ராஜேந்திர சோழர்
annamalai sugumaran
எனக்கு நீண்ட நாட்களாகவே ஒரு சந்தேகம் உண்டு .
சுமார் 17 ம நுற்றாண்டில் பல ஐரோப்பிய நாடுகள் தங்களின் கடல் படை வலிமையை கொண்டு , பல ஆசிய நாடுகளை அடிமை படுத்தி தங்கள் வியாபார கேந்திரமாக ஆக்கி கொண்டனர் .
கடல் படை வலிமைதான் அப்போது நாடுகளின் வலிமையை நிர்ணயித்து .
நமது இந்திய நாடும் பல ஐரோப்பிய நாடுகள் வசம் ஆனது .ஆனால்
நமது ராஜேந்திர சோழர் கடாரம், ஸ்ரீவிஜயம் , இலங்கை ,மற்றும் பல நாடுகளை வென்றதாக மெய்கீர்த்திகள் பிற ஆதாரம் உறுதி படுத்தயுள்ளது
அவர்கள் நாகை துறைமுகத்தில் இருந்து பல கப்பல்களில் பெரும் கூட்டமாக சென்று பல நாடுகளை வென்று வந்துள்ளனர் .
இது நடந்தது 11 நுற்றாண்டில், எப்படி இருந்தாலும் சுமார் 50,000 வீரமிக்க தமிழர் , கடல் போரில் சிறந்தவர்கள் , சொந்தமாக பல கப்பல்களை கட்டிக்கொண்டு பல நாடுகளை வென்று உள்ளனர் .
ஆனால் ராஜேந்திர சோழர் காலத்துக்கு பின் ஏன் வேறு எந்த சோழரும் கடல் போரில் ஈடு படவில்லை .
பிறகு வந்த பாண்டியரும் கடல் போரில் ஈடு படவில்லை .
என்னதான் ஆயிற்று அந்த கடற்படைக்கு ., அந்த பரம்பரை எங்கு போனது .
வீரமிக்க மாலுமிகள் ஆதி பரதவர்கள் , எப்படி மீன் பிடிக்கும் தொழ்லில் தங்களை ,தங்கள் ஆற்றலை மறைத்து கொண்டனர்
நாம் ஏன் கடல் போரை மறந்தோம் , எங்கே போயினர் நமது மாலுமிகள் ,?
எங்கே போயினர் கடல் வழி வியாபாரிகள் .?
ஏன் கடலை மறந்தோம் .
அன்புடன்,
சுகுமாரன்
--
A.Sugumaran
Amirtham Intl
PONDICHERRY INDIA
MOBILE 09345419948
Narayanan Kannan
> நாம் ஏன் கடல் போரை மறந்தோம்?
கொஞ்சம் யோசிக்க வைக்கும் கேள்வி!
நாம் போரை மறந்தோமா? இல்லையென்று தோன்றுகிறது. தமிழகத்தில் நடக்கும்
ஜாதிக்கலவரங்களும், அரசியல் வன்முறைகளும் நமது போர்க்குணத்தைச்
சுட்டுவதாகவே அமைகின்றன. தனியாக ஒருவனைக் கொன்றால் அது கொலை. கூட்டமாகப்
போய் ஒரு கூட்டத்தைக் கொன்றால் அது போர். முதல் உதாரணத்தில் காயம்
பட்டால் அது 'வெட்டு-குத்து' இரண்டாவது உதாரணத்தில் காயம் பட்டால் அது
'விழுப்புண்'. முதல் கொலையை எல்லா தர்மங்களும் கண்டிக்கும். இரண்டாவது
கொலைக்குப் பரணி பாடும்.
ஒரு கூட்டத்தைட் தயார் பண்ணி, போர்ப்பயிற்சி அளித்து, கப்பல்களை
உருவாக்கி கடல், விட்டு கடல் தாண்டி போய் சண்டை போடுவதற்கு நிறைய
பொருளாதார வசதி வேண்டும். உதாரணமாக, இந்தியா ஏழை நாடுதான். அது போர்
வசதிக்கான நிதி (defnce expenses) என முதலில் அதிகம் ஒதுக்கிடவில்லை.
ஆயின் சீனப்போருக்குப்பின் நிலமை மாறியது.
@Until 1962 defense spending was deliberately limited. In the wake of
the war with China, defense spending rose from 2.1 percent of the
gross national product in fiscal year 1962 to 4.5 percent in FY 1964.
In FY 1994, defense spending was slightly less than 5 percent of gross
domestic product. In terms of dollars, FY 1994 total defense services
expenditures were projected at US$7.2 billion (but are likely to have
been close to US$7.8 billion). Proportionately, based on figures
provided by the government, 48.4 percent of expenditures were for the
army, 15.7 percent for the air force, 5.9 percent for the navy, and 30
percent for capital outlays for defense services and defense ordnance
factories. The latter provide matériel to the armed forces through
some thirty-nine ordnance factories and eight public-sector
enterprises that build ships, aircraft, and major defense items.
......
ஆக, ஒட்டுமொத்தமாக தற்போதைய போர்க்களநிதி என்று எவ்வளவு இந்தியா
செலவழிக்கிறது எனப்பார்த்தால் மூர்ச்சித்துவிடுவோம்!
Factoring in PPP (Purchasing Power Parity) , India's military budget
might thus be estimated as the equivalent of about $100 billion.
[ http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/world/india/budget.htm ]
எனவே சோழர்கள் தங்கள் கப்பல்படையை நிறுவி, தயார் நிலையில் வைத்திருக்க
ஏகப்பட்ட செலவாகியிருக்கும். அதற்கான நிதியை மற்ற நாடுகளைக்
கொள்ளையடித்தால்தான் உண்டு. அதனால்தான் அடிக்கடி ஜாவா, சுமத்திரா என்று
போய்வந்தனர். இராஜேந்திர சோழனுக்குப்பின் இந்த போர்க்குணம்
குறைந்திருக்கலாம். அல்லது பாண்டிய, சேரர்களுடனும், சாளுக்கிய
அரசர்களுடனும் உள்நாட்டுப் போரில் ஈடுபட்டு வலு இழந்திருக்கலாம்.
இப்போது நினைத்தாலும் தமிழகத்தில் ஓர் கப்பல்படையை உருவாக்கமுடியும்.
தமிழகத்தைவிடச் சிறிய நாடு கொரியா. ஆனால் அதன் கப்பல்படை வலுவானது. இதை
அவர்கள் 40 வருடங்களில் உருவாக்கியுள்ளனர்.
பொருள் இல்லார்க்கு இவ்வுலகமில்லை.
அருள் இல்லார்க்கு அவ்வுலகமில்லை.
கண்ணன்
vj kumar
Perundanattu Anaiyatkal – Elephant corps.
Pandita-Chola-Terinda-villigal ( archers)
Uttama- Chola-terinda-Andalagattalar
Nigarili- Chola terinda-Udanilai-Kudiraichchevagar - Cavalry
Mummadi- Chola-terinda-Anaippagar – Elephant corps
Vira- Chola-Anukkar
Parantaka-Kongavalar
Mummadi- Chola-terinda-parivarattar
Keralantaka-terinda-parivarattar
Mulaparivara-vitteru alias Jananatha-terinda-parivarattar
Singalantaka-terinda-parivarattar
Sirudanattu Vadugakkalavar
Valangai-Parambadaigalilar
Perundanattu-Valangai-Velaikkarappadaigal
Sirudanattu-Valangai-Velaikkarappadaigal
Aragiya- Chola-terinda-Valangai-Velaikkarar
Aridurgalanghana-terinda-Valangai-Velaikkarar
Chandaparakrama-terinda-Valangai-Velaikkarar
Ilaiya-Rajaraja-terinda-Valangai-Velaikkarar
Kshatriyasikhamani-terinda-Valangai-Velaikkarar
Murtavikramabharana-terinda-Valangai-Velaikkarar
Nittavinoda-terinda-Valangai-Velaikkarar
Rajakanthirava-terinda-Valangai-Velaikkarar
Rajaraja-terinda-Valangai-Velaikkarar
Rajavinoda-terinda-Valangai-Velaikkarar
Ranamukha-Bhima-terinda-Valangai-Velaikkarar
Vikramabharana-terinda-Valangai-Velaikkarar
Keralantaka-vasal-tirumeykappar
Anukka-vasal-tirumeykappar – Personal bodyguards
Parivarameykappargal - Personal bodyguards
Palavagai-Parampadaigalilar
but where is the reference to the navy - the above are named in
various inscriptions - the king shows his open support and love for
his troops thus...however cant find any similar mention of navy
men/marines??
refer below paper, Mr Rao is still doing research on this
thread....
The Shipping Technology of Cholas
K.V. Ramakrishna Rao B.Sc., M.A., A.M.I.E., C.Eng. (I )., B.L.
Introduction: Of late, some researchers[1] have started throwing
doubt
on the overseas expedition of Rajaraja Chola through Rajendra Chola
on
the plea that the Parasasti / Meikkirti could have been written with
poetic fantasy rather than the factual accuracy. Even, had Rajendra
Cholan gone there, it could have been only a raid to loot and not to
set
foot as a conqueror! Earlier Aidan Southhall[2] analyzed the West
African politics in terms of the "segmentary states theory" and
applied to medieval European states. Burton Stein[3] applied such
model
to South India, though Bernard S. Cohn[4] opposed. Burton, then
applied
such theory to Cholas and George W. Spencer[5] accepting it to
declare
that in such "segmentary states", the state's functions were
custodial rather than regulative, magico-ritualistic rather than
managerial. Thus Cholas resorted to the policy of "plunder and
piety" just like Frankish kings of early mediaeval Europe. Rajaraja
too fulfilled his charitable obligations – his "necessary
giving" – in an extravagant way, aggressively acquiring booty
only to donate more lavishly to temples and Brahmans. In such an
attempt, the Tanjore inscriptional details of Cholas expedition to
South
East Asian Countries are dubbed as mere rhetoric. All these continue,
though R. C. Majumdar[6] after discussing the "struggle between the
Silendras and the Cholas", long back pointed out, "That the
story of this victory is not merely an imagination of the court-
poets,
but based on facts, is proved, beyond doubt, by the detailed
references
to the vassal states. It is interesting to note that many of these
States are included in the Silendra Empire by later Chinese
authorities".
Though, non-Indian researchers point out the maritime activities[7],
international trade, import and export of goods, movement of
people-groups with religious beliefs[8] etc., their studies have been
restricted to Chinese, Arabic and European exploits or impact with
passing remarks to Indians and Cholas. Accepting the fact of Indian
goods, people, their religion, temple-building technology etc., going
there, but doubting their mode of travel appears illogical and
unhistorical. Therefore, a critical study is made in this paper to
analyze the shipping, ship-building and naval capabilities of the
Cholas.
Whether Naval battles were fought or not?: The core is dealt with The
concept of oversea expedition and conquer is linked with Naval
battles
so that the incoming warriors from the ships land and enter into
cities
so that the conquest is complete. The critical observations made by
different researchers are mentioned as follows:
George W. Spencer[9]: "In spite of several references in Tanjore
record to ships and bodies of water, there is nothing in those purely
rhetorical references that requires us to believe that Cholas fought
naval battles. Indeed, the equally conventional reference to
capturing
the Kedah elephants would suggest land battles".
Moti Chandra[10] succinctly describes the Cholas expedition to SEA
concluding as follows: "In the conquests of Rajendra Chola came
almost the whole eastern part of Sumatra, and the central and
southern
parts of the Malay peninsula. He also occupied the capitals of
Srivijaya
and Kedah. Perhaps this expedition started in 1025 A.D".
