From Alternet:
By Chris Mooney, AlterNet
Posted on April 8, 2012, Printed on April 9, 2012
© 2012 Independent Media Institute. All rights reserved.
http://www.alternet.org/media/154875/the_science_of_fox_news%3A_why_its_viewers_are_the_most_misinformed/
In June of last year, Jon Stewart went on air with Fox News’ Chris
Wallace and started a major media controversy over the channel’s
misinforming of its viewers. “Who are the most consistently misinformed
media viewers?” Stewart asked Wallace. “The most consistently
misinformed? Fox, Fox viewers, consistently, every poll.”
Stewart’s statement was factually accurate, as we’ll see. The next day,
however, the fact-checking site PolitiFact weighed in and rated it
“false.” In claiming to check Stewart’s “facts,” PolitiFact ironically
committed a serious error—and later, doubly ironically, failed to
correct it. How’s that for the power of fact checking?
There probably is a small group of media consumers out there somewhere
in the world who are more misinformed, overall, than Fox News viewers.
But if you only consider mainstream U.S. television news outlets with
major audiences (e.g., numbering in the millions), it really is true
that Fox viewers are the most misled based on all the available
evidence—especially in areas of political controversy. This will come as
little surprise to liberals, perhaps, but the evidence for it—evidence
in Stewart’s favor—is pretty overwhelming.
My goal here is to explore the underlying causes for this “Fox News
effect”—explaining how this station has brought about a hurricane-like
intensification of factual error, misinformation and unsupportable but
ideologically charged beliefs on the conservative side of the aisle.
First, though, let’s begin by surveying the evidence about how
misinformed Fox viewers actually are.
Based upon my research, I have located seven separate studies that
support Stewart’s claim about Fox, and none that undermine it. Six of
these studies were available at the time that PolitFact took on Stewart;
one of them is newer.
The studies all take a similar form: These are public opinion surveys
that ask citizens about their beliefs on factual but contested issues,
and also about their media habits. Inevitably, some significant
percentage of citizens are found to be misinformed about the facts, and
in a politicized way—but not only that. The surveys also find that those
who watch Fox are more likely to be misinformed, their views of reality
skewed in a right-wing direction. In some cases, the studies even show
that watching more Fox makes the misinformation problem worse.
So with that, here are the studies.
Iraq War
In 2003, a survey by the Program on International Policy Attitudes
(PIPA) at the University of Maryland found widespread public
misperceptions about the Iraq war. For instance, many Americans believed
the U.S. had evidence that Saddam Hussein’s Iraq had been collaborating
in some way with Al Qaeda, or was involved in the 9-11 attacks; many
also believed that the much touted “weapons of mass destruction” had
been found in the country after the U.S. invasion, when they hadn’t. But
not everyone was equally misinformed: “The extent of Americans’
misperceptions vary significantly depending on their source of news,”
PIPA reported. “Those who receive most of their news from Fox News are
more likely than average to have misperceptions.” For instance, 80
percent of Fox viewers held at least one of three Iraq-related
misperceptions, more than a variety of other types of news consumers,
and especially NPR and PBS users. Most strikingly, Fox watchers who paid
more attention to the channel were more likely to be misled.
Global Warming
At least two studies have documented that Fox News viewers are more
misinformed about this subject.
In a late 2010 survey, Stanford University political scientist Jon
Krosnick and visiting scholar Bo MacInnis found that “more exposure to
Fox News was associated with more rejection of many mainstream
scientists’ claims about global warming, with less trust in scientists,
and with more belief that ameliorating global warming would hurt the
U.S. economy.” Frequent Fox viewers were less likely to say the Earth’s
temperature has been rising and less likely to attribute this
temperature increase to human activities. In fact, there was a 25
percentage point gap between the most frequent Fox News watchers (60%)
and those who watch no Fox News (85%) in whether they think global
warming is “caused mostly by things people do or about equally by things
people do and natural causes.”
