Buddhism in Cultural, Social and Economic Life
Torben Larsen
Thailand has been known by various epithets such as "Land of the
Free", "Land of smile" and "Land of the Yellow Robes". The last title
vividly describes the religion most widely embraced by the Thai
people.
Thai history is normally divided into four main periods -- Sukhothai,
Ayutthaya, Thon Buri and Rattanakosin (Bangkok). The Sukhothai period
dates back 700-800 years when Buddhism was established as the religion
of Thais.
Of a total population of fifty-three million about 95 percent have
declared themselves Buddhists, mostly of the Theravada (Hinayana)
school. The latest available statistics show that there are over
30,000 temples scattered throughout Thailand's seventy- five
provinces. The number of ordained monks varies, however, depending on
the time of the year. The highest figures are recorded during Buddhist
Lent in the rainy season, from July to September, and normally stand
around 350,000. Apart from fully ordained monks, there are young
novices, normally between six and nineteen years of age, who live
their lives in accordance with only 10 precepts as opposed to the 227
upheld by Buddhist monks. Their shaven heads, yellow robes and
measured manners, easily recognizes Buddhist monks. These monks,
together with their Wats (Buddhist monasteries) have played an
important role in Thai society for over 700 years. Their role in the
fields of education, economy and socio-cultural spheres are described
below in brief.
Education
Since early times monks have made important contributions in the
domain of education. The first schools established in Thailand were
set up in the grounds of Buddhist monasteries and monks, in addition
to their religious duties, taught the so-called 3 R's-- reading,
writing and arithmetic--as well as other subjects, to local
youngsters.
These Wat Schools were widely dispersed throughout the entire country
and were operated at a very minimal cost, as monks accepted no payment
for their services. During the reign of King Chulalongkorn (Rama V)
formal education was introduced to Thailand. Government schools were
set up one by one outside the monastery compound, and as the years
passed, Wat schools were gradually taken over by the Ministry of
Education, thus giving monks a diminishing role to play in formal
education.
Professional teachers are being trained and are now gradually
replacing monks. Buddhist monks have progressively taught fewer and
fewer subjects and the last remaining subject which they have been
permitted by the Ministry officials to teach is "Civil and Moral
Ethics". Their role as teachers in the formal educational sphere of
the country has now virtually ended.
However, their legacy stands clear for all to see in the large number
of school buildings under the jurisdiction of the Ministry of
Education and other governmental institutions still standing within
the compound of monasteries. The names of so many schools, well
recognized for their high scholastic standards, are reminiscent of the
active roles of Buddhist monks in times past. They are known by such
description as "Wat Thepsirin School", "Wat Suthi Wararam School" and
so on.
Many education-minded Buddhist monks are still, however involved in
the construction of schools. They may literally build schools
themselves or hire construction firms to do the work for them; but
money for construction and operation costs comes from donations.
Teaching is conducted in accordance with the approved curriculum and
pupils are normally admitted free of charge.
Economic Sphere
Buddhism as practiced in Thailand has played certain beneficial roles
in the sphere of the economy. Many Buddhist teachings give practical
advice on how to maintain an economically viable and satisfactory
household. The Buddha taught the layman who intends to become
successful, economically or otherwise, to follow the four rules of
conduct (The Fourfold Path to Success or in Pali, Iddhipada). These
include, for example, hard work and constant attention to whatever one
is doing. Buddhism does not place great emphasis on economic
achievement, but Buddhist teachings can be made applicable to economic
development.
Generally, Buddhist monks do not enjoin the people into feverish
economic activities. Their teachings tend to give weight to a moderate
way of life. Economic gains may be pursued but not as an overriding
goal.
One essence of Buddhism is the emphasis on the "middle way", but this
does not necessarily impede the path toward economic development. In
addition to teachings related to economic activities, Buddhist
monasteries, particularly in rural areas, give practical lessons,
which augment the skills or practical knowledge useful for laymen and
monks. These skills may include herbal medicine, carpentry,
construction techniques, painting and other crafts. Usually, by
necessity and not by choice, the abbot of a monastery may have to
supervise the construction of a school building or a meeting hall.
Many abbots undertake this task themselves so that labor costs will be
reduced to virtually nothing. Thus, those intending to be ordained for
a brief period can also get practical experience in construction
techniques. Laymen are indebted to their sojourns as monks for the
acquisition of extra skills. They may have learn about carpentry,
painting of buildings or even sculpting and other crafts which can be
very useful for their livelihood.