Significantly, in next the line, he poses the issue:
"The Indian literature does not mention many sea battles. Therefore,
we are surprised to read the description of an Indian fleet in
Tilakamanjari[11] of Dhanapala[12]. The story mentions that this
Indian
fleet was led by an Indian prince, Samaraketu of Rangasala. He led
this
expedition to Indonesia because the feudatory chiefs there refused to
pay the tributes and taxes in time………….". Surprised by the
close similarity between the narration about Cholas naval expedition
and
the Tilakamanjari story, he notes:
"Whether the sea expedition described in the Tilakamanjari gives
glimpses of the victorious expedition of Rajendra Chola, or some
other
Indian ruler, depends on the exact date of Dharmapala. But, there is
hardly any doubt that Dhanapala had an intimate knowledge of
Indonesia". Then, he gives a free translation of the story, which
narrates as to how the army encamped on the shore, the soldiers
marched
to the villages, the Indonesian prince meeting the pilot, who was a
very
clever navigator and did not care for any sea danger, usage of boats
while disembarking etc., Thus. The text uses many expressions
related to
naval expedition. Then , Moti Chandra discusses about hero-stones
that
depict naval battles ending with A. S. Atlekar's reference[13] to
"flotilla of ships". P. C. Chakravarti[14] has dealt with
"Navak Warfare in Ancient India", in 1930, particularly pointing
out the Naval capabilities of the Tamils.
K. V. Raman[15], in the context, just points out the Cholas' trade
relation with China and SEA countries without going into the naval
aspect. P. Venkatesan[16], though deals with "Naval Battles and
Shipwrecks Referred to in Tamil Epigraphs", he repeats the details
from the inscriptions of Rajaraja and Rajendra, again not explaining
about naval details. But, there have been depiction of ships not
only in
hero-stones, but also on the coins of Satavahanas, Salankayanas,
Pallavas and others and such coins are in fact known as
"ship-type" coins.
"Ship-type Coins" Of Sathavahanas, Salankayanas, Kurumbas,
Pallavas: The introduction of "ship-type coins" has been
attributed to the Sathavahanas[17], who were ruling the south during
c.200 BCE onwards, just touching the northern boundaries of the
Tamils
of the Sangam period. Vasishthiputra Pulumavi and Yajna Sri Satakarni
have issued Ship-type coins depicting two-mast ships sailing on wavy
oceanic waters under partially clouded sky. The coins of Pulumavi
have
been recovered between Madras and Caddalore proving the existing of
ports in that area. The coins of the latter were found in Maharastra.
Here, under the two-mast ship fish (LHS) and conch (RHS) are also
depicted. The other parts of ship – have also been clear. The
Salankayanas have also issued similar coins proving that they too had
seafaring activities and naval dominance. Interestingly, their ships
portray some parts of the ship on both sides under water. Though,
they
could be easily interpreted as oars, but the shapes negate it. In
another coin, a roughly circular shape object attached to one side of
the ship. Then come the ship-type coins issued by the Pallavas[18],
which depict both one-mast and two-mast ships and also single-mast
boat
with Nandi / bull symbol on the observe. The picture nos. are given
as
appearing in the book of R. Krishnamurthy[19] for convenience. In the
coins with sl.nos. 25 and 26, the oars are very clear. No.35 also
shows
two-mast ship. In 36, part of a ship is depicted with a lengthy
devise
underneath with three rectangular scooped out holes. It could not be
an
anchor, as it has been depicted with full length of the ship.
Sir Walter Elliot[20] gives interesting description for the two-mast
ship depicted in Pallava coin: "Two-mast ship like the modern
coasting vessel or d'honi, steered by means of oars from the
stem". About this ship-type coins, he records that there were two
and both were found missing and then, one recovered. In his words
[21],
"This is one of the two coins mentioned on p.36, supposed to have
been lost. It was discovered in arranging the present series, but the
other is still missing" (1884). In another Pallava coin (numbered as
55 in plate II), he comments that observe has `a horse facing right,
with a pellet in front' and reverse `indistinct'. But, the
reverse depict a two-decked ship, perhaps which he did not want to
acknowledge, as it would be too modern to be imagined in the Pallava
period! In fact, he calls them as "Kurumbas". These coins were
recovered from the coastal Labis and Merkayars in exchange for useful
necessaries. About the coins, he describes as follows[22]:
"Those of native origin are small, irregularly rounded pieces of
thin copper, bearing generally the device of a bull, with
occasionally
some letters in Cave-character on the observe; and on the reverse, a
tree, ship, star, crab, fish etc. but, their most remarkable
characteristic is the elegance and delicacy of form with which the
animals are designed, indicating a considerable advance of art; and
in
this respect contrasting favourably, but with the Andhra money on the
one side, and with the Chola, and Pandyan currencies on the other"
(emphasis added).
Thus, he could have noted the similarity of coins of Cholas and
Pandyas,
besides Andhras and Kurumbas, as implied in his argument of contrast
of
art. Coming to Cholas of the material period, the available /
reported
coins depict only stars, fish prominently (these are specifically
mentioned in the context). Therefore, it is intriguing to note that
there are no coins issued by Rajaraja or Rajendra either to
commemorate
their oversea expeditions or victories or at least depict their naval
capabilities on their coins. When so many metallurgical highly
skilled
bronzes are attributed to the Cholas, it is also intriguing that they
issued fewer coins. But, considering the disappearance of coins from
India[23], it can be surmised that such coins could have gone to the
foreigners (just like Leiden Copper plates) and in the possession of
private collection (Indian coins are offered for sale in internet).
Revenue System proves the Maritime activities of Cholas: The Revenue
system of the Cholas interestingly talks about duty on imported goods
into their territories. The South Indian Inscriptions have given
enough
details about it. It is unique in the sense that the levy was imposed
based on the type of the vessel in which the goods were imported or
imported goods brought in instead of the goods imported. Thus, the
levy
is mentioned for the following:
ý Marakkalam = Ship
ý Patavu = Boat
ý Kalavam = Raft
P. Shanmugam[24] dealing with the topic notes that. ".. a similar
tax imports are mentioned in an epigraoph of Ganapatideva (1244). We
have no such evidence to suggest a corresponding item in CM
(Cholamandalam)". That is, the dilemma implied is that the
inscriptions mentioning the three type of naval tax levied are found
only in Tondaimandalam and not in Cholamandalam, but such division
has
been conceived, perceived and applied by us only. It is well known
that
such import-export, naval-maritime, shipping-shipbuilding activities
would be near sea and not interior areas under the Cholas. Therefore,
such inscriptions located near sea, here, Kollitturai, are
significant.
The Navy (of Cholas): Under the caption "The Navy", K. A.
Nilakanta Sastri[25] has given the following details and they split
into
points for interpretation as follows:
Ê The `numberless ship' which carried Rajendra's troops
across the `rolling sea' to the conquest of Sri Vijaya and its
dependencies could not have come up suddenly and must be accepted as
proof of a steady naval policy pursued by the Cola monarchs of the
period.
ý The steady naval policy pursued by the Cola monarchs of the
period could not have been without the knowledge of ship-building,
ship-technology and shipping.
Ê The early Colas of the Sangam period had a good share in the
maritime trade and activity of the Indian seas.
ý So such "naval policy" had been continuous and not
originated suddenly. Thus, the Colas of Sangam period must have had
ruled like their contemporary Satavahanas, as otherwise, it is
unimaginable or intriguing to note Satavanas ruling states and the
Colas
without state reportedly leading "tribal state", as has already
been suggested by some historians[26].
Ê The history of the Hindu colonies in the Malay Archipelago and
Indo-China gives clear evidence of a steady increase, under the
Pallavas, in the trade and culture contacts between these lands and
the
countries of South India.
ý Thus, the Pallavas navigation technology goes before the Colas in
the seafaring actrivities. B. Ch.Chabra[27] has pointed out as to how
the Pallava inscriptions of non-Indian sources (available in SEA
countries) are dating before the Indian Pallavas. Thus, the overseas
trade and shipping of Pallavas cannot be ignored.
Ê The Tamil inscriptions of Takuapa53 shows that an important
mercantile corporation of South India, the manigramam, had
established
itself on the opposite coast of the Bay of Bengal in the ninth
century
A.D.
ý Now, there have been many inscriptions found even upto
Southern-China and they are discussed separately.
Ê The Colas only continued an ancient tradition in the attention
they gave to developing their power on the sea. The conquest of
Ceylon
and the Maldives, and the evidence of the Chinese annals o the
embassies
that reached China in the period from the Cola country give us some
measure of the success they attained in this direction.
ý The literary evidences of Sangam literature and the conquest of
Ceylon and Maldives had been prelude to their overseas expansion.
Ê And the overthrow of the Cera fleet at Kandalur salai may well be
taken to mark the definite establishment of Cola naval power in this
period in the territorial waters of Southern India. We have little
direct evidence on the build of the ships employed.
ý Though about the "overthrow of the Cera fleet at Kandalur
salai" is interpreted differently, the fact being that not only
Colas had maritime capabilities, the Ceras too possessed such
capabilities with their unique ship-building and ship-academy.
Ê Considering that the author of the periplus distinguished three
types of vessels several centuries earlier on the Coromandel coast
and
that naval expedition of Rajendra was a great achievement in itself,
the
existence of a well-ordered fleet comprising ships and boats of
different grades must be admitted.
ý Of course, the "civilized, progressed and advanced"
Egyptians, Greeks, Romans, Arabs and others would not have been
dealing
with "mythical goods" of Indians and the latter sailing in
"mythical ships".
Ê The Arab merchant Sulaiman made several voyages between China and
the Persian Gulf in the ninth century A.D., at a time when this long
distance trade was being carried on very briskly. In his curious
account
of Maldives, he says that the people of these islands `built ships
and houses and executed all other works with a consummate art'54.
ý The mention of Maldives is interesting as it was stronghold of
Pallavas once and they were building ships and supplying to others.
Ê Sulaiman had no occasion to visit the Coromandel coast; and his
voyages were made before the rise of Colas of the Vijayala line into
prominence. Taking into account Sulaiman's testimony to the quality
of the ships built in Maldives, and the conquest of these islands
effected by Rajaraja's fleet, we may form some idea of the
efficiency of Cola navy in this period.
ý Rather, the Colas tried to imitate the Pallavas in dealing first
with the "Pallavas" of Maldives and then Ceras (Kanthalur
salai). In any case, the ship-connection (ship-building and
ship-academy) is interesting.
Ê Abu Zaid Hasan, in the notes which he added to Sulaiman's work
about the beginning of the tenth century A.D., observes that the
vessels
of the Indian ocean, specially those made at Saraf, differed in
construction from those of the Mediterranean. `It is a fact that the
type of ship built by pieces of wood sewn together is a specially of
the
builders of Siraf, the ship builders of Syria and of Rum (Byzantum)
nail, on the contrary, these pieces of wood and never sew them one to
another'55.
ý Zaid observation of "sewn Indian ships" must be general,
in otherwords that the Indian ships were built in such a way that the
joints could not be seen buty appeared as if the wooden planks /
parts
were sewn together with wooden nails.
Ê Today we can see boats on the maras coast with planks
`sewn' together by threads of cocoanut fibre. But these are
usually of a small size; and the observations of Abu Zaid based on
what
he saw and heard at Siraf about A.D., 916 on navigation in the Indian
Ocean56 should be no obstacle to a just estimate of the size and
importance of the navy of the Cola empire more than a century later.
If
the Arab writers are too early, Marco Polo comes unfortunately too
late,
and we are without a good contemporary account of ship-building on
the
Coromandel coast under the Colas.
ý Again , this is generalized observation. What used on the Maras
coast are boats, but what is discussed here are ships. Therefore, the
shipbuilding technology varies accordingly.
Ê Ahmad-ibn Majid, an Arab writer of the fifteenth century and
author of several nautical works, makes frequent allusion to the
opinions of the Cholas which he approves or modifies. He must have
had
before him a specilised nautical literature of Tamil (Cola) origin
which
he compared with Arab documents of a like nature.
ý He must be having Indian books on Shipbuilding etc., for example,
Kappal Sattiram (the science of ships), Navai Sattram (The
Technology of
Shipbuilding). When he tried to write without mentioning the sources,
naturally, opinion was bound to change because of borrowed ideas.
Copying technology is different from understanding science behind it.