In a much more comprehensive study released in late 2011 (too late for
Stewart or for PolitiFact), American University communications scholar
Lauren Feldman and her colleagues reported on their analysis of a 2008
national survey, which found that “Fox News viewing manifests a
significant, negative association with global warming acceptance.”
Viewers of the station were less likely to agree that “most scientists
think global warming is happening” and less likely to think global
warming is mostly caused by human activities, among other measures.
Health Care
In 2009, an NBC survey found “rampant misinformation” about the
healthcare reform bill before Congress — derided on the right as
“Obamacare.” It also found that Fox News viewers were much more likely
to believe this misinformation than average members of the general
public. “72% of self-identified Fox News viewers believe the healthcare
plan will give coverage to illegal immigrants, 79% of them say it will
lead to a government takeover, 69% think that it will use taxpayer
dollars to pay for abortions, and 75% believe that it will allow the
government to make decisions about when to stop providing care for the
elderly,” the survey found.
By contrast, among CNN and MSNBC viewers, only 41 percent believed the
illegal immigrant falsehood, 39 percent believed in the threat of a
“government takeover” of healthcare (40 percentage points less), 40
percent believed the falsehood about abortion, and 30 percent believed
the falsehood about “death panels” (a 45 percent difference!).
In early 2011, the Kaiser Family Foundation released another survey on
public misperceptions about healthcare reform. The poll asked 10
questions about the newly passed healthcare law and compared the “high
scorers”—those that answered 7 or more correct—based on their media
habits. The result was that “higher shares of those who report CNN (35
percent) or MSNBC (39 percent) as their primary news source [got] 7 or
more right, compared to those that report mainly watching Fox News (25
percent).”
"Ground Zero Mosque”
In late 2010, two scholars at the Ohio State University studied public
misperceptions about the so-called “Ground Zero Mosque”—and in
particular, the prevalence of a series of rumors depicting those seeking
to build this Islamic community center and mosque as terrorist
sympathizers, anti-American, and so on. All of these rumors had, of
course, been dutifully debunked by fact-checking organizations. The
result? “People who use Fox News believe more of the rumors we asked
about and they believe them more strongly than those who do not.”
The 2010 Election
In late 2010, the Program on International Policy Attitudes (PIPA) once
again singled out Fox in a survey about misinformation during the 2010
election. Out of 11 false claims studied in the survey, PIPA found that
“almost daily” Fox News viewers were “significantly more likely than
those who never watched it” to believe 9 of them, including the
misperceptions that “most scientists do not agree that climate change is
occurring” (they do), that “it is not clear that President Obama was
born in the United States” (he was), that “most economists estimate the
stimulus caused job losses” (it either saved or created several
million), that “most economists have estimated the healthcare law will
worsen the deficit” (they have not), and so on.
It is important to note that in this study—by far the most critiqued of
the bunch—the examples of misinformation studied were all closely
related to prominent issues in the 2010 midterm election, and indeed,
were selected precisely because they involved issues that voters said
were of greatest importance to them, like healthcare and the economy.
That was the main criterion for inclusion, explains PIPA senior research
scholar Clay Ramsay. “People said, here’s how I would rank that as an
influence on my vote,” says Ramsay, “so everything tested is at least a
5 on a zero-to-10 scale.”
Politifact Swings and Misses
In attempting to fact-check Jon Stewart on the subject of Fox News and
misinformation, PolitiFact simply appeared out of its depth. The author
of the article in question, Louis Jacobson, only cited two of the
studies above--“Iraq War” and “2010 Election”—though six out of seven
were available at the time he was writing. And then he suggested that
the “2010 Election” study should “carry less weight” due to various
methodological objections.