Buddhism and the Rites of Passage in Thailand
Since Buddhism is such an integral part of Thai life, it is not
surprising that it plays a particularly important role at those
critical periods that serve to mark a person's passage--birth,
ordination, marriage, and death.
Birth Parents often consult a monk when choosing a name for their
child. The name has to be linguistically satisfying and at the same
time conveys a good meaning. Other religious practices following a
birth may vary from region to region. In the central part of the
country, for example, it is customary to shave the baby's head when he
or she is one month old. This essentially Brahmanic rite, known as the
khwan ceremony, may be accompanied by a Buddhist ceremony in which
monks recite passages from the sacred texts.
Ordination
The second rite in the life span of most Thai men is ordination into
monk hood. It is considered that monk hood matures a man and prepares
him for his adult life. This practice occurs any time after the man
has reached the age of twenty and many parents would prefer that
ordination take place before marriage or before starting an official
career. Entering monk-hood also allows the man an opportunity to make
merit for the souls of deceased relatives or for one's parents when
they are still living. It also gives the man a chance to fulfill a vow
he may have made to the Buddha when seeking help in solving a personal
or family problem.
Ordination generally takes place throughout the month of July, prior
to the commencement of the three- month Rains Retreat observed during
the rainy season. On the day before the ordination is scheduled to
take place, the man will have his head shaved and will don white
clothes. Monks may be invited to his home for chanting and
celebrations are held. Friends, neighbors and relatives may
participate in the ceremonies, thereby gaining much merit. On the day
of the ordination, the prospective monk will be carried around the
monastery three times before being taken into the ordination hall
where a group of monks await him. After undergoing examination by
senior monks before an image of the Buddha, and provided that he
satisfies all the necessary conditions, he will be accepted into
monk-hood and don the saffron robes. For the period that he is
ordained he is expected to live in the monastery, exemplifying the
Buddhist ideal of life and undergoing rigorous training in body and
mind control. He is free to revert to the status of layman at any time
he so desires.
Marriage
Buddhism also plays an important role in the ceremony, which binds two
people in the sacred bond of marriage. Traditionally, monks are
invited to chant in the home of the bridal couple on the evening
before their marriage. The following morning the couple offers them
food. On the morning of the wedding, the monks partake of food at the
home of the bride’s parents, and chant verses from the sacred texts as
a blessing for the bridal couple. Upon completion of the chanting, the
most senior monk sprinkles holy waters on the bride and groom and all
the people gathered at the ceremony.
The actual wedding takes place either directly after this ceremony is
completed or later in the afternoon. Elder and other guests pour holy
waters from a conch shell onto the hands of the couple. The hands are
held in an attitude of worship as the couple kneels on a low bench,
each wearing a wreath of many unspun threads, symbolically joining
them together.
Funeral Rites
These very according to local customs, the type of death and whether
the person was a layman or monk at the time of his demise. As the
moment of death approaches, Buddhist chants are whispered, if
possible, into the ear of the dying person. Once death has occurred, a
bathing ceremony is usually conducted on the first afternoon, either
at home it he dies there, or at the monastery where his body is taken
from a hospital or any other location. Monks, relatives and friends
pour scented water on the outstretched right palms of the deceased and
a sacred thread is passed three times around three different parts of
the body, symbolizing the bonds of passion, anger and ignorance. The
thread is normally removed at the time of cremation. The body is next
placed in a coffin decorated with fresh flowers and that evening monks
are invited to the deceased’s home, or to a pavilion in the monastery
grounds where the coffin is placed, for evening chanting.
Friends and relatives come to present wreaths or garlands of fresh
flowers and listen to the chanting. Although cremation may follow
immediately, it is common for evening prayers to continue for at least
one week. The body is either entombed in a cemetery or kept at home
where monks are invited to perform chanting ceremonies at regular
intervals. On the day before the funeral (which may take place on any
convenient day, except a Friday which is reserved for happier
occasions) the coffin is taken to a special pavilion reserved for such
rites. That evening monks are invited to chant verses on behalf of the
deceased as family and friends pay their final respects. On the day of
cremation, a final service is held followed by a lunch offering and a
sermon.
The actual cremation can be performed in a variety of ways such as
burning the body in a wooden coffin on a funeral pyre or in a modern
crematorium.