Ê This literature must have included geographical tables with
indications of the latitudes of ports for use of the mariners of the
Coromandel coast57.
ý Yes, H. B. Sarkar[28] has proved from the sources that the Arabs
freely used Indian tables, but circulated them as if they were
authors.
Baitul Hikmah of Harun-al-Rashid (785-809), and the works attributed
to
Abu Zayd al-Balkhi (919-921), al-Ishtkhri (934), Ibn Hawqal (c.980),
al-Muqaddasi (985), Abdul Fida, Sidi Ali (d.1562) etc., prove the
fact.
Ê Of this technical literature mentioned by this Arab writers,
unfortunately no part seems to have survived.
ý Naturally, as pointed out, the Arabs destroyed the Indian
originals and circulated their version as their own without any
acknowledgement to Indians. And there was no respect for intellectual
honesty or intellectual property, rights and so on, which we talk
about
nowadays!
From the above note of K. A. Nilakanta Sastri, the following facts
could
be known:
ó The navy possessed by the Cholas.
ó Their seafaring capabilities.
ó Their oversea expedition to SEA countries.
ó Arabs testimony to Cholas presence even in the West, besides East
(SEA Countries).
The Naval expeditions of Cholas mentioned in the Inscriptions: A
detailed account of overseas expedition undertaken by Rajaraja
through
his son and Commander-cum-Captain has been recorded in the
inscriptions
as "Meikirti", where certain description, expression and words
point to Oceanic, maritime and naval details and they are discussed
as
follows:
That the "à(R)(R)ெà(R)¯à¯ à(R)•à¯ à(R)•à¯€à(R)°à¯ à(R)¤à¯ à(R)¤à(R)¿ /
Meikkirti" references of the following description of the oversea
exploitations imply the science and technology behind:
Ê à(R)•à(R)¾à(R)¨à¯ à(R)¤à(R)³à¯‚à(R)°à¯ à(R)šà(R)¾à(R)²à¯ˆ
à(R)•à(R)²à(R)(R)à(R)±à¯ à(R)¤à¯ à(R)¤à¯ [29] = He checked / controlled the
College of Marine Shipping and Military Academy at Kanthalur, as the
Chera King was building ships and selling to Arabs and Europeans and
all
in turn were acting against the interests of the Cholas. The Chera
King
perhaps, refused or stopped sending ships required by the Chola
Empire.
Some take the literal meaning of à(R)•à(R)²à(R)(R)à(R)±à¯ à(R)¤à¯ à(R)¤à¯ as
destroying ships, but in the context, it is incongruent and
meaningless,
as he could not have destroyed, therefore he must have seized the
ships
meant for Arabs or Europeans, instead of offering to Cholas.
Ê à(R)(R)௠à(R)¨à¯ à(R)¨à¯€à(R)°à¯ à(R)ªà¯
à(R)ªà(R)´à(R)¨à¯ à(R)¤à¯€à(R)µà¯
à(R)ªà(R)(c)௠à(R)(c)ீà(R)°à(R)¾à(R)¯à(R)¿à(R)°à(R)(R)௠= the expression
à(R)(R)௠à(R)¨à¯ à(R)¨à¯€à(R)°à¯ has been frequently used in the ancient
Tamil literature from Tolkappiyam and therefore, its usage in
historical
context has been very significant and its identification with
Maldives
has been more significant. That the Pallava inscriptions and
sculptures
have been found in Maldives proves the Tamil connection dating back
to
3rd cent.CE. Again, interestingly, Maldives play role in supplying
cowries (used in astronomy) and as coinage and ships to India – that
were build with wooden planks sewn together).
Ê à(R)•à(R)Ÿà(R)²à(R)¿à(R)Ÿà(R)™à¯ à(R)•à(R)¾à(R)µà(R)²à(R)(c)௠= the
Protector or Lord of places of Ocean (implying ports, port cities and
coastal areas). This title is followed by the titles of Narapati,
Aswapati, Gajapati etc. Moreover, the conquered places mentioned in
the
SEA countries happened to be coastal cities or ports. Therefore,
where
his influence was felt and hence, known as so.
Ê à(R)•à(R)Ÿà(R)²à¯ à(R)ªà¯ à(R)• à(R)µà¯†à(R)•à¯ à(R)£à¯ à(R)Ÿà¯ =
He was angered because of the entering of oceanic waters (implying
some
sort of Tsunami / deluge occurred)
Ê à(R)ªà¯Šà(R)°à¯ à(R)•à(R)Ÿà(R)²à¯ à(R)ˆà(R)´à(R)(R)௠= Ezham
situated in the attacking oceanic waters
Ê à(R)¤à¯†à(R)£à¯ à(R)Ÿà(R)¿à(R)°à¯ˆ à(R)ˆà(R)´à(R)(R)௠= Ezham situated
in the cold / southern oceanic waters.
Ê à(R)¨à¯†à(R)Ÿà¯ à(R)™à¯ à(R)•à(R)Ÿà(R)²à¯
à(R)‰à(R)¤à¯ à(R)¤à(R)°à(R)²à(R)¾à(R)Ÿà(R)(R)௠= the place to be reached by
traveling a long distance in the north of ocean.
Ê à(R)…à(R)²à¯ˆà(R)•à(R)Ÿà(R)²à¯ à(R)¨à(R)Ÿà¯ à(R)µà¯ à(R)Ÿà¯
à(R)ªà(R)²à(R)•à(R)²à(R)žà¯ à(R)šà¯†à(R)²à¯ à(R)¤à¯ à(R)¤à(R)¿ = he steered
his fleet through the wavy ocean. It is mentioned in the context of
Kadaram.
Ê à(R)†à(R)´à¯ à(R)•à(R)Ÿà(R)²à¯ à(R)šà¯‚à(R)´à¯ = the wavy
oceanic waters surrounding "Mayirudingam" or Ji-lo-ting as
mentioned by the Chinese.
Ê à(R)¨à(R)¿à(R)±à¯ˆà(R)ªà¯ à(R)(c)à(R)²à¯ = brimming estuary. It is
mentioned connecting Mapappalam located in the Isthmus of Kra.
Ê à(R)¤à¯Šà(R)Ÿà¯ à(R)•à(R)Ÿà(R)±à¯ à(R)•à(R)¾à(R)µà(R)±à¯
à(R)•à(R)Ÿà(R)(R)௠à(R)°à(R)Ÿà¯ = the oceanic water touching and well
protected. Again it is mentioned in the context of Kadaram. The extra
word used denotes the confronting nature of Kadaram with the Cholas.
Here, each word or expression has to be taken in the maritime context
instead of appreciating the literary nuance to dub it as a rhetoric.
This description has been doubted by researchers as pointed out
above.
But, considering the description correlating with other evidences,
the
shipping and navigational skills of Cholas cannot be mythologized.
Inscriptions found in the SEA Countries and China[30]: Significantly,
inscriptions in mainly Tamil and Tamil bilingual (Tamil with
Sanskrit,
SEA languages like Thai, and Chinese) have been found in SEA
Countries
and Eastern China. They are tabulated as follows:
Where found / located
Script and Language used
Dated to
Remarks
On the hill
Khau-Pra-Narai (Bra Narayana), about ten miles upstream on the
Takuapa
river, on the west coast of peninsular Thailand.
The Pallava Grantha and entirely in Tamil.
Mid ninth century CE or 870 CE.
The tank was dug by the Pallava King Nandivarman III.
Valanjiyar – a merchant association is mentioned.
At the early port site of Loho Tuwa, just to the north of Barus on
the
west of the island of Sumatra.
Tamil in the Kawi script of Java.
1010 Saka or 1088 CE
Nanaesa-Tisaivavirattu-Ainnurruvar – The Merchant association is
mentioned.
Neusu Aceh, North Sumatra
12th century CE
It deals with trading regulations among the exporters.
Batu Bapahat, west Sumatra
Tamil in the Javanese influenced central Sumatran script
13th century CE
Translation not available
Porlak dolok, north Sumatra
Tamil and Old Malay / Javanese language.
Late 13th cent.CE
Invoking God for the protection of the city.
Nkhom Si Thammarat Thailand
Tamil-Sanskrit, bilingual.
Late 13th cent.CE.
1183 Saka or 1261 CE
Grant given to Brahmans by Senatipati.
Pagan, Upper Burma
Do
13th cent.CE based on paleographic grounds – dated by Hultzch
Gant of Mantap, door and lamp to a deity.
Quanzhou, Eastern China
Tamil in Tamil-Chinese language.
Late 13th cent.CE
Text not completely read and published.
It refers to a permission given by Chekchai Khan to Dava
Chakravartigal
Sambandha Perumal.
Cross-checking with Local literature of SEA: H. B. Sarkar[31] after
discussing about the so-called "Leiden grant" of Rajaraja Chola
(980-1014) delves upon the inscriptional evidences of the Cholas,
which
asset the conquest of Kadaram even by Virarajendra Cola (1069-1070),
implying that the movement of Cholas or representatives of Cholas had
been there for nearly 100 years from Rajaraja to Rajendra reign.
Quoting
Tibbets[32], Sarkar points out that Cholas knew SEA more than the
Arabs,
as Idrisi could add only two names in the geographical data on
South-East Asia: these are Karimata and al-Anam. Joustra[33] pointed
out
Tamil names in central Sumatra: Coliya, Pandia, Meliyala and Tekang,
thus clearly referring to Cola, Pandya, Malayala and the Deccan. Ma
Tuan-lin[34] records about the Chu-lien mission to China reaching
there
in 1025. Then, he mentions about one text Nagarakritagama is an
old-Javanese literary work (dated to 1365). The text was discovered
from
Bali in 1894, translated and published later. In this work, the Colas
are designated as Coda or Gauda. It mentions the places which were
raided by the soldiers of Rajendra Cola as Kampar, Kampe, Haru,
Parlak,
Samudra etc., (Nagar.13. 1-2). The local stories, particularly, the
story of Manimekhalai show similarity. Of course, the art and
architecture prove the Indian influence, which is too well known to
be
repeated here.
The Astronomy of Chola Period: The Shipping, navigation and
astronomy go
together. Rajaraja encouraged astronomy and there was Colleges
exclusively at important cities like Madurai, Tanjai and
Trichirappalli[35]. Incidentally, there was an astronomer hailing
from
Gagnaikonda Cholapuram, which is mentioned as Gangapuri, Gangapura
and
Sriranga-gangapuri (Epigraphgica Indica xv, p.49) with prefix Sri-
ranga
(the stage of goddess of prosperity). His name was Suryadeva[36] and
also known as Suryadeva Yajva, Suryadeva Somasut and Suryadeva
Dikshita
(c.1191- 1260 CE). He was born on Monday, 3rd that of the dark half
of
Magha, Saka 1113 (= 1191 CE). The ahargana for that day, according to
Aryabhata-siddhanta was 15,68,004, i.e, so may days elapsed since
Kaliyuga. So dividing 15,68,004 by 365.25, we get 4293. Subtracting
3102, we get 1191 (4293-3102=1191), this tallies with the year
obtained
based on Saka era 1113+78=1191 (विशवेशà¤(R)ित 1113
शकेà¤(R)ागकृशण). He was a Brahmin with Nidhruva
gotra belonging to the Chola country and a resident of Gangaikonda
Cholapuram and thus, evidently patronized by the Chola Kings.
Rajendra
Chola (1012-1044) founded the city to commemorate his victory over
Ganges campaign. Probably, Somadeva Yajva's forefathers had been
with the Cholas and he could be the Royal Astronomer he was the
Principal of the Astronomical College (Vidhyalaya) in the Chola
territories interacting with others. This all of sudden could not
have
come into existence. Referring to Post-Sangam literature, we come
across
Civaga Cintamani (dated to 9th-10th centuries, verse no.995)
mentioning
existence of Colleges as follows:
à(R)•à(R)²à(R)¤à¯ à(R)¤à(R)±à¯ à(R)•à(R)¾à(R)²à(R)™à¯
à(R)•à(R)²à¯ à(R)²à¯‚à(R)°à(R)¿
When time comes (after primary education), the youth are admitted to
College (for higher studies). Thus, the mention of
à(R)•à(R)²à¯ à(R)²à¯‚à(R)°à(R)¿ is very interesting and significant to prove
the well-established educational system in the Tamizhagam during
9th-10th centuries.