Meanwhile, Jacobson dug up three separate studies that we can dismiss as
irrelevant. That’s because these studies did not concern misinformation,
but rather, how informed news viewers are about basic political facts
like the following: “who the vice president is, who the president of
Russia is, whether the Chief Justice is conservative, which party
controls the U.S. House of Representatives and whether the U.S. has a
trade deficit.”
A long list of public opinion studies have shown that too few Americans
know the answers to such basic questions. That’s lamentable, but also
off point at the moment. These are not politically contested issues, nor
are they skewed by an active misinformation campaign. As a result, on
such issues many Americans may be ill-informed but liberals and
conservatives are nevertheless able to agree.
Jon Stewart was clearly talking about political misinformation. He used
the word “misinformed.” And for good reason: Misinformation is by far
the bigger torpedo to our national conversation, and to any hope of a
functional politics. “It’s one thing to be not informed,” explains David
Barker, a political scientist at the University of Pittsburgh who has
studied conservative talk-radio listeners and Fox viewers. “It’s another
thing to be misinformed, where you’re confident in your incorrectness.
That’s the thing that’s really more problematic, democratically
speaking—because if you’re confidently wrong, you’re influencing people.”
Thus PolitiFact’s approach was itself deeply uninformed, and underscores
just how poorly our mainstream political discourse deals with the
problem of systematic right wing misinformation.
Fox and the Republican Brain
The evidence is clear, then—the Politifact-Stewart flap notwithstanding,
Fox viewers are the most misinformed. But then comes the truly
interesting and important question: Why is that the case?
To answer it, we’ll first need to travel back to the 1950s, and the
pioneering work of the Stanford psychologist and cult infiltrator, Leon
Festinger.
In his 1957 book A Theory of Cognitive Dissonance, Festinger built on
his famous study of a doomsday cult called the Seekers, and other
research, to lay out many ramifications of his core idea about why human
beings contort the evidence to fit their beliefs, rather than conforming
those beliefs to the evidence. That included a prediction about how
those who are highly committed to a belief or view should go about
seeking information that touches on that powerful conviction.
Festinger suggested that once we’ve settled on a core belief, this ought
to shape how we gather information. More specifically, we are likely to
try to avoid encountering claims and information that challenge that
belief, because these will create cognitive dissonance. Instead, we
should go looking for information that affirms the belief. The technical
(and less than ideal) term for this phenomenon is “selective exposure”:
what it means is that we selectively choose to be exposed to information
that is congenial to our beliefs, and to avoid “inconvenient truths”
that are uncongenial to them.
If Festinger’s ideas about “selective exposure” are correct, then the
problem with Fox News may not solely be that it is actively causing its
viewers to be misinformed. It’s very possible that Fox could be
imparting misinformation even as politically conservative viewers are
also seeking the station out—highly open to it and already convinced
about many falsehoods that dovetail with their beliefs. Thus, they would
come into the encounter with Fox not only misinformed and predisposed to
become more so, but inclined to be very confident about their incorrect
beliefs and to impart them to others. In this account, political
misinformation on the right would be driven by a kind of feedback loop,
with both Fox and its viewers making the problem worse.
Psychologists and political scientists have extensively studied
selective exposure, and within the research literature, the findings are
often described as mixed. But that’s not quite right. In truth, some
early studies seeking to confirm Festinger’s speculation had problems
with their designs and often failed—and as a result, explains University
of Alabama psychologist William Hart, the field of selective exposure
research “stagnated” for several decades. But it has since undergone a
dramatic revival—driven, not surprisingly, by the modern explosion of
media choices and growing political polarization in the U.S. And thanks
to a new wave of better-designed and more rigorous studies, the concept
has become well established.
“Selective exposure is the clearest way to look at how people create
their own realities, based upon their views of the world,” says Hart.
“Everybody knows this happens.”
Indeed, by 2009, Hart and a team of researchers were able to perform a
meta-analysis—a statistically rigorous overview of published studies on
selective exposure—that pooled together 67 relevant studies,
encompassing almost 8,000 individuals. As a result, he found that people
overall were nearly twice as likely to consume ideologically congenial
information as to consume ideologically inconvenient information—and in
certain circumstances, they were even more likely than that.