The ashes of the deceased are then collected, some to be placed in
urns to be kept at home near the family or in the monastery grounds,
while the rest are scattered in the sea or cast to the wind. Each
year, on the anniversary of the death, relatives will again invite
monks to chant verses and bless the ashes. On this occasion food and
gifts can be offered to the dead person through the medium of the
monks.
Social Welfare Roles of Buddhist Monks
The Buddha taught that His followers should cultivate Metta and
Karuna, together with a host of other virtues. Metta is goodwill
towards all sentient beings, while Karuna is compassion for those who
are less fortunate than we are. Perhaps it is because of these two
teachings that some Buddhist monks become actively involved in matters
of social welfare.
One very well known activity in this field is the treatment of drug
addiction given by a monk who lives in the province of Saraburi in the
central part of Thailand. That monk, together with his assistants, has
gone to great pains to find an herbal cure to administer with
therapeutic methods.
Results have shown that his treatment is more than seventy- percent
effective in treating drug addiction.
The monk has had to make a lot of personal sacrifices as the treatment
involves many expenses including the cost of locating and producing
the herbal medicines, the cost of constructing and up-keeping small
cottages and residential hall for addicts receiving treatment, the
cost of meals for patients and the cost of paying assistants involved
in the treatment process. Donations have been received, but not at a
rate commensurate with the demand. The Magsaysay Award Committee
recognized the work, which this monk has been doing, and about ten
years ago, conferred upon him the Award for Humanitarian Service. The
Award carried with it a purse of $ 10,000 U.S. That amount has
subsequently been used to further the cause of the drug cure.
This monk is just one amongst literally hundreds who are engaged in
one way or another with the health care of the people. Certain monks
specialize in curing, or producing cures for certain diseases and
afflictions such as sinus, leprosy, cancer and even rabies.
Buddhist monks do not treat only physical illnesses, but also perform
excellent services for those that feel unhappy, suffer nervous
disorders or undergo mental breakdowns. Quite often when feeling
depressed, people will go to a monastery to help them find peace of
mind. They may not go to see anybody in particular, but may just sit
or wander around within the compound of the monastery. The peace and
tranquillity to be found in the monastery is most curative, almost
miraculously so. Some people may enter the main part of the monastery
where the Buddha image is housed. These people will pay homage before
the image and seek solace from it. Some may visit a monk, normally a
senior one, to seek advice on possible ways out of their problems.
The Wat as a Store House
Some people in rural areas often feel insecure about keeping their
valuables in their homes, so turn to the monastery abbot and request
permission to store them in the monastery. The Wat is not only the
villager’s ‘safe deposit box’, but it is also a storehouse for
documents or artifacts of historical significance. In past times, palm
leaves were used for the purpose of recording in place of paper.
For hundreds of years it has been a common practice for monks to
record the Pali texts on palm leaves, which are threaded together.
When giving a sermon, particularly from the Pali text, these palm
leaves will be unfolded in an accordion manner and the text read. Palm
leaves were also used to record historical events or stories of
ancient kingdoms and Thai city-states.
The monastery is also the storehouse for Buddha images. These images
come in various sizes, some quite huge measuring over five meters tall
while others are much smaller, only about 10 inches. Such images are
used for public veneration and objects of meditation. There is also
other Buddha images of even smaller sizes, which come in the form of a
medallion and bear a variety of designs. The designs often the beliefs
or values upheld during a particular period. These images are normally
worn on a chain around the neck and serve to remind the wearer of the
Buddha and his teachings. They are believed by some people to have
powers to avert danger and misfortune.
Both types of images are stored in large quantities in monasteries. By
studying the design and other aspects of these images, one can gain
insight into the social life of the Thais through history.
The Wat as an Inn and Hotel
In the past, when inns or hotels were non-existent, people traveling
from one place to another had nowhere to stay overnight, unless they
had friends or relatives in the area. They, therefore, would turn to
the monastery, seeking permission from the abbot to spend the night
there.
During the Songkran Festival, which takes place on April 13, people
flock by the thousands to the northern province of Chiang Mai where it
is most popularly celebrated. Hotels and guesthouses cannot
accommodate the large number of visitors, so they turn to the local
monasteries and schools. Each monastery usually has an open-side
community hall where the people can sleep. In return for the
hospitality the visitor give donations to the monastery.