Thus, Professor Somadeva Yajvan must have been teaching and
researching
there. He has written commentaries on the following works:
6 Aryabhatiya (c.500).
6 Mahayatra of Varahamihira (c.500)
6 Laghumanasa of Majula (c.932).
6 Jataka-paddhathi of Sripati (c.1039)
His commentary on Sripati proves that the Indian astronomers were in
touch with each other discussing on the subject matter dealt with.
As mentioned, the forefathers of Suryadeva or their disciples must
have
accompanied with Rajendra during his overseas campaigns. Thus, during
the Chola period, the knowledge of geography accompanied with
cartography must have been there, as otherwise, Rajendra chola could
not
have navigated and directed his ships exactly going to the respective
countries, carried the campaign by landing on the shores respective
cities of the countries after anchoring. He must have used small
boats
to reach the shores. After campaign, he must have come back to his
ship
and started sailing after de-anchoring. This proves that Cholas were
having maps of India accompanied with the South East countries.
However,
it is intriguing and surprising to note none of the maps are
available
or reported in possession of anybody.
Civaga Cintamani (verse no. 882) mentions about the existence of
"books on the knowledge of Oceans", which is very significant in
the context:
à(R)µà(R)¾à(R)£à¯ à(R)(R)à(R)¿à(R)(c)௠à(R)(c)௠à(R)µà(R)£à¯ à(R)•à¯ˆ
à(R)µà(R)Ÿà(R)¿à(R)¨à¯‚à(R)±à¯ à(R)•à(R)Ÿà(R)±à¯ à(R)•à¯‡à(R)³à¯ à(R)µà(R)¿
à(R)(R)ைà(R)¨à¯ à(R)¤à(R)°à¯
à(R)¤à(R)¾à(R)(c)௠à(R)(R)à(R)¿à(R)(c)௠à(R)(c)௠à(R)µà¯€à(R)™à¯ à(R)•à¯
à(R)•à(R)´à(R)²à(R)¾à(R)(c)௠à(R)±à(R)(c)ைà(R)šà¯
à(R)šà¯ à(R)´à(R)(R)à(R)±à¯ à(R)±à(R)ªà¯
à(R)ªà¯‚à(R)£à¯ à(R)(R)à(R)¿à(R)(c)௠à(R)(c)à¯
à(R)(R)à(R)¾à(R)°à¯ à(R)ªà(R)(c)à¯
à(R)ªà¯Šà(R)²à(R)¿à(R)¨à¯ à(R)¤à(R)¾à(R)™à¯ à(R)•à(R)¿à(R)°à¯ à(R)¨à¯ à(R)¤à(R)¾à(R)(c)à¯
à(R)µà(R)¿à(R)šà¯ à(R)(R)௠à(R)ªà(R)¿à(R)±à¯
à(R)•à¯‹à(R)(c)௠à(R)(R)à(R)¿à(R)(c)௠à(R)(c)à¯
à(R)(R)ீà(R)(c)௠à(R)šà¯‚à(R)´à¯
à(R)•à¯ à(R)³à(R)¿à(R)°à¯ à(R)(R)à(R)¾à(R)(R)à(R)¤à(R)¿à(R)¤à¯
à(R)¤à¯‹à(R)±à¯ à(R)±à(R)(R)ொà(R)¤à¯ à(R)¤à(R)¤à¯‡.
The brothers are having hands which are well-versed in the handling
of
glittering swords and as well as well-written books on Oceans (The
sailors of all categories – traders, businessmen, should be warriors
and also good navigators with the knowledge of shipping, astronomy,
geography and oceanography). As Civaga, the hero is encircled with
his
brothers shining, the cool Moon is also encircled with other planets
and
asterism (visible clearly during the night, as could be observed by
them
on the ship during their voyage, i.e, the knowledge of stellar
navigation is also a must for them).
6 The mention of availability of books on the knowledge of
Oceans
is significant.
6 "The Books on the Knowledge of Oceans" covers all
aspects of Ships, shipping etc.,
6 That the sailors should be capable of handling swords and
such
books is also significant considering the dangers involved in
ocean-trade, visiting many countries, the nature of peopled dealt
with
in trading etc.
6 Interestingly, both the Science of Ocean and the Sky are
mentioned together in the same context figuratively.
The Astronomical link among the SEA countries and India: The Siamese
[37]
and Tiruvalore[38] astronomical tables created a great storm in the
Europe making the mathematicians, astronomers and scientists to study
them to find out the accuracy[39], as they reportedly had
calculations
starting from Kaliyuga that started coinciding with a planetary
conjunction or alignment that occurred around 3102 BCE[40]. The
movement
of Cholas, particularly, Somadeva Yajvan with Rajendra to SEA
countries
could be a source for the spread of such knowledge. Moreover,
historically, the entire area was known as "India" according to
the middle-east and European people, as is evident from their
writings
and maps[41]. The flooding of Jesuits to Siam attacking Royal
palaces[42], infiltrating temples and Buddhist Viharas and
researching
the scholars for astronomical, geographical and medical manuscripts
speak the motive[43]. The movements of selected Jesuits from Cochin
and
Goa to China and back[44], SEA countries and back to Pondicherry,
Tranqubar etc., prove their collection of scientific and technical
manuscripts, tables, charts and materials.
The Disappearance of Indian Astronomical documents, instruments and
maps: Like the details of Indian shipping, the astronomical
documents,
instruments and maps are also surprisingly missing, though, usage of
them were there, as the naval expedition had been the proof. K. A.
Nilakanta Sastri's observation[45] made on Ahamad-ibn Majid are
interesting to note:
"Ahmad-ibn Majid, an Arab writer of the fifteenth century and author
of several nautical works, makes frequent allusion to the opinions of
the Cholas which he approves or modifiues. He must have had before
him a
specilised nautical literature of Tamil (Cola) origin which he
compared
with Arab documents of a like nature. This literature must have
included
geographical tables with indications of the latitudes of ports for
use
of the mariners of the Coromandel coast. of this technical literature
mentioned by this Arab writers, unfortunately no part seems to have
survived".
Ferrand26 in his writing has clearly pointed out as follows:
`Dans tous ses ouvrages nautiques, Ibn Majid fait frequemment
allusion'a l' opinion des Colas qu'il appropuve ou rectifie.
Ce'st qu'il devait avoir en main les Insructions nautiques
tables geographuques avec indication de la latitude des ports,
utilis'ees par les marins du Coromandel et qu'il les comparait
avee les documents arabes des meme nature'.
Therefore, the following questions arise:
ó What were the allusions made about Cholas by Ahamad-ibn Majid?
ó Why he approves or modifies such allusions?
ó What was "a specilised nautical literature of Tamil (Cola)
origin" possessed by the Arabs?
ó Why he compared Arab records with Tamil-Chola nauctiical
literature?
ó After comparision, what he did with such "specilised nautical
literature of Tamil (Cola) origin"?
ó If the "specilised nautical literature of Tamil (Cola)
origin" included "geographical tables with indications of the
latitudes of ports for use of the mariners of the Coromandel coast",
what happened to such geographical tables?
ó K. A. N. Nilakanda Sastri could say only that, "Of this
technical literature mentioned by this Arab writers, unfortunately no
part seems to have survived".
More Evidences to prove that Indian maps were taken away: The
following
references are given to show the vulnerable condition of Indian
researchers, when most of the historical evidences are in the
collections of the foreigners, which are not easily accessible.
Encyclopedia Britannica (1952 edition) gives the following details
[46]:
"The charts in use by medieval navigators of the Indian ocean –
Arab, Persians or Dravidians – were in equal in value if not
superior to the charts of Mediterranean. Marco Polo (1292) mentions
such
charts; Vasco Da Gama (1498) found them in the hands of Indian pilot,
and their value is fully explained in the Mohit or encyclopedia of
the
sea compiled from ancient sources by the Turkish Admiral Sidi Ali Ben
Hosssein in 1554. These charts are covered with a close net work of
lines intersecting each other at right angles. The horizontal lines
are
parallels, depending upon the altitude of the pole star, the calves,
the
little Bear and the Barrow of the Great Bear above the horizon. This
altitude was expressed in "isbas" or inches each equivalent to
104'50". Each isba was divided into "Zams" or eights.
The interval between the parallels thus amounted to 12'51".
These intervals were mistaken by the Portuguese occasionally for
degrees, which accounted for Malacca, which is, in latitude 2013'N.
being placed on Cartino's chart (1502) in lat. 14'S. it may have
been a map of this kind which accounts for Ptolemy's moderate
exaggerations of the size of Toprobana (Ceylon). A fdirst meridian,
eparating a leeward from a windward region, passed through Ras Kumari
(Camorin) and was thus nearly identical with the meridian of the
Indian
astronomer which passed through the sacred city of Ujjain (Ozone of
Ptolemy) or the meridians of Azin of the Arabs. Additional meridians
were drawn at intervals of Zams, supposed to be equal to three hours
sail".
As the taking away or possession of such "specilised nautical
literature of Tamil (Cola) origin including geographical tables with
indications of the latitudes of ports for use of the mariners of the
Coromandel coast" by the Arabs was accepted, it is evident that they
compared, used and prepared tables and maps, but suppressed or
destroyed
the Indian originals. And we know lot of maps produced exactly during
that period onwards attribute to the Arab / Mohammedan / Muslim
geographers / cartographers and so on. This is just similar to the
Jesuits who took Indian books, instruments, charts, tables, samples
etc
on Indian science and technology. In any case, we have to show
evidences
for such happening. Here, comes the manuscript of "Kappal
Sattiram"[47].
Kappal Sattiram – Science and Technology of Ships and Shipping:
Indians used to write books on Palm-leaves, particularly, in South
India. They used different scripts to Sanskrit and Tamil languages o
various subjects. Most of the original Sanskrit books are missing as
they must have been destroyed by the Mohammedans, taken away by the
Mohammedans for study and also by European missionaries. As the
demand
for books increased with the exigencies, more books could have been
produced engaging the scribes. An expression, "Tiruppugira
Pusthakam" found in "Kappal Sattiram" 37 (Science and
Technology of Ships and Shipping) proves that copies of books were
made
from the translations and as well as originals. The expressions "Edu
Tiruppudhal" (turning the pages) and "Tiruppugira Pusthakam"
(the book that is turned) convey copying a book from its original, so
that the original could be preserved and the copy given away or
sold. As
per the directions of the Danish, in the house of Kangirayap Pillai
or
Kalingarayap Pillai, a Dubash, the book was dictated and a scribe had
written down. The name of the book is mentioned as
"Nikamasigamani", a Sanskrit name. As the last line of 8th song
clearly mentions that, "Salaikathirangan sorppadi idanai tamil
seythittan", it is evident that as per the directions of one
Salaikathirangan, it was made into Tamil i.e, translated into Tamil
from
Sanskrit. As it was known that there was a work named "Nauka
Sastra" in Sanskrit, that book might have been used for translation.
Here, Kangiyap Pillai says that he is producing the book as per the
directions of Danish in 1620 (of Salivahana Era) or 1698 of CE in his
house. So the Danish used different tactics to get the science and
technology books from the Indians.
The book gives the following details (the author's comments are
given in different colour):
ó The standard measurement is given (Verse.3).
ó The time suitable for manufacture of ocean-going vessels is given
astronomically based on an earlier work, "Nigama Sigamani"
(à(R)¨à¯€à(R)•à(R)(R) à(R)šà(R)¿à(R)•à(R)¾à(R)(R)à(R)£à(R)¿, Verse.4).
ó The properties of ships (5).
ó The suitable time for navigation is given (6-9).
ó The best time for fixing of mast is given (13).
ó A Tamil king "Parasi Vendan", who helps shipping
technology, is mentioned.
ó When a ship could sail safely, when it might face with danger,
when a ship may wreck, and such other exigencies are mentioned (23-
28).
Thus, it is amply evident that the Tamils knew the ship wreckage
occurred as a result of piracy by non-Indians. As they followed the
rules and regulations of nature and sailed in the prescribed time,
the
wreckage due to natural disasters like tempest, cyclones, rough
weather
etc., must have been minimal.
ó Mathematics involving points / dots is mentioned (29). As it is
not explained, it is not known exactly what mathematical method or
mathematics involving points was used in the maritime context. But,
it
must have been connected with Cartography making points on the maps
drawn, developed, corrected and modified. In those days, maps could
have
been produced only after undertaking any voyages. Ironically, such
projection in navigation charts used is known as the Mercator, named
after the Flemish mathematician and geographer Gerardus Mercator
(1512-94), who reportedly devised it. But it is evident that they
must
have known from Indians, as existence of such method is mentioned
here.
ó Experts of Books without any weariness (31). It is mentioned that
these details are given by the Experts of Books without any weariness
implying that they exclusively engaged in such observatory and
cartographic work making projections etc.
ó When the destruction of a ship with cargo would occur (33) is
mentioned.
ó When a ship would return successfully with earned profits after
selling the goods aboard (37) is given. These two exigencies have
been
given in astrological interpretation, but involving astronomical
observation. The Tamils must have found out the arrival of Arab and
European vessels to SEA countries at a particular time, as their
starting with winds from their destinations had been different from
that
of Indians. However, they tried to coincide with the timings of
Indians
with an intention to compete initially and then seize cargo by piracy
realizing their law abiding nature. Moreover, the cunning Arabs and
Europeans must have used Indian flags, symbols, dress etc., to cheat
the Indians to complete their piracy.
ó Persons with two eyes and one eye are compared figuratively with
Sun and Moon. Danger to cargo would come from the persons with one
eye
(39), as they stealthily attack other vessels without following any
marine-ethics or Maritime regulations. This is clear indication that
Tamils knew of the nature of pirates, who were not Indians, as they
were
not following the Indian ethics of not attacking the vessels of
others.
Incidentally, the western depiction of standard pirates have been
"one-eyed"!
ó Interestingly, another point implied is about the persons with
"Surya dhristi", "Chandra dhristi", "Raja
dhristi", Griha dhristi", "Rakka dhristi" etc. They were
nothing but persons with eye-sight of Moon, Sun, King, Planets, sides
etc. in other words, the ocean going ships had such experts /
observers
of Solar, lunar, planetary motions and time calculations. As they
had to
visit different countries, they had to know about the Kings of such
countries, thus the experts of Kings. And there were experts in
observing directions also, as it is important in navigation. As such
things could have been possible with past experience, it is evident
that
the experts mentioned must have had books on such subject matter.
ó Suddenly, the work changes from poetry to prose giving statistical
details of planets, asterisms, stars etc.
ó Thus, the measurements for masts are given.
ó The measurements for anchors are given.
ó Measurement details of a "English ship" is given.
ó At the end, it is appended with "Silpa sastram" (A Manual
of Sculpre) only with 13 verses.
ó As most of the verses have been written with defective words,
language and grammar, it is evident that the Danish must have engaged
poor scribes to write this work, evidently to substitute, as the
original was taken away by them.
ó Many verses have been adopted or imported straight away from the
following earlier works:
à(R)šà(R)°à(R)¸à¯ à(R)µà(R)¤à(R)¿à(R)…à(R)¨à¯ à(R)¤à(R)¾à(R)¤à(R)¿
à(R)šà¯‹à(R)¤à(R)¿à(R)Ÿà(R)•à(R)¿à(R)°à(R)•à(R)šà(R)¿à(R)¨à¯ à(R)¤à(R)¾à(R)(R)à(R)£à(R)¿
à(R)•à(R)£à(R)•à¯ à(R)•à(R)¤à(R)¿à(R)•à(R)¾à(R)°à(R)(R)à¯
à(R)¨à¯€à(R)•à(R)(R) à(R)šà(R)¿à(R)•à(R)¾à(R)(R)à(R)£à(R)¿
However, the scribe has not acknowledged the source.
ó As the work has been incomplete in many aspects, it is evident
that the copy has been only a part of a bigger book.
"Navai Sattiram"[48]: It is only part of the original work, as
the available 64 leaf-book does not give more details that that of
the
above "Kappal Sattiram". Most of the available songs delve on
the auspicious time, date and period for start and return of journey
with astrological couch. In fact, same songs are repeated, however,
subject matter is concerned, it differs and at many places it is
incomplete and thus, there must have been complete book.
Particularly,
after discussing about the wooden planks used for mast, the verses
are
found to be with broken sentences. Therefore, the copyist must have
hurriedly copied from the original work. The crude drawing of a
three-mast ship also proves the fact, as in many other manuscripts,
very
good pictures with minute details have been drawn.
Piercing the veil of Buddhism: If the veil of Buddhism is pierced,
the
treatment of all Buddhists – Indians, Chinese, Ceylonese, and SEA
categories alike, would be removed. The tracing of maritime trade
between the India and the ports Southern China to first centuries
points
to such a possibility. As Tamil Siddhas[49] have made their claimed
sojourns or voyages to China, Chinese have also done[50]. Haraprasad
Ray[51] has pointed out the links between India and China based on
the
Chinese records. Thus, as described by the Imperunkappiyangal, the
Tamil
and other Indian merchants had reached China, as evidenced by the
archaeological evidences of Quanzhou region. Tamil / South Indian
merchants had been there already in the Southeast Asia from the first
centuries. The Buddhist interpretation of events has made all people
to
appear as "Buddhists", but Indians of the whole region acted and
interacted together irrespective of their personal religious beliefs.
Thus, the oobservation of Tansen Sen[52] that,"some credit for the
`emergence of a world market' must go to the Chola (or Cola)
kingdom in Southern India. The trading ports and mercantile guilds of
the Chola kingdom, he suggests, played a significant role in linking
the
markets of China to the rest of the world" has been apt. The
movement of "Brahmanas and Sramanas" here had been phenomenal
along with other groups. As they already settled or colonized or
established themselves, their building activities had been natural
exhibiting in the material culture. Thus, the Pallava, Chola,
Silendra
and other influences are found in script, literature, sculpture and
art.
Indian Maritime Trade with Africa: The South Indian maritime trade
with
East African coastal countries during medieval period has been very
interesting and revealing throwing light on Pallava, Chola and
Kadamba
maritime trade and shipping. The movement of merchandise cargo from
south Indian ports through Maldives, Chagos for Archipelago,
Mauritius,
Reunion, Madagascar and coastal East Africa has been easiest the
South
Indian marine-traders[53]. Incidentally, these islands were used by
the
Pallava and Cholas for their ship-building activities. Pallava
sculptures, inscriptions and temples have been found in Maldives[54].
How the Pallavas could have exercised their influence far and wide
distances from SEA countries to East African coast could be noted
from
these archaeological evidences found in those places. During Pallava,
Chola and Kadamba period, the Indian metal workers had achieved
highest
state of art and their skill been a great demand throughout the
world.
In fact, before the advent of Islam, the movement of Indians to
Africa
had been very smooth without any maritime strife.
The finding of a bronze lion statuette[55] at trading port of Shanga,
Lamu District, Kenya, in January 1986 raised many questions. It has
been
dated to 1100 CE and compared with that of Central and South Indian
counterparts, because of close resemblances and casting techniques.
Moreover, the lion is easily comparable with the depiction noted on
South Indian coins also starting from 1st century BCE with
characteristic features. E. C. L. During Caspers[56] has pointed out
that the practice of trading bronze animals within the Indian Ocean
dates back to at least the 2nd millennium BC. Scientific analysis of
the
composition of bronzes found at Africa and South India and historical
evidence of maritime goods prove that either, Indians exported such
bronzes to Africa or the settled Indian metal workers created them.
Roger Summer[57] brought out the gold-mining techniques of Zimbabwe
had
been very similar to Deccan / South India. Hromnik pointed out that
the
Indians of Africa were also responsible for the introduction of
cattle
and crops, the stone architecture of Great Zimbanwe and by attracting
Negroid labouers to the south, for the Bantu migrations as well.
It may be noted that the vague references of Herodotus Indians
supplying
to "gold dust" and ferrum Indicum to the Persians and the Greeks
prove the metallurgical skill of Indians since c.1500 – 300 BCE
period. The Bongozkai insprition already proved the Indian presence
in
the Mesopotamian area around c.1450 BCE. Thus, the fine casting
technology of Cholas could easily be correlated and corresponded with
the African specimens. Therefore, the South Indian history in the
context of metallurgy has to be recast with these metallurgical
evidences.
The findings[58] of Thor Heyerdahl, Prof. Arne Skjølsvold and Prof.
Egil Mikkelsen have brought out the remains of a temple, Raksha-like
sculptures with Pallava-type inscription The local Maldive people
arrange shells in such a way, they look like a stupa - ruined
miniatures
of satihirutalu which formed the apex of the Maldive Buddhist
usthumbu.
The usthumbu has three parts: the quadrangular base representing
earth;
the bell-shaped middle part, representing water; and the satihirutalu
representing air which crowns the usthumbu. The Buddhist stupa[59]
from
Kaiyuan Temple, adjacent to the site of the Quanzhou Maritime History
Museum resembles exactly like that of Maldive model. The pagoda spire
with lotus base of the stupa has striking resemblance with the
material
evidence and also that of Manimekhalai decription. Therefore, the
connection of Pallavas and Cholas with these areas is very visible.
The motive behind the conquests of Cholas: Considering maritime and
other activities, the maritime activities or the over-sea
expeditions /
conquests could be interpreted in their attempt to establish their
monopoly. Thus, many times scholars have expressed that they could
not
understand the motive behind the conquests, when all Kings had been
earning profits in over-sea trade. The conquest of southern
Karnatakadesa by Rajendra in 1032, has been definitely securing
internal
trade routes in southern India and as well as control the western
ports,
where Gujaratis and Arabs were dominating. Moreover, the left out
Cholas
could be considered as "Kadamas" by modern-day historians[60].
Kadambas had been so powerful on the western coast, that their
influence
was felt on the eastern African coast and middle east countries. They
had the title "The Lord of Western Ocean". Their inscription[61]
point to their maritime actrivities and authority over the western
ocean. Their fleet was so powerful that they could conquest many
islands
and lands as recorded in the inscriptions. The Nadukals
intrerestingly
depict the fleet, naval battles, and other minute details of ship
technolgy carved on them[62].
The conquest of Southeast Asia in 1025 and again in the 1070s, the
occupation of Sri Lanka in 1080 prove such dominating attempt. The
Chola-China commercial links reached at an appreciable level with the
exchange of missions with gifts. That the Chinese could build a
Vihara
at Nagapattinam proves the establishment of such relationship as
proved
by the Dao-yi zhi-lue account. The Chinese inscription found there
vouchsafes it. The Japanese scholars[63] pointed out he trade between
the ports of South China and the Cholas evidenced by the 11-12th
century
Chinese ceramic remains found in Tamil Nadu and Sri Lanka. The
Classical
Chinese texts[64] and Siddhas poems convey that the Chinese obtained
pepper from Indian ports, and Indians mercury, certain chemicals etc
from China.
Conclusion: As seen, some scholars doubted the Chola inscriptions on
the
plea that they are rhetoric without going into the facts or
cross-checking the doubted claims with the local evidences of SEA
countries. Why the well-established Cholas could not have issued
coins
depicted their maritime excellence, while their predecessors
Sathavahanas, Salankyanas, Kurumbas, Pallavas could have issued
ship-type coins is not explained. As pointed out by Sir Walter Elliot
that ship-type Kurumba / Pallava coins could be obtained on exchange
of
necessities, what would have happened to other coins, had they been
paid
with valuables instead of necessities is not considered in the
context.
Incidentally, it has to be noted that the Tiruvalangadu Copper
plates,
ironically known as "Leiden grants" and most of the
"ship-type" coins have been now in possession of foreign
museums. Therefore, the fate of missing coins is not taken into
consideration.
As the material period 11th century had been dominated by Cholas,
Silendras and SEA powers within "Indian domain" and the Arabs
and Chinese playing with them, the Indian rulers could have been
exercising their influence only within their domains and crossed the
boundaries, when the powers of others declined. Therefore, the
theories
of "segmentary rule / power", "piety-plunder" etc.,
could not be applied by generalizations. The European medieval of
"Frankish plunder and distribution" is not applicable to Cholas.
That the Cholas granted tax-free lands to Brahmans only to pursue
their
astronomical activities, as has been vouchsafed by Suryadeva Yajvan,
as
astronomy helped the navigation and not to support their hegemony. In
fact, the work of Brahmins stopped with astronomical activities, as
the
navigational work and techniques were carried on by other
professional
groups. In fact, in such supposedly or assumed raidings and
plunderings,
only non-Brahmin groups had been evidently involved. Therefore, such
casteist interpretation would not help to decide the maritime
sojourns
effected by the Cholas.
The struggle between Silendras and Cholas in India and as well as the
rivalry among them with Chinese in SEA have resulted in some
documents,
particularly that of Chinese, which create wrong impression. In an
established governance and tax-collection, the raids, confiscation
and
other punitive punishments against tax evaders has been normal
feature
and it could not be interpreted as something unwarranted or
historically
unacceptable. Tribute payment is just like tax compliance. Thus, even
had the Cholas raided the tax evading Sri Vijaya, Cheras and Sri
Lankan,
that would fit to any democratic State governance. The circumstantial
and correlative evidences – the literary evidences, the existence of
Naval architecture books, international trade, impost of tax on goods
imported through different types of vessels, rivalry among the
competing
national groups etc., have been normal feature and prove the oversea
expedition of the Cholas.
[1]George W. Spencer, The Politics of Expansion – The Chola Conquest
of Sri Lanka and Sri Vijaya, New Era Publications, Madras, 1983.
Richard G. Fox (Ed.), Realm and Region in Traditional India, Duke
University Program in Comparative Studies on South Asia, Monograph
No.
14, Durham, Duke University, 1977.
Moti Chandra, Trade and Routes in Ancient India, Abhinav
Publications,
New Delhi, 1977, pp.212-214. He doubts the naval battles of the
Cholas,
but not the oversea expedition.
[2] Aidan W. Southall, Alur Society, Cambridge University Press, UK,
1956.
[3] Burton Stein, The Segmentary State in South Indian History, in
Realm and Region in Traditional India, pp.3-51.
[4] S. Benard Cohen, African Models and Indian Histories, in Realm
and
Region in Traditional India, pp.90-113.
[5] George W. Spencer, opt.cit, he starts his hypothesis in his
introduction to his book and elaborates thereafter in subsequent
chapters, segmentary theory - pp.6-7, piety and plunder – pp.8-10
etc.
[6] R. C. Majumdar, Hindu Colonies in the Far East, Firma KLM,
Calcutta,
1973. pp.38-39.
[7] Geff Wade, An Earlier Age of Commerce in Southeast Asia: 900-1300
CE, Asia Research Institute, National University of Singapore.
[8] Tansen Sen, Buddhism, Diplomacy and Trade: The Realignment of
Sino-Indian Relations 600-1400, Honolulu, Association for Asian
Studies,
University of Hawai'i Press, 2003. p.156.
See also Tansen Tan, "Maritime Contacts Between China and the Cola
Kingdom (A.D. 850-1279)" in K.S. Mathew (ed.), Mariners, Merchants
and Oceans: Studies in Maritime History, Delhi, Manohar, 1995, pp.
25-42.
[9] G. W. Spencer, opt.cit, Sl.no. 6 of Notes to Chapter 7, p.172.
[10] Moti Chandra, opt.cit, pp.212-214.
[11] Tilakamanjari, 2nd edition, Bombay, 1938, pp.113-141.
[12] Dhanapala seems to have flourished in the reigns of Styaka and
Vakapatiraja of Dhara (774-995 A.D). but, Merutunga places him as
contemporary of Bhoja (1010-1025 A.D).
[13] A.S. Atlekar, Indian Culture, Vol.II, 1935-36, p.417.
[14] P. C. Chakravarti, Naval warfare in Ancient India, The Indian
Historical Quarterly, Vol.4, No.4, 1930.12, pp.645-664. Also see in:
http://ccbs.ntu.edu.tw/FULLTEXT/JR-ENG/cha.htm
<http://ccbs.ntu.edu.tw/FULLTEXT/JR-ENG/cha.htm>
[15] K. V. Raman, Port Towns of Tamilnadu – some Field Data and the
Prospects of Marine Archaeology, in Marine Archaeology of Indian
Ocean
Countries (Proceedings of an International Seminar), National
Institute
of Oceanography, 1988, pp.114-118.
[16] P. Venkatesan, Naval Battles and Shipwrecks Referred to in Tamil
Epigraphs, Ibid, pp.26-27.
[17] E. J. Raposon, Catalogue of the Coins of the Andhra Dynasty,
London, 1908, p.34ff.
V. V. Mirashi, A Ship-type Coin of Yajna Satakarni, Journal of the
Numismatic Society, Vol.III, Pt.I, 1941, pp.43-45.
R. Krishnamurthy, Pallava Coins, Garnet Publishers, Chennai, 2004,
pp.46-49.
[18] I. K. Sarma, Coinage of the Sathavahana Empire, p.227.
[19] R. Krishnamurty, opt.cit.,
[20] Sir Walter Elliot, Coins of Southern India, Prithvi Prakashan,
Varanasi, 1970, p.152.
[21] Ibid, p, 152B.
[22] Ibid, p.35.
[23] K. V. Ramakrishna Rao, The Appearance and Disappearance of
Coins in
Ancient India", to appear in Dr. Raja Reddy Facilitatioon Volme,
2007.
[24] P. Shanmugam, The Revenue System of the Cholas 859-1279, New Era
Publications, Madras, 1987, p.52.
[25] K. A. Nilakanta Sastry, The Colas, University of Madras, Madras,
1984, pp.458-460.
For convenience, the notes references as he mentioned are reproduced
here for convenience:
Notes
53. Journal of Oriental Research. vi, 299ff.
54. Ferrad, Voyage, p.32; Wilson, Persian Gulf, pp.57-58 and
n.Pelliot casts a doubt on Sulaiman's authorship of the work
attributed to him, T'oung Pao, xxi, pp. 401-402.
55. Ferrad, op.cit., p.93. See also Renadout-Ancient
Accounts-
Remarek `E', and Marco Polo.
56. Ferrand, Voyage, p.14.
57. `Dans tous ses ouvrages nautiques, Ibn Majid fait frequemment
allusion'a l' opinion des Colas qu'il appropuve ou rectifie.
Ce'st qu'il devait avoir en main les Insructions nautiques
tables geographuques avec indication de la latitude des ports,
utilis'ees par les marins du Coromandel et qu'il les comparait
avee les documents arabes des meme nature'. Ferrand, Journal
Asiatique, 11:14, (1919), pp.171-172.
[26] Champaka Lakshmi et.al eds.State and Society in Pre-modern South
India, Trissur, 2002. pp. 39 ff., see "Antecedents of the State
Formation in South India," therein.
R. Champakalakshmi, State and Economy: South India Circa A. D.
400-1300", Romila Thapar, ed., Recent Perspectives of Early Indian
History (Bombay: Popular Prakashan, 1995), pp. 266-308.
Burton Stein, The Segmentary State: Interim Reflections, Hermann
Kulke,
ed., The State in India, 1000-1700. (Delhi: Oxford University Press,
1997), pp. 134-161.
Nicholas Dirks, Political Authority and Structural Change in Early
South
India, in The Indian Economic and Social History Review, Vol. XIII,
No.
21, pp. 125-157.
James Heitzman, State Formation in South India, 850-1280, in Kulke,
The
State in India, pp. 162-194.
[27] B. Ch. Chhabra, Expansion of Indo-Aryan Culture During Pallava
Rule
(as evidenced by inscriptions), Munshiram Manoharlal, New Delhi,
1965.
[28] H. B. Sarkar, Trade and Commercial Activities of South India in
the
Malaya-Indonesian World (up to A. D. 1511), Firma KLM Private
Limited,
Calcutta, 1986, pp.645-664.
[29] The different interpretation of à(R)•à(R)¾à(R)¨à¯ à(R)¤à(R)³à¯‚à(R)°à¯
à(R)šà(R)¾à(R)²à¯ˆ à(R)•à(R)²à(R)(R)à(R)±à¯ à(R)¤à¯ à(R)¤à¯ are as follows:
ó The naval fleet at Kanthalur was destroyed.
ó Food was supplied to the students there at Kanthalur on
calculated basis.
ó The Naval academy at Kanthalur was checked.
ó The ships at Kanthaur were seized.
[30] The Medieval Tamil-language Inscriptions in Southeast Asia and
China, http://ismaili.net/0104c.html <http://ismaili.net/0104c.html>
[31] H. B. Sarkar, opt.cit, p.25-27.
[32] Tibbert, Lexicon geographicam ini titulus est Marsid alittila
ala
asma al-ambika-was al-bika, 6 volumes, Leyden, quoted by H. B.
Sarkar,
p.25.
[33] Joustra, TBG, 45 (1902), pp.541-576, quoted by H. B. Sarkar,
opt.cit, p.68.
[34] Marques d'Harvey Saint-Denys (Trans.), Ma Tuan-lin, quoted by
H. B. Sarkar, opt.cit, p.161. Also see, K. A. Nilakanta Sastri,
Foreign
Notices of South India, Madras, 1939, p.323.
[35] Colleges at Madurai, Tanjai, Trichirappalli had been famous and
their popularity was noted by the European scholars and
professionals.
[36] Suryadeva Yajvan, Aryabhatiyam.
K. V. Sarma (Ed), Aryabhatiya with commentary of Suryadeva Yajvan,
Part
– 3 of Aryabhatiya critical edition, Indian National Science
Academy, New Delhi, 1976.
[37] Johnplayfair, Remarks on the Astronomy of Brahmins, A paper
presented by the author in Edinburgh University on March 2, 1789 and
published in the Transaction of the Royal Society of Edinburgh.
[38] Simon de La Loubere (1642-1729) brought an extract of a Siamese
manuscript containing tables and rules for calculating the places of
Sun
and moon (Mem de l'Acad. Des Science, tom.8, p.281 & c). Inspired by
this, the European scientists started their research in the tables.
[39] K. V. Ramakrishna Rao, European Scientists: Indian Chronology
and
Historiography, XXth Session of South Indian History Congress held at
Tiruvananthapuram from Feb.25-27, 2002.
……………………………………….., The Interest of European Scientists
in Indian Chronology and Historiography, UGC Seminar on Situating
Historical Writings in Post-Independence India (Abstracts volume),
held
at Bharathidasan University on March 23 & 23, 2002, Tiruchirappalli,
pp.16-17.
………………………………….….., The Interest of European
Scientists in Indian Calendar and Chronology, in Indian Calendar and
Chronology (Seminar papers) held at Central Mining Research
Institute,
Dhanbad on August 9 & 10, 2003, pp.1-20.
[40] B. L. Van der Waerden, The Conjunction of 3102 B.C, Cantaurus,
1980, Vol.24, pp.117-131.
[41] The Southern China was known as "Cochin China", as that
area was totally dominated by the Kerala / Chera merchants /
mariners.
In fact, the entire SEA area was marked as "INDIA" in their maps
and dealt with accordingly.
[42] Pietro Cerutti S.J, The Jesuits in Thailand,
[43] Francis X. Clooney, Fr. Bouchaet's India, Satya Nilayam
Publications, Chennai, 2005.