When are people most likely to seek out self-affirming information? Hart
found that they’re most vulnerable to selective exposure if they have
defensive goals—for instance, being highly committed to a preexisting
view, and especially a view that is tied to a person’s core values.
Another defensive motivation identified in Hart’s study was
closed-mindedness, which makes a great deal of sense. It is probably
part of the definition of being closed-minded, or dogmatic, that you
prefer to consume information that agrees with what you already believe.
So who’s closed-minded? Multiple studies have shown that political
conservatives—e.g., Fox viewers--tend to have a higher need for closure.
Indeed, this includes a group called right-wing authoritarians, who are
increasingly prevalent in the Republican Party. This suggests they
should also be more likely to select themselves into belief-affirming
information streams, like Fox News or right-wing talk radio or the
Drudge Report. Indeed, a number of research results support this idea.
In a study of selective exposure during the 2000 election, for instance,
Stanford University’s Shanto Iyengar and his colleagues mailed a
multimedia informational CD about the two candidates—Bush and Gore—to
600 registered voters and then tracked its use by a sample of 220 of
them. As a result, they found that Bush partisans chose to consume more
information about Bush than about Gore—but Democrats and liberals didn’t
show the same bias toward their own candidate.
Selective exposure has also been directly tested several times in
authoritarians. In one case, researchers at Stony Brook University
primed more and less authoritarian subjects with thoughts of their own
mortality. Afterwards, the authoritarians showed a much stronger
preference than non-authoritarians for reading an article that supported
their existing view on the death penalty, rather than an article
presenting the opposing view or a “balanced” take on the issue. As the
authors concluded: “highly authoritarian individuals, when threatened,
attempt to reduce anxiety by selectively exposing themselves to
attitude-validating information, which leads to ‘stronger’ opinions that
are more resistant to attitude change.”
The psychologist Robert Altemeyer of the University of Manitoba has also
documented an above average amount of selective exposure in right wing
authoritarians. In one case, he gave students a fake self-esteem test,
in which they randomly received either above average or below average
scores. Then, everyone—the receivers of both low and high scores—was
given the opportunity to say whether he or she would like to read a
summary of why the test was valid. The result was striking: Students who
scored low on authoritarianism wanted to learn about the validity of the
test regardless of how they did on it. There was virtually no difference
between high and low scorers. But among the authoritarian students,
there was a big gap: 73 percent of those who got high self-esteem scores
wanted to read about the test’s validity, while only 47 percent of those
who got low self-esteem scores did.
Authoritarians, Altemeyer concludes, “maintain their beliefs against
challenges by limiting their experiences, and surrounding themselves
with sources of information that will tell them they are right.”
The evidence on selective exposure, as well as the clear links between
closed-mindedness and authoritarianism, gives good grounds for believing
that this phenomenon should be more common and more powerful on the
political right. Lest we leap to the conclusion that Fox News is
actively misinforming its viewers most of the time—rather than enabling
them through its very existence—that’s something to bear in mind.
Disinformation Passing as “News”
None of which is to suggest that Fox isn’t also guilty of actively
misinforming viewers. It certainly is.
The litany of misleading Fox segments and snippets is quite
extensive—especially on global warming, where it seems that every winter
snowstorm is an excuse for more doubt-mongering. No less than Fox’s
Washington managing editor Bill Sammon was found to have written, in a
2009 internal staff email exposed by MediaMatters, that the network’s
journalists should:
. . . refrain from asserting that the planet has warmed (or cooled)
in any given period without IMMEDIATELY pointing out that such theories
are based upon data that critics have called into question. It is not
our place as journalists to assert such notions as facts, especially as
this debate intensifies.