The hospitality of the monastery is not restricted to the festival
season only and all through the year it offers accommodation to people
who are in need. Many people in the rural areas like to send their
children to schools in Bangkok. Sometimes it is difficult and
expensive to find accommodation so these boys take refuge in the city
monasteries. These boys, known as monastery boys, live with the monks,
assisting them with their daily chores, such as washing, cleaning and
carrying food containers. These boys not only receive accommodation,
but are also fed and given instruction in the Buddhist tenets.
Throughout the years thousands of young boys and men have received
such hospitality and because of this kindness, many young people have
been able to complete their education.
The Wat and Governmental Functions
The village monastery usually has a large meeting hall and a
playground. The district unit of the Royal Thai Government may make
use of the hall for the meeting of district functionaries and village
headmen. The playground may be used on various occasions, such as
meeting of government officials and villagers, parliamentary elections
and conscription. Health officials may also use the playground when
vaccinating the local people and officials from the Ministry of Trade
may make use of it as a station for buying rice at a guaranteed price
or as a distribution point for selling certain commodities at a
specially low price.
The Wat as a Socio-Cultural Center
The Wat offers many uses to Thai society, particularly in the
villages. Village youth like to gather there in the early evening
hours to play sports such as takraw and football. Some may participate
in cycling while parents take their small children there for strolls.
Apart from being a center of religion, it is also a center for
recreation.
During the festival seasons, the Wat has a very important role to
play. Fairs are organized in the monastery compounds; stalls are set
up to sell merchandise of various types. There are games for children
such as darts, hoopla, Ferris wheels and luckydip. Movies are shown
alongside performances of traditional folk opera and exhibitions of
Thai-style boxing. There are also concerts and singing competitions.
Everybody in the village looks forward to the festival season with
much enthusiasm.
The Wat fairs are the place where the villagers have a chance to
express their common social and cultural membership and esprit is
corps. Their participation underlines their sense of belonging to a
common way of life and cultural heritage. In the southern part of
Thailand, shadow plays depicting the Thai version of the Ramayana are
normally performed. In other parts of the country people perform
music, dance and plays of local variation or of local tastes. Wat
fairs thus assist in the preservation of time-honored traditions.
In addition, certain monasteries are famous for their architectural
style, excellent sculpture and beautiful mural paintings. These are
parts of the cultural heritage upheld by the Thai Wat.
Buddhism plays an integral part in the life of the Thais. First and
foremost, it inculcates a Buddhist view. One of the basic tenets of
Buddhism is the law of causation; that is, everything that happens
must have a cause, explainable by either past or present karma
(deeds). The ultimate cause of all happenings, particularly one’s
problems, is an ijja or ignorance. Desire, particularly in the extreme
form, is the immediate root cause of all problems. Buddhism puts great
emphasis on practicing the middle path.
Perhaps it is no coincidence then that Thais are known for their
moderate outlook. Mention has been made about the important roles of
Buddhism and the Wat in Thai society. Thus it is no exaggeration to
say that, to the majority of Thais, Buddhism permeates their way of
life from birth through death.
regards Torben
Torben Larsen
Free", "Land of smile" and "Land of the Yellow Robes". The last title
vividly describes the religion most widely embraced by the Thai
people.
Thai history is normally divided into four main periods --
Sukhothai, Ayutthaya, Thon Buri and Rattanakosin (Bangkok). The
Sukhothai period dates back 700-800 years when Buddhism was
established as the religion of Thais.
Of a total population of fifty-nine million about 95 percent have
declared themselves Buddhists, mostly of the Theravada (Hinayana)
school.
The latest available statistics show that there are over 30,000
temples scattered throughout Thailand's seventy- five provinces. The
number of ordained monks varies, however, depending on the time of the
year. The highest figures are recorded during Buddhist Lent in the
rainy season, from July to September, and normally stand around
350,000. Apart from fully ordained monks, there are young novices,
normally between six and nineteen years of age, who live their lives
in accordance with only 10 precepts as opposed to the 227 upheld by
Buddhist monks. Buddhist monks are easily recognized by their
shaven heads, yellow robes and measured manners.
These monks, together with their Wats (Buddhist monasteries) have
played an important role in Thai society for over 700 years. Their
role in the fields of education, economy and socio-cultural spheres
are described below in brief.
Education
Since early times monks have made important contributions in the
domain of education. The first schools established in Thailand were
set up in the grounds of Buddhist monasteries and monks, in addition
to their religious duties, taught the so-called 3 R's-- reading,
writing and arithmetic as well as other subjects, to local youngsters.