[44] Doing Theology in the Context of Mission: Lessons from
Alexandre de
Rhodes S.J for more details, see in
http://eapi.admu.ph/eapr002/rhodes.htm
<http://eapi.admu.ph/eapr002/rhodes.htm>
[45] K. A. Nilakanta Sastri, opt.cit, p.459.
[46] Encyclopedia Brittanica, Volume. 14, p.841, 1952 edition, UK
(quoted by Tripathi in his book, p.293). Quoted by Maya Prasad
Tripathi,
Development of Geographic Knowledge in Ancient India, Bharatiya Vidya
Prakashan, Varanasi, 1969.
[47] T. Chandrasekharan (Gen.Ed.), Kappal Sattiram, Madras Government
Oriental Series, Government Oriental Manuscripts Library, Madras,
1950.
[48] S. Soundarapandian, Navai Sattiram, Madras Government Oriental
Series, Government Oriental Manuscripts Library, Madras, 1955.
[49] Bogar has mentioned his visits to China. In fact, some
interprets
that he himself was a Chinese came and settled in Tamilnadu.
[50] Wang Gungwu, The Nanhai trade: a study of the early history of
Chinese trade in the South China Sea, JMBRAS 31, 2 (1958).
[51] Haraprasad Ray, Trade and trade routes between India and China,
c.
140 B.C.-A.D. 1500, Kolkata : Progressive Publishers, 2003;
……………….., Chinese sources of South Asian history in translation
:data for study of India-China relations through history, Kolkata,
Asiatic Society, 2004.
[52] Tansen Sen, Buddhism, Diplomacy and Trade: The Realignment of
Sino-Indian Relations 600-1400,. Opt.cit, p. 156. See also Tansen
Tan,
Maritime Contacts Between China and the Cola Kingdom (A.D. 850-1279),
opt.cit, pp. 25-42.
[53] This exactly fits with the inscriptional claims of the Cholas,
which are doubted by some western scholars. As the scholars have
tried
to locate the mentioned places only in the south-east, they never
thought of locating on the western side of India.
[54] K. V. Ramakrishna Rao, The Maritime Activities of the Ancient
Tamils and Indus Valley Civilization, a paper to be presented during
the
International Symposium on Indus Civilization and Tamil Language at
Chennai on February 16th and 17th , 2007.
[55] M. C. Horton & T. R. Blurton, `Indian' metal work in East
Africa: the bronze lion statuette from Shanga, Antiquity, 1988,
Vol.62,
pp.11-23.
[56] E. C. L. During Caspers, A Copper-bronze animal in Harran style
from Bahrain: evidence of mercantile interaction, Journal of the
Economic and Social History of the Orient, 1987, Vol.30, pp.30-46.
[57] Roger Summer, Ancient Mining in Rhodesia, Salisbury:National
Museum, 1969.
[58] biblioteknett.no/.../kon-tiki/Research/Maldives
<http://biblioteknett.no/alias/HJEMMESIDE/kon-
tiki/Research/Maldives/>
[59] http://www.chinaheritagequarterly.org/scholarship.php
<http://www.chinaheritagequarterly.org/scholarship.php>
[60] G. M. Moreas, The Kadamba Kula, Indian Historical Research
Institute, St. Xavier College, Bombay, 1931, pp.7-11.
[61] John Faithful Fleet, Inscriptions Relating to the Kadambva
Kings of
Goa, JBBRAS, Vol.IX, p.307.
………………., Epigraphica India, Vol.XIII, p.309.
[62] Sheila Tripathi,
[63] Noboru Karashima (ed.), In Search of Chinese Ceramicsherds in
South
India and Sri Lanka, Tokyo, Taisho University Press, 2004.
[64] For information of Chinese texts on Southern India during the
Yuan,
see Roderich Ptak, Yuan and Early Ming Notices on the Kayal Area in
South India Bulletin de l'Ecole Française
d'Extrême-Orient, 80 (1993), pp. 137-55.
The issues of "Indian Archeology – A Review" report the
findings of Chinese materials from Indian sites proving the Indo-
Chinese
connection during the earlier and medieval periods.
kra narasiah
I agree with your doubts
The Cholas seem to hve sailed from Nagapttinam. Now there is nothing to prove any kind of earlir shipbldg activity. We need to research more on this.
narasiah
Narayanan Kannan
> The Cholas seem to hve sailed from Nagapttinam. Now there is nothing to
> prove any kind of earlir shipbldg activity. We need to research more on
> this.
Off-shore under water archeology would be an option.
It is indeed strange that history stops abruptly after Cholas. Is it
only economy or any other reason? Why didn't Rajendra write his
'meykeethi' on his voyages?
Kannan
vj kumar
> 'meykeethi' on his voyages?
>
> Kannan
>
Both RRC and RJC mentioned their overseas conquests in their
meikeerthi's. Infact the chola domain was the largest under RJC...RRC
conquered only maldives, Lakshdweep and part of lanka..he had mostly
friendly relationship with srivijaya and kambosa ....it was under RJC
that the naval assault on srivijayan kingdom happened, gaining the
title of kadaram kondan for RJC....the srivijayan kingdom was routed
....there is clear mention of RJC bringing back the victory arch of
the srivijayan king as a war trophy..
Cholas sent 3 delegations of ambassadors to the Sung dynasty court in china...
1015 first ( under RJC)
1033 second ( under RJC)
1077 last ( most probably under Kulottunga) - this was a 72 man contingent.
Myanmmar was overrun by chola forces thrice..once
under Rjc 1 1024 and the second time by Virarajendra Chola -1068 and
third timein 1084 Kulothunga Chola
Here are the list of overseas conquests of RJC - he was most probably
assisted by his sons ( as did he assist his father )
SriVijaya.........Kadaara............................Balampong,Sumatra,Indonesia
Pani................East Sumatra coast
Malaiyur.............Malaiyur river basin Sumatra
Mayirudingam........Central Malaya ,
Lankasoge.........East Malaya coast ,
Mabapalaam..........Kra Isthmus-North of Malayan peninsula,South
Burma,Southwest Thailand
Bakong..................Kambosa - South and West Cambodia
Talaitakkolam......Northwest coast of Malaya, Takoba province, Takkolam
Damalingam.........Temiling river estuary,basin-East Malaya
LamuriDesa.........North Malaya ,
Manakkavaaram.....Nicobar Islands .
Narayanan Kannan
கொரியா பற்றிய சேதியுண்டா? இங்கு "சொல்லா" (சோழா?) பகுதியென்று
ஒன்றுண்டு. மீன் சின்னம் இங்கும் பிரபலம். இந்தியாவிலிருந்து வந்த ஓர்
இளவரசி கொரிய மன்னனை மணந்ததாக ஒரு தொன்மம் இங்குண்டு. இது சோழர்களுக்கு
முற்பட்ட காலம். பண்டு பாண்டியர்களாக இருக்கலாம். இவர்களுக்கு மீன்
சின்னம். இது பற்றிய தகவல்களை சங்க இலக்கியத்தில் தேடலாம். சங்க
இலக்கியத்தில் தென்படும் கிரேக்கப்பெயர்களை தோன்Dஇ எடுத்திருக்கிறார்
இ.பா. சங்கத்தில் சந்தேகப்படும்படியான விதேசிப் பெயர்கள் இருந்தால் இங்கு
இடுங்கள். அது கொரியப்பெயருடன் பொருந்துகிறதா எனப்பார்ப்போம்.
கொரியா சோழர்களின் outpost ஆக இருந்ததாக இங்கொரு கொரியர் கருதுகிறார்.
அது வெறுக் யூகம்தான். சாட்சியங்கள் தேட வேண்டும். மெய்கீர்த்திச்
சேதிகள் இருந்தால் சொல்லவும்!
க.
vj kumar
> சுவாரசியமான தரவு.
>
> கொரியா பற்றிய சேதியுண்டா? இங்கு "சொல்லா" (சோழா?) பகுதியென்று
> ஒன்றுண்டு. மீன் சின்னம் இங்கும் பிரபலம். இந்தியாவிலிருந்து வந்த ஓர்
> இளவரசி கொரிய மன்னனை மணந்ததாக ஒரு தொன்மம் இங்குண்டு.
Dear sir
apologise for posting in eng, as i am currently travelling ....
i have heard some vague references to a chola militiary outpost in
Aceh. have not come across korea (till now)
there are many greek accounts of southindia kingdom - infact they talk
of many pandyas ( as many as 5 ruling at the same time)....
The Periplus of the Erythraean Sea (c. 60 - 100 CE) describes the
riches of a 'Pandian Kingdom':
...Nelcynda is distant from Muziris by river and sea about five
hundred stadia, and is of another Kingdom, the Pandian. This place
also is situated on a river, about one hundred and twenty stadia from
the sea....
The Chinese historian Yu Huan in his 3rd century text, the Weilüe,
mentions The Kingdom of Panyue:
...The kingdom of Panyue is also called Hanyuewang. It is several
thousand li to the southeast of Tianzhu (Northern India)...The
inhabitants are small; they are the same height as the Chinese...
The Pandyan kingdom is also mentioned in Megasthenes's Indika as "the
portion of India which lies southwards and extends to the Sea".
so too does ashokan edicts as friendly neighbours... you can read the
ashokan edicts here
http://www.urbandharma.org/udharma/asoka.html
as regards the korean connection.. this was in the news a few years
back..the fish insignia is indeed very interesting. there are similar
stories of a indian man who came on a boat and married the princess to
start the lineage in cambodia.
>>>>>>>>>>>>.
Did you know that a 16-year-old princess from Ayodhya went to Korea
in 48 ce? A 13th-century Korean text recounts Princess Heo Hwang-ok
explaining that her parents: "dreamt a God came who said, 'I have
sent down Suro to be king of Kaya. Suro is a holy man and is not yet
married. So send your daughter to be his Queen." She sailed from
India, taking a stone pagoda (left) to what is now Kimhae city.
South Korea's 72nd generation descendents of King Suro believe they
are related to India's present day Raja Bimlendra Mohan Prasad
Mishra, whose ancestors ruled Ayodhya. (Both families have two
fishes as their insignia.) They sent delegations to India to built a
monument in Ayodhya to commemorate the relationship. Though Mishra
is unable to trace his ancestry back more than 300 years, he is
happy to accept the Koreans' belief and their initiative to invest
$2 billion to make Ayodhya a sister city of Kimhae. "It will lead to
the progress of Ayodhya and I am happy, " he said. "The fact that it
is associated with my family makes it special."
>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>
Narayanan Kannan
Like the recent news about Africa and Tamil (MKU research), there is a
genetic research connecting India & Korea. Read the following:
South Koreans may have Indian genes
SHANTANU NANDAN SHARMA
TIMES NEWS NETWORK [ SATURDAY, AUGUST 21, 2004 11:51:58 PM]
SEOUL: A genetic discovery in South Korea has claimed that Koreans
could have an Indian ancestor 2000 years ago.
As was reported by leading South Korean newspaper Joong Ang Daily on
Friday, researchers in an archaeological survey at ancient royal tomb
of Gimhae in South Gyeongsang province, found some evidence to support
claims that Koreans have DNA traceable to South or South East Asian
ethnic groups like Indian, Malaysian or Thai.
Dr Seo Jeong-sun of Seoul National University and Kim Jong-il of
Hallym University conducted the research and decoded the entire
genetic code of ancient Korean remains. They have recently presented
their findings at a meeting of the Korea Genome Organisation in
Chuncheon, Gangwong province.
The findings have gained interests in the backdrop of the popular
romantic legend of an Indian princess married to a Korean king of the
Great Gaya dynasty. According to the legend, the Korean king from
Southeast Korea, Kim Su-ro, married an Indian princess, Heo Hwang-ok,
from the ancient Indian kingdom of Ayodhya.
The stories say that Heo travelled by ship to Korea. The Great Gaya
dynasty ruled Southeast Korea till 562 AD. In fact, Heo is still a
common family name in Korea.
The researchers now say that the myth could turn out to be true,
according to the daily. More studies are in the offing. The genetic
study at Gimhae tomb focused on the mitochondrial DNA in the human
remains.
