysteine determinants and the evidence to what
extent homocysteine determines the risk of coronary heart disease.
Pharmacological Reviews. 54(4): 599-618.
Verhoef, P., Pasman, W.J., Van Vliet, T., Urgert, R. and Katan, M.B.
2002. Contribution of caffeine to the homocysteine-raising effect of
coffee: a randomized controlled trial in humans. American Journal of
Clinical Nutrition. 76(6):1244-8.
Urgert, R., van Vliet, T., Zock, P.L. and Katan, M.B. 2000. Heavy
coffee consumption and plasma homocysteine: a randomized controlled
trial in healthy volunteers. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition.
72(5):1107-10.
Grubben, M.J., Boers, G.H., Blom, H.J., Broekhuizen, R., de Jong, R.,
van Rijt, L., de Ruijter, E., Swinkels, D.W., Nagengast, F.M. and
Katan, M.B. 2000. Unfiltered coffee increases plasma homocysteine
concentrations in healthy volunteers: a randomized trial. American
Journal of Clinical Nutrition. 71(2):480-4.
Olthof, M.R., Hollman, P.C., Zock, P.L. and Katan, M.B. 2001.
Consumption of high doses of chlorogenic acid, present in coffee, or
of black tea increases plasma total homocysteine concentrations in
humans. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 73(3):532-538.
Grubben, M.J., Boers, G.H., Blom, H.J., Broekhuizen, R., de Jong, R.,
van Rijt, L., de Ruijter, E., Swinkels, D.W., Nagengast, F.M. and
Katan, M.B. 2000. Unfiltered coffee increases plasma homocysteine
concentrations in healthy volunteers: a randomized trial. American
Journal of Clinical Nutrition. 71(2):480-4.
Superko, H.R., Bortz, W., Williams, P.T., Albers, J.J. and Wood, P.D.
1991. Caffeinated and decaffeinated coffee effects on plasma
lipoprotein cholesterol, apolipoproteins, and lipase activity: a
controlled, randomized trial. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition.
54(3):599-605.
Grubben, M.J., Boers, G.H., Blom, H.J., Broekhuizen, R., de Jong, R.,
van Rijt, L., de Ruijter, E., Swinkels, D.W., Nagengast, F.M. and
Katan, M.B. 2000. Unfiltered coffee increases plasma homocysteine
concentrations in healthy volunteers: a randomized trial. American
Journal of Clinical Nutrition. 71(2):480-4.
Boekschoten, M.V., Schouten, E.G. and Katan, M.B. 2004. Coffee bean
extracts rich and poor in kahweol both give rise to elevation of liver
enzymes in healthy volunteers. Nutrition Journal, 3(1):7.
Quinlan, P.T., Lane, J., Moore, K.L., Aspen, J., Rycroft, J.A.and
O'Brien, D.C. 2000. The acute physiological and mood effects of tea
and coffee: the role of caffeine level. Pharmacology of Biochemistry
and Behavior. 66(1):19-28.
Corti, R., Binggeli, C., Sudano, I., Spieker, L, Hanseler, E.,
Ruschitzka, F., Chaplin, W.F., Luscher, T.F., and Noll, G. 2002.
Coffee acutely increases sympathetic nerve activity and blood pressure
independently of caffeine content. Role of habitual versus nonhabitual
drinking. Circulation. 106:2935-2940.
Brown S.R., P.A. Cann, and N.W. Read. 1990. Effect of Coffee on Distal
Colon Function. Gut, Apr;31(4):450-3.
Rao, S.S., Welcher, K., Zimmermn, B. and Stumbo 1998. Is coffee a
colonic stimulant? European journal of gastroenterology & hepatology.
10(2):113-8.
Boekema, P.J., Samsom, M., van Berge Henegouwen, G.P. and A.J. Smout.
1999. Coffee and gastrointestinal function: facts and fiction. A
review. Scandinavian journal of gastroenterology. Supplement.
230:35-9.
Morck, T.A., Lynch, S.R. and Cook, J.D. 1983. Inhibition of food iron
absorption by coffee. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition.
37(3):416-20.
Hallberg, L. and Rossander, L. 1982. Effect of different drinks on the
absorption of non-heme iron from composite meals. Human nutrition.
Applied nutrition. 36(2):116-23.