These Wat Schools were widely dispersed throughout the entire
country and were operated at a very minimal cost as monks accepted no
Economic Sphere
Birth
Ordination
opportunity to make merit for the souls of deceased relatives, or for
one's parents when they are still living. It also gives the man a
chance to fulfill a vow he may have made to the Buddha when seeking
help in solving a personal or family problem.
Ordination generally takes place throughout the month of July, prior
to the commencement of the three- month Rains Retreat observed during
the rainy season. On the day before the ordination is scheduled to
take place, the man will have his head shaved and will don white
clothes. Monks may be invited to his home for chanting and
celebrations are held. Friends, neighbors and relatives may
participate in the ceremonies, thereby gaining much
merit. On the day of the ordination, the prospective monk will be
carried around the monastery three times before being taken into the
ordination hall where a group of monks await him. After undergoing
examination by senior monks before an image of the Buddha, and
provided that he satisfies all the necessary conditions, he will be
accepted into monk-hood and on the saffron robes. For the period that
he is ordained he is expected to live in the monastery, exemplifying
the Buddhist ideal of life and undergoing rigorous training in body
and mind control. He is free to revert to the status of layman at any
time he so desires.
Marriage
Buddhism also plays an important role in the ceremony which
binds two people in the sacred bond of marriage. Traditionally, monks
are invited to chant in the home of the bridal couple on the evening
before their marriage. The following morning the couple offer them
food. On the morning of the wedding, the monks partake of food at the
home of the bride's parents, and chant verses from the sacred texts as
a blessing for the bridal couple. Upon completion of the chanting, the
most senior monk sprinkles holy waters on the bride and groom and all
the people gathered at the ceremony.
The actual wedding takes place either directly after this ceremony
is completed or later in the afternoon. Elder and other guests pour
holy waters from a conch shell onto the hands of the couple. The hands
are held in an attitude of worship as the couple kneel on a low bench,
Funeral Rites
are less fortunate than ourselves. Perhaps it is because of these two
teachings that some Buddhist monks become actively involved in matters
of social welfare.
One very well-known activity in this field is the treatment of drug
addiction given by a monk who lives in the province of Saraburi in
the central part of Thailand. That monk, together with his assistants,
has gone to great pains to find a herbal cure to administer with
therapeutic methods. Results have shown that his treatment is more
than seventy percent effective in treating drug addiction. The monk
has had to make a lot of personal sacrifices as the treatment involves
many expenses including the cost of locating and producing the herbal
medicines, the cost of constructing and up-keeping small cottages and
residential hall for addicts receiving treatment, the cost of meals
for patients and the cost of paying assistants involved in the
treatment process.
Donations have been received, but not at a rate commensurate with the
demand. The Magsaysay Award Committee recognized the work which this
monk has been doing, and about ten years ago, conferred upon him the
Award for Humanitarian Service. The Award carried with it a purse of $
10,000 U.S. That amount has subsequently been used to further the
cause of the drug cure.
This monk is just one amongst literally hundreds who are engaged in
one way or another with the health care of the people. Certain monks
specialize in curing, or producing cures for certain diseases and
afflictions such as sinus, leprosy, cancer and even rabies.
Buddhist monks do not treat only physical illnesses, but also
perform excellent services for those who feel unhappy, suffer nervous
disorders or undergo mental breakdowns. Quite often when feeling
depressed, people will go to a monastery to help them find peace of
mind. They may not go to see anybody in particular, but may just sit
or wander around within the compound of the monastery. The peace and
tranquillity to be found in the monastery is most curative, almost
miraculously so. Some people may enter the
main part of the monastery where the Buddha image is housed. These
people will pay homage before the image and seek solace from it. Some
may visit a monk, normally a senior one, to seek advice on possible
ways out of their problems.
The Wat as a Store House
Some people in rural areas often feel insecure about keeping their
valuables in their homes, so turn to the monastery abbot and request
permission to store them in the monastery.
The Wat is not only the villager's 'safe deposit box', but it is
also a storehouse for documents or artifacts of historical
significance. In past times, palm leaves were used for the purpose of
recording in place of paper. For hundreds of years it has been a
common practice for monks to record the Pali texts on palm leaves
which are threaded together. When giving a sermon, particularly from
the Pali text, these palm leaves will be unfolded in an accordion
manner and the text read. Palm leaves were also used to
record historical events or stories of ancient kingdoms and Thai city-
states.