And global warming is hardly the only issue where Fox actively
misinforms its viewers. The polling data here, from the Project on
International Policy Attitudes (PIPA) are very telling.
PIPA’s study of misinformation in the 2010 election didn’t just show
that Fox News viewers were more misinformed than viewers of other
channels. It also showed that watching more Fox made believing in nine
separate political misperceptions more likely. And that was a unique
effect, unlike any observed with the other news channels that were
studied. “With all of the other media outlets, the more exposed you
were, the less likely you were to have misinformation,” explains PIPA’s
director, political psychologist Steven Kull. “While with Fox, the more
exposure you had, in most cases, the more misinformation you had. And
that is really, in a way, the most powerful factor, because it strongly
suggests they were actually getting the information from Fox.”
Indeed, this effect was even present in non-Republicans--another
indicator that Fox is probably its cause. As Kull explains, “even if
you’re a liberal Democrat, you are affected by the station.” If you
watched Fox, you were more likely to believe the nine falsehoods,
regardless of your political party affiliation.
In summary, then, the “science” of Fox News clearly shows that its
viewers are more misinformed than the viewers of other stations, and are
indeed this way for ideological reasons. But these are not necessarily
the reasons that liberals may assume. Instead, the Fox “effect” probably
occurs both because the station churns out falsehoods that conservatives
readily accept—falsehoods that may even seem convincing to some liberals
on occasion—but also because conservatives are overwhelmingly inclined
to choose to watch Fox to begin with.
At the same time, it’s important to note that they’re also disinclined
to watch anything else. Fox keeps constantly in their minds the idea
that the rest of the media are “biased” against them, and conservatives
duly respond by saying other media aren’t worth watching—it’s just a
pack of lies. According to Public Policy Polling’s annual TV News Trust
Poll (the 2011 run), 72 percent of conservatives say they trust Fox
News, but they also say they strongly distrust NBC, ABC, CBS and CNN.
Liberals and moderates, in contrast, trust all of these outlets more
than they distrust them (though they distrust Fox). This, too, suggests
conservative selective exposure.
And there is an even more telling study of “Fox-only” behavior among
conservatives, from Stanford’s Shanto Iyengar and Kyu Hahn of Yonsei
University, in Seoul, South Korea. They conducted a classic left-right
selective exposure study, giving members of different ideological groups
the chance to choose stories from a news stream that provided them with
a headline and a news source logo—Fox, CNN, NPR, and the BBC—but nothing
else. The experiment was manipulated so that the same headline and story
was randomly attributed to different news sources. The result was that
Democrats and liberals were definitely less inclined to choose Fox than
other sources, but spread their interest across the other outlets when
it came to news. But Republicans and conservatives overwhelmingly chose
Fox for hard news and even for soft news, and ignored other sources.
“The probability that a Republican would select a CNN or NPR report was
around 10%,” wrote the authors.
In other words Fox News is both deceiver and enabler simultaneously.
First, its existence creates the opportunity for conservatives to
exercise their biases, by selecting into the Fox information stream, and
also by imbibing Fox-style arguments and claims that can then fuel
biased reasoning about politics, science, and whatever else comes up.
But at the same time, it’s also likely that conservatives, tending to be
more closed-minded and more authoritarian, have a stronger emotional
need for an outlet like Fox, where they can find affirmation and escape
from the belief challenges constantly presented by the “liberal media.”
Their psychological need for something affirmative is probably stronger
than what’s encountered on the opposite side of the aisle—as is their
revulsion towards allegedly liberal (but really centrist) media outlets.
And thus we find, at the root of our political dysfunction, a classic
nurture-nature mélange. The penchant for selective exposure is rooted in
our psychology and our brains. Closed-mindedness and
authoritarianism—running stronger in some of us than in others—likely
are as well.
But nevertheless, it took the emergence of a station like Fox News
before these tendencies could be fully activated—polarizing America not
only over politics, but over reality itself.
--Comments?