Hurrell, R.F., Reddy, M. and Cook, J.D. 1999. Inhibition of non-haem
iron absorption in man by polyphenolic-containing beverages. British
Journal of Nutrition. 81(4):289-95.
Hasling, C., Sondergaard, K., Charles, P. and Mosekilde, L. 1992.
Calcium metabolism in postmenopausal osteoporotic women is determined
by dietary calcium and coffee intake. Journal of Nutrition. 122(5):
1119-26.
Johnson, S. 2001. The multifaceted and widespread pathology of
magnesium deficiency. Medical Hypotheses. 56(2): 163-70.
Ribeiro -Alves, M.A., Trugo, L.C. and Donangelo, C.M. 2003. Use of
oral contraceptives blunts the calciuric effect of caffeine in young
adult women. Journal of Nutrition. 133: 393-398.
Avisar, R., Avisar, E. and Weinberger, D. 2002. Effect of coffee
consumption on intraocular pressure. Annals of Pharmacotherapy,
36(6):992-5.
Mikuls, T.R., Cerhan, J.R., Criswell, L.A., Merlino, L., Mudano, A.S.,
Burma, M., Folsom, A.R. and Saag, K.G. 2002. Coffee, tea, and caffeine
consumption and risk of rheumatoid arthritis: results from the Iowa
Women's Health Study. Arthritis and Rheumatism. 46(1):83-91.
Soroko, S., Chang, J. and Barrett-Connor, E. 1996. Reasons for
changing caffeinated coffee consumption: the Rancho Bernardo Study.
Journal of the American College of Nutrition. 15(1):97-101.
Silverman, K., Evans, S.M., Strain, E.C. and Griffiths, R.R. 1992
Withdrawl Syndrome after the Double-Blind Cessation of Caffeine
Consumption. The New England Journal of Medicine. 16(327): 1109-14.
Lovejoy, J.C., Most, M.M., Lefevre, M., Greenway, F.L. and Rood, J.C.
2002. Effect of diets enriched in almonds on insulin action and serum
lipids in adults with normal glucose tolerance or type 2 diabetes.
American Journal of Clinical Nutrition. 76(5):1000-6.
Haskell, W.L., Spiller, G.A., Jensen, C.D., Ellis, B.K. and Gates,
J.E. 1992. Role of water-soluble dietary fiber in the management of
elevated plasma cholesterol in healthy subjects. American Journal of
Cardiology. 69(5):433-9.
Physicians Desk Reference for Herbal Medicines. Second Edition.
Copyright 2000.
Roehl, E. Whole Foods Facts: The Complete Reference Guide. Copyright
1996.
Roberfroid MB. 1997. Health benefits of non-digestible
oligosaccharides. Advances in experimental medicine and biology. 427:
211-9.
Biddle, W. 2003. Gastroesophageal reflux disease: current treatment
approaches. Gastroenterology nursing : the official journal of the
Society of Gastroenterology Nurses and Associates. 26(6):228-36.
Kim M, Shin HK. 1996. The water-soluble extract of chicory reduces
glucose uptake from the perfused jejunum in rats. Journal of
Nutrition. 126(9):2236-42.
Al-Shahib W, Marshall RJ. (2003) The fruit of the date palm: its
possible use as the best food for the future? International Journal of
Food Sciences and Nutrition. 54(4):247-59.
Gums JG. 2004. Magnesium in cardiovascular and other disorders.
American journal of health-system pharmacy : AJHP : official journal
of the American Society of Health-System Pharmacists. 61(15):1569-76.
Li, J., Kaneko, T., Qin, L.Q., Wang, J. and Wang, Y. 2003. Effects of
barley intake on glucose tolerance, lipid metabolism, and bowel
function in women. Nutrition. 19(11-12). 926-9.
Lovejoy, J.C., Most, M.M., Lefevre, M., Greenway, F.L. and Rood, J.C.
2002. Effect of diets enriched in almonds on insulin action and serum
lipids in adults with normal glucose tolerance or type 2 diabetes.
American Journal of Clinical Nutrition. 76(5):1000-6.
Haskell, W.L., Spiller, G.A., Jensen, C.D., Ellis, B.K. and Gates,
J.E. 1992. Role of water-soluble dietary fiber in the management of
elevated plasma cholesterol in healthy subjects. American Journal of
Cardiology. 69(5):433-9.