The monastery is also the storehouse for Buddha images. These images
come in various sizes, some quite huge measuring over five meters tall
while others are much smaller, only about 10 inches. Such images are
used for public veneration and objects of meditation. There are also
other Buddha images of even smaller sizes which come in the form of a
medallion and bear a variety of designs. The designs often the beliefs
or values upheld during a particular period. These images are
normally worn on a chain around the neck and serve to remind the
wearer of the Buddha and his teachings. They are believed by some
people to have powers to avert danger and misfortune.
Both types of images are stored in large quantities in monasteries.
By studying the design and other aspects of these images, one can gain
insight into the social life of the Thais through history.
The Wat as an Inn and Hotel
In the past, when inns or hotels were non-existent, people traveling
from one place to another had nowhere to stay overnight, unless they
had friends or relatives in the area. They, therefore, would turn to
the monastery, seeking permission from the abbot to spend the night
there.
During the Songkran Festival which takes place on April 13, people
flock by the thousands to the northern province of Chiang Mai where it
is most popularly celebrated. Hotels and guest houses cannot
accommodate the large number of visitors, so they turn to the local
monasteries and schools. Each monastery usually has an open-side
community hall where the people can sleep. In return for the
hospitality the visitor give donations to
the monastery.
The hospitality of the monastery is not restricted to the festival
season only and all through the year it offers accommodation to people
who are in need. Many people in the rural areas like to send their
children to schools in Bangkok. Sometimes it is difficult and
expensive to find accommodation so these boys take refuge in the city
monasteries. These boys, known as monastery boys, live with the
monks, assisting them with their daily chores, such as washing,
cleaning and carrying food containers. These boys not only receive
accommodation, but are also fed and given instruction in the
Buddhist tenets. Throughout the years thousands of young boys and
men have received such hospitality and because of this kindness, many
young people have been able to complete their education.
The Wat and Governmental Functions
The village monastery usually has a large meeting hall and a
playground. The district unit of the Royal Thai Government may make
use of the hall for the meeting of district functionaries and village
head men. The playground may be used on various occasion, such as
meeting of government officials and villagers, parliamentary elections
and conscription. Health officials may also use the playground when
vaccinating the local people and officials from the Ministry of Trade
may make use of it as a station for buying rice at a guaranteed price
or as a distribution point for selling certain commodities at a
specially low price.
The Wat as a Socio-Cultural Center
The Wat offers many uses to Thai society, particularly in the
villages. Village youth like to gather there in the early evening
hours to play sports such as takraw and football. Some may participate
in cycling while parents take their small children there for strolls.
Apart from being a center of religion, it is also a center for
recreation.
During the festival seasons, the Wat has a very important role to
play. Fairs are organized in the monastery compounds, stalls are set
up to sell merchandise of various types. There are games for children
such as darts, hoopla, ferris wheels and luckydip. Movies are shown
alongside performances of traditional folk opera and exhibitions of
Thai-style boxing. there are also concerts and singing competitions.
Everybody in the village looks forward to the festival season with
much enthusiasm.
The Wat fairs are the place where the villagers have a chance to
express their common social and cultural membership and esprit be
corps. Their participation underlines their sense of belonging to a
common way of life and cultural heritage. In the southern part of
Thailand, shadow plays depicting the Thai version of the Ramayana are
normally performed. In other parts of the country people perform
music, dance and plays of local variation or of local tastes. Wat
fairs thus assist in the preservation of time-honored traditions.
In addition, certain monasteries are famous for their architectural
style, excellent sculpture and beautiful mural paintings. These are
parts of the cultural heritage upheld by the Thai Wat.
Buddhism plays an integral part in the life of the Thais. First and
foremost, it inculcates a Buddhist view. One of the basic tenets of
Buddhism is the law of causation; that is, everything that happens
must have a cause, explainable by either past or present karma
(deeds). The ultimate cause of all happenings, particularly one's
problems, is a ijja or ignorance.
Desire, particularly in the extreme form, is the immediate root cause
of all problems. Buddhism puts great emphasis on practising the
middle path. Perhaps it is no coincidence then that Thais are known
for their moderate outlook.
Mention has been made about the important roles of Buddhism and the
Wat in Thai society. Thus it is no exaggeration to say that, to the
majority of Thais, Buddhism permeates their way of life from birth
through death
Regards Torben