Mitochondria are cellular components that are the source of power for
animal and human cells and have DNA which is passed to succeeding
generations through the material line. This transmission makes such
DNA valuable in studying family evolution.
In fact, it has always been assumed that Koreans are an ethnically
homogeneous group that originated in Mongolia. The daily quoted Dr Kim
as saying, "More studies need to be done. But this discovery could be
the beginning of identifying the Korean race."
Economic Times - http://economictimes.indiatimes.com/articleshow/823181.cms
annamalai sugumaran
குலோத்துங்கன் முதலியோர் கலிங்கம் வென்ற பிறகு கலிங்கத்து பரணி பாடபெற்றது.
ஆனால் ஏன் கடல் போரை மறந்தனர் .
வெற்றிபெற்றவர் மீண்டும் மீண்டும் போருக்கு செல்வது தானே இயற்கை .
வெற்றி பெற்ற மாலுமிகளை சும்மா வைத்திருக்க முடியாதே .
அவர்கள் மீன்பிடி தொழிலில் இறங்கி திருப்தி அடைத்து விட்டார்களா ?
அந்த நேரத்தில் ஒரு சமுதாய மற்றம் எதோ ஏற்பட்டு விட்டது .
ஒன்று அந்த மாலுமிகள் அந்தந்த நாட்டில் தங்கிருக்க வேண்டும் .
அல்லது எதோ ஒன்று மீன்டும் கடல் போர் போகாமல் .ராஜேந்திர சோழர்க்கு பிறகு நடந்திருக்க பட்டிருக்க வேண்டும் .
பிறகு வந்த பாண்டியர்கள் , நாயகர்கள் ,முதலியோரும் போகவில்லை .
அது ஆச்சிரியமாக இல்லையா ?
பெரு நாட்டை பற்றி டாக்டர் அறவாணன் சுமார் 25 ஆண்டு களுக்கு முன் எழுதிய
"தென் அமெரிக்கா சோழர்கள்" என்ற நூலை நான் படித்திருக்கிறேன் .
அதில் பெரு என்பதே பெரு யுடையார் வேரில் வந்தது என்றும் ,
ராஜராஜ சோழர் காலத்தில் அங்கு எதோ காரணத்தால் தமிழர்கள் சென்று குடியேறியதாக அவர் ஆராய்ச்சி செய்து எழுதி இருந்தார் .
அவர் இன்னும் இருக்கிறார் ஆனால் புத்தகம் கிடைக்கிறதா என்று தெரியவில்லை
இது பற்றி தெரிந்தவர்கள் எழுதினால் தெரிந்து கொள்ளலாம் .
அன்புடன்
எ.சுகுமாரன்
.
venkatram dhivakar
Narayanan Kannan
> பெரு நாட்டை பற்றி டாக்டர் அறவாணன் சுமார் 25 ஆண்டு களுக்கு முன் எழுதிய
> "தென் அமெரிக்கா சோழர்கள்" என்ற நூலை நான் படித்திருக்கிறேன் .
> அதில் பெரு என்பதே பெரு யுடையார் வேரில் வந்தது என்றும் ,
> ராஜராஜ சோழர் காலத்தில் அங்கு எதோ காரணத்தால் தமிழர்கள் சென்று குடியேறியதாக
> அவர் ஆராய்ச்சி செய்து எழுதி இருந்தார் .
> அவர் இன்னும் இருக்கிறார் ஆனால் புத்தகம் கிடைக்கிறதா என்று தெரியவில்லை
> இது பற்றி தெரிந்தவர்கள் எழுதினால் தெரிந்து கொள்ளலாம் .>
ஆச்சர்யமான சேதியாக உள்ளதே!
நான் சமீபத்தில் பெரு நாட்டிற்குப் போயிருந்தபோது கடற்கரை ஓர ஊர்களில்
கருப்பாக, நம்மவூர் சாயலில் உள்ளோரைப்பார்த்து ஆச்சர்யப்பட்டேன். (படம்
பார்க்க).
இச்சேதி நிரூபிக்கப்பட்டால் அது இந்தியாவின் கடல் வணிக வழிகளை
நிரூபிப்பதுடன், கொலம்பஸ், வாஸ்கோடகாமா போன்ற வெள்ளையர் உலகம் சுற்றுமுன்
தமிழன் எல்லாக் கண்டங்களிலும் கால் மிதித்துள்ளான் என்பது நிரூபணமாகும்.
பெரு, பிரேசில், மெக்சிகோ போன்ற நாடுகளை "பாதாள லோகம்" என்று காஞ்சிப்
பெரியவர் முன்பொருமுறை சொல்லியுள்ளார்!
எளிதாக டி.என்.ஏ பரிசோதனை செய்து நிரூபிக்கலாம். பேரா.முத்துக்கருப்பன்
குழுவினரிடம் சொல்ல வேண்டும்.
தமிழாராய்ச்சி என்பது பல்வேறு திசைகளில் விரிவதை முதல்வரிடம் யாராவது
சொல்லி கவனத்தைத் திருப்பலாம்!
கண்ணன்
Kannan Natarajan
devoo
On Aug 28, 1:11 pm, "Narayanan Kannan" <nkan...@gmail.com> wrote:
> 2008/8/27 annamalai sugumaran <amirthami...@gmail.com>:
// நான் சமீபத்தில் பெரு நாட்டிற்குப் போயிருந்தபோது கடற்கரை ஓர
ஆச்சர்யப்பட்டேன்.
நிரூபிப்பதுடன், கொலம்பஸ், வாஸ்கோடகாமா போன்ற வெள்ளையர் உலகம்
நிரூபணமாகும்.//
இதுதான் உண்மையான மடலாடல் ! இதுபோன்ற திசைகளில் நம் கவனம் திரும்பினால்
பல சுவையான, மறக்கப்பட்ட, புறக்கணிக்கப்பட்ட , பயனுள்ள தகவல்கள் /
உண்மைகள் வெளிவரும். அரசு முனைந்து செயல்பட வேண்டும்; தொல்லியல் வல்லோர்
பங்கேற்க வேண்டும்.
தேவ்
இமலாதித்தன்
தமிழனாய்...
பாலாஜி.ச.இமலாதித்தன்
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வீரம் எனது குலத்தொழில்
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Ramesh
என்னுடைய சந்தேகம் ராஜேந்திர சோழர் பெற்ற வெற்றிக்கு பிறகு சுமார் 300 ஆண்டுகள் சோழர்கள் வலுவுடன் இருந்தனர் .
குலோத்துங்கன் முதலியோர் கலிங்கம் வென்ற பிறகு கலிங்கத்து பரணி பாடபெற்றது.
ஆனால் ஏன் கடல் போரை மறந்தனர் .வெற்றி பெற்று வந்த சுமார் 50,000 பேர் , கடல் போர் வீரர்கள் என்ன ஆயினர் ?
வெற்றிபெற்றவர் மீண்டும் மீண்டும் போருக்கு செல்வது தானே இயற்கை .
வெற்றி பெற்ற மாலுமிகளை சும்மா வைத்திருக்க முடியாதே .
அவர்கள் மீன்பிடி தொழிலில் இறங்கி திருப்தி அடைத்து விட்டார்களா ?
அந்த நேரத்தில் ஒரு சமுதாய மற்றம் எதோ ஏற்பட்டு விட்டது .
ஒன்று அந்த மாலுமிகள் அந்தந்த நாட்டில் தங்கிருக்க வேண்டும் .
அல்லது எதோ ஒன்று மீன்டும் கடல் போர் போகாமல் .ராஜேந்திர சோழர்க்கு பிறகு நடந்திருக்க பட்டிருக்க வேண்டும் .
பிறகு வந்த பாண்டியர்கள் , நாயகர்கள் ,முதலியோரும் போகவில்லை .நாம் சுத்தமாக கடல் போரையே மறந்து விட்டோம் .
அது ஆச்சிரியமாக இல்லையா ?
பெரு நாட்டை பற்றி டாக்டர் அறவாணன் சுமார் 25 ஆண்டு களுக்கு முன் எழுதிய
"தென் அமெரிக்கா சோழர்கள்" என்ற நூலை நான் படித்திருக்கிறேன் .
அதில் பெரு என்பதே பெரு யுடையார் வேரில் வந்தது என்றும் ,
ராஜராஜ சோழர் காலத்தில் அங்கு எதோ காரணத்தால் தமிழர்கள் சென்று குடியேறியதாக அவர் ஆராய்ச்சி செய்து எழுதி இருந்தார் .
அவர் இன்னும் இருக்கிறார் ஆனால் புத்தகம் கிடைக்கிறதா என்று தெரியவில்லை
இது பற்றி தெரிந்தவர்கள் எழுதினால் தெரிந்து கொள்ளலாம் .
அன்புடன்
எ.சுகுமாரன்
.
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A.Sugumaran
Amirtham Intl
PONDICHERRY INDIA
MOBILE 09345419948
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"Tamil in Digital Media" group is an activity of Tamil Heritage Foundation. Visit our website: http://www.tamilheritage.org; you may like to visit our Muthusom Blogs at: http://www.tamilheritage.org/how2contribute.html To post to this group, send email to minT...@googlegroups.com
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--
regards,
Ramesh
Lead me from the unreal to the truth;
Lead me from darkness to the light;
Lead me from death to immortality.
Ramesh
2008/8/27 annamalai sugumaran <amirth...@gmail.com>:
> பெரு நாட்டை பற்றி டாக்டர் அறவாணன் சுமார் 25 ஆண்டு களுக்கு முன் எழுதியஆச்சர்யமான சேதியாக உள்ளதே!
> "தென் அமெரிக்கா சோழர்கள்" என்ற நூலை நான் படித்திருக்கிறேன் .
> அதில் பெரு என்பதே பெரு யுடையார் வேரில் வந்தது என்றும் ,
> ராஜராஜ சோழர் காலத்தில் அங்கு எதோ காரணத்தால் தமிழர்கள் சென்று குடியேறியதாக
> அவர் ஆராய்ச்சி செய்து எழுதி இருந்தார் .
> அவர் இன்னும் இருக்கிறார் ஆனால் புத்தகம் கிடைக்கிறதா என்று தெரியவில்லை
> இது பற்றி தெரிந்தவர்கள் எழுதினால் தெரிந்து கொள்ளலாம் .>
நான் சமீபத்தில் பெரு நாட்டிற்குப் போயிருந்தபோது கடற்கரை ஓர ஊர்களில்
கருப்பாக, நம்மவூர் சாயலில் உள்ளோரைப்பார்த்து ஆச்சர்யப்பட்டேன். (படம்
பார்க்க).
இச்சேதி நிரூபிக்கப்பட்டால் அது இந்தியாவின் கடல் வணிக வழிகளை
நிரூபிப்பதுடன், கொலம்பஸ், வாஸ்கோடகாமா போன்ற வெள்ளையர் உலகம் சுற்றுமுன்
தமிழன் எல்லாக் கண்டங்களிலும் கால் மிதித்துள்ளான் என்பது நிரூபணமாகும்.
பெரு, பிரேசில், மெக்சிகோ போன்ற நாடுகளை "பாதாள லோகம்" என்று காஞ்சிப்
பெரியவர் முன்பொருமுறை சொல்லியுள்ளார்!
எளிதாக டி.என்.ஏ பரிசோதனை செய்து நிரூபிக்கலாம். பேரா.முத்துக்கருப்பன்
குழுவினரிடம் சொல்ல வேண்டும்.
தமிழாராய்ச்சி என்பது பல்வேறு திசைகளில் விரிவதை முதல்வரிடம் யாராவது
சொல்லி கவனத்தைத் திருப்பலாம்!
கண்ணன்
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"Tamil in Digital Media" group is an activity of Tamil Heritage Foundation. Visit our website: http://www.tamilheritage.org; you may like to visit our Muthusom Blogs at: http://www.tamilheritage.org/how2contribute.html To post to this group, send email to minT...@googlegroups.com
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meyy jagan
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amal eronimus
Subashini Tremmel
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