心理防卫机制或简称心理防卫(也称自我防衛機制,防衛機制,防衛機轉) (Self-defense Mechanism/Defense Mechanism),是心理學的名詞,是指自我对本我的压抑,这种压抑是自我的一种全然潜意识的自我防御功能,是人类为了避免精神上 的痛苦、紧张焦虑、尴尬、罪恶感等心理,有意无意间使用的各种心理上的调整。心理防御机制本身越原始(原始的防御机制是指童年生活经历所形成的防御机制, 保护自己可以说是原始防御机制的本质。),其效果越差;离意识的逻辑方法越远,则越近似于变态心理。在生理上,心理防卫机制被认为可以防止因各种心理打击而引起的生理疾病或 心理障碍,过份或错误的应用心理防卫机制可能带来心理疾病。
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人类使用心理防卫机制时,有时是有意的,有时是无意的。这些心理防卫机制有些符合社会道德标 准,有些则不;对生活的影响各不相同,有正有负。
否认(英文术语Denial):指无意识地拒绝承认那些不愉快的现实以保护自我。它是最原始最简单的心理防卫机制。意志 薄弱而知识结构又单纯的人,常会情不自禁地使用否认机制。
歪曲(英文術語Distortion) 是一种把外界事实加以曲解、变化以符合内心的需要,属于精神病性的心理防卫机制。用夸大的想法来保护其受挫的自尊心,这是歪曲作用的特例。因歪曲作用而表 现的精神病现象,以妄想或幻觉最为常见。妄想是将事实曲解,并且坚信不疑,如顽固地认为配偶对其不贞。幻觉乃是外界并无刺激,而由脑子里凭空感觉到的声 音、影像或触觉等反应,它与现实脱节,严重歪曲了现实。
反应结构(英文术语Reaction formation)也称反 向,指意识性的采取某种与潜意识所完全相反的看法和行动,因为真实意识表现出来不符合社会道德规范或引起内心焦虑,故朝相反的途径释放。
转移或移置(英文术语Displacement):在一种情境下是危险的情感或行动 转移到另一个较为安全的情境下释放出来。通常是把对强者的情绪、欲望轉移到弱者身上。
压抑/抑制(英文术语Repression):“ 压抑”指当一个人的某种观念、情感或冲动不能被超我接受时,下意识的将极度痛苦的经验或欲望就被潜抑到无意识中去,以使个体不再因之而产生焦虑、痛苦,这 是一种不自觉的主动性遗忘(不是否认事实),有时表现为口误笔误。“抑制”则为有意识的进行同样工作。但需要注意的是,压抑在潜意识中的这些欲望还是有可 能会无意识的影响人类的行为。
投射(英文术语Projection):也称外射,是主观的将属于自身的一些不良 的思绪、动机、欲望、或情感,赋予到他人或他物身上,推卸责任或把自己的过错归咎于他人,从而得到一种解脱。它包括严重的偏见、因为猜疑而拒绝与人亲热、 对外界危险过分警觉。
摄入(英文术语Introjection): 或称内向投射,与投射作用相反。指广泛地、毫无选择地吸收外界的事物,而将它们变成自己人格的一部分。由于摄入作用,有时候人们爱和恨的对象被象征地变成 了自我的组成部分。如当人们失去他们所喜爱的人时,常会模仿他们所失去人的特点,使这些人的举动或喜好在自己身上出现,以慰藉内心因丧失所爱而产生的痛 苦。相反,对外界社会和他人的不满,在极端情况下变成恨自己因而自杀。内投射也可能是自罪感的表现,他们常常模仿死者的一些性格特点来减轻对死者的内疚 感。内投射或仿同的对象,常是所爱,所恨和所怕的人,尤其是父母。
仿同或认同(英文术语Identification): 是指一种无意识的,有选择性地吸收、模仿或顺从另外一个一般是自己敬爱和尊崇的人或团体的态度或行为的倾向,以对方之长归为已有,作为自己行为的一部分去 表达,以此吸收他人的优点以增强自己的能力、安全感以及接纳等方面的感受,掩护自己的短处。一般说来仿同的动机是爱慕,是正常的心理现象,也是儿童早年的 心理防御机制,是未成熟的心理活动。例如:某人以与某富豪见过一面为荣。
仿同有两种,一种近似模仿。另一种是利用别人的长处,满足自己的愿望、欲望,例如,一个不漂亮的女孩子喜欢和一个漂亮的女孩子作朋友,她可以因为别 人夸奖她的女友而感到自豪。仿同也可分为"反感性仿同","向强暴者仿同","向失落者仿同"。
升华(英文术语Sublimation):被压抑的不符合社会规范的原始冲动或 欲望另辟蹊径用符合社会认同的建设性方式表达出来,并得到本能性满足。
退化情感(英文术语Regression): 也称为倒退,退行。当人感受到严重挫折时,放弃成人的方式不用,而退到困难较少、较安全的时期——儿童时期,使用原先比较幼稚的方式去应付困难和满足自己 的欲望。完全的放弃努力,让自己恢复对别人的依赖,从而彻底的逃避成人的责任。而临床上歇斯底里和疑病症常见这种退行行为。短时间、暂时性的退行现象,不 但是正常的,而且是极其需要的。
幽默(英文术语Humor):是指以幽默的语言或行为来应付紧张的情境或表达潜意识的欲望。通过幽默来表达攻击性或性欲 望,可以不必担心自我或超我的抵制,在人类的幽默(笑话)中关于性爱,死亡、淘汰,攻击等话题是最受人欢迎的,它们包含着大量的受压抑的思想。
利他(英文术语Altruism):替代性而建设性为他人服务,并且本能地使自己感到满足。它包括良性的建设的反向 形成、慈善行为,以及对别人的报答性服务。利他与投射及发泄的区别在于,它为别人提供的是真的而不是想象的好处。它与反向的区别是,它让应用者至少部分地 得满足。
压制(英文术语Suppression): 虽然在意识中出现了想解决矛盾冲突的冲动,而在意识或半意识中却作出予以推迟的决定。这种机制包括在寻找困难时的一线希望、把已经认识到的不舒服感受尽量 缩小、在困难面前想方设法予以推迟但并不回避。用压制的人是这么说的:“我明天会考虑这件事情的”,第二天也确实记得考虑此事。
预期(英文术语Anticipation):为未来的内 心不适感受作切合实际的预期或计划。
理智化(英文术语Intellectualization): 为在情感上让自我脱离压力事件,理智化通常不透过接受现实,而经由用有利于自己的理由来为自己辨解,将面临的窘境加以文饰,通过这种方法来合理化自己的行 为或处境,隐满自己的真实动机或境遇。理智化包括为了避免与人发生亲热的感情而对非生物给予太多的注意,或者为了免得表达出内心感情而去注意外界现实,或 者为了避免感知整体而去注意无关的细节。强迫思维和行为也包括在内,虽然它们也可被认为是某种形式的内心置换。理智化包括以下机制:隔离 (Isolation)、合理化(Rationalization)、仪式性(Ritual)、抵消(Undoing)、补偿(Compensation)、魔术性思维(Magical thinking)。
合理化(英文术语Rationalization): 又称文饰,指无意识地用一种通过似乎有理的解释或实际上站不住脚的理由来为其难以接受的情感、行为或动机辩护以使其可以接受。合理化有三种表现:一是酸葡 萄心理,即把得不到的东西说成是不好的;二是甜柠檬心理,即当得不到葡萄而只有柠檬时,就说柠檬是甜的。三是推诿(projection),此种自卫机制 是指将个人的缺点或失败,推诿于其他理由,找人担带其过错。三者均是掩盖其错误或失败,以保持内心的安宁。
补偿(英文术语Compensation):指个 人因心身某个方面有缺陷不能达到某种目标时,有意识地采取其他能够获取成功的活动来代偿某种能力缺陷而弥补因失败造成的自卑感。例如,某女子因身体发育有 缺陷而努力学习,以卓越成绩赢得别人的尊崇。
抵消(英文术语Undoing):这是指以象征性的事情来抵 消已经发生了的不愉快的事情,以补救其心理上的不舒服的一种心理防卫术。健康的人常使用此法以解除其罪恶感、内疚感和维持良好的人际关系。
隔离(英文术语Isolation):将部分事实从意识境界中加以隔离不让自己意识到,以免引起精神上的不愉快。此 处所讲的部分事实,乃是指整个事情中的一部分,最常被隔离的是与事实相关的感觉部分。
幻想(英文术语Fantasy): 指一个人遇到现实困难时,因为无力实际处理问题,就利用幻想的方法,任意想象应如何处理困难,使自己存在于幻想世界,以获得心理平衡,这也是思考上退行作 用的表现。理想化作用对一个人的安全感有帮助,但会酿成虚幻的自尊,因为理想化作用带有浓厚的自我陶醉色彩。这种保护机制常被弱小者所用。理想化 (Idealization)是幻想的表现之一,是指对另一个人的性格特质或能力估计做过高的评价,以获得安全感的现象。
转化(英文术语Hypochondriasis):指精神上的痛苦,焦 虑转化为躯体症状表现出来,从而避开了心理焦虑和痛苦,如歇斯底里病人的内心焦虑或心理冲突往往以躯体化的症状表现出来,如瘫痪、失音、抽搐,晕厥、痉挛 性斜颈等等,病者自己对此完全不知觉,转化的动机完全是潜意识的,是病者意识不能承认的。
分离(英文术语Dissociation): 暂时而剧烈地改变自己的性格或某种感觉,以期避免情绪苦恼。与神经症性否认同义。它可能包括神游、癔症性转换反映、一种突然的毫无根据的优越感或漫不经心 的态度,以及短期地否认自己的行为或感情。它也包括为了消除焦虑或苦恼而显得忙忙碌碌的行为、通过在舞台上表演来“安全”地表达本能欲望,以及为了麻木自 己的不愉快感情而短暂地滥用某种药物或利用宗教的 “欢乐”。分离比歪曲较易为别人理解,也比较体谅别人,较发泄来得短暂。
逆反心理表示这样的一种心理结果,即支持采取一种行动,结果却说服对方采取相反的行动。
比如,在马克·吐温的《汤姆·索亚历险记》中,汤姆被姨妈处罚刷墙,被其他小伙伴看到,汤姆装作刷墙是一种特权,不让别人插手,结
果成功地使他人不仅替他刷墙,还向他付钱。
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reactance_(psychology)
Reactance is an emotional reaction in direct contradiction to rules or regulations that threaten or eliminate specific behavioral freedoms. It can occur when someone is heavily pressured to accept a certain view or attitude. Reactance can cause the person to adopt or strengthen a view or attitude that is contrary to what was intended and also increases resistance to persuasion. Mild examples are a boy being all the more interested in a girl playing "hard to get", or teenagers drinking to excess in an environment of prohibition when they would not do so in a less restrictive culture. People using "reverse psychology" are playing on at least an informal awareness of reactance, attempting to influence someone to choose the opposite of what they request. This is a frequent method used in fraudulent or unethical sales pitches, manipulating a consumer into choosing an option they would not necessarily have chosen logically.
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Psychological reactance occurs in response to threats to perceived behavioral freedoms [1] [2]. One's freedom to select when and how to conduct one's behavior, and the level one is aware of the relevant freedom -- and is able to determine behaviors necessary to satisfy that freedom -- affects the generation of psychological reactance. It is assumed that if a person's behavioral freedom is threatened or reduced, he or she will become motivationally aroused. The fear of loss of further freedoms can spark this arousal and motivate reestablishing the threatened freedom. Because this motivational state is a result of the perceived reduction of one's freedom of action, it is considered a counterforce, and thus is called "psychological reactance."
There are four important elements to reactance theory: perceived freedom, threat to freedom, reactance, and restoration of freedom. Freedom is not an abstract consideration, but rather a feeling associated with real behaviors. Free behaviors include actions in addition to emotions and attitudes.
The theory assumes there are "free behaviors" individuals perceive and can take part in at any given moment. For a behavior to be free, the individual must have the relevant physical and psychological abilities to partake in it, and must know that he or she can engage in it at the moment or in the near future. "Behavior" includes any imaginable act. More specifically, behaviors may be explained as "what one does (or doesn't)," "how one does something," or "when one does something." It is not always clear, to an observer, or the individuals themselves, if they hold a particular freedom to engage in a given behavior. When a person has such a free behavior, he or she is likely to experience reactance whenever that behavior is restricted, eliminated or threatened with elimination.
There are several rules associated with free behaviors and reactance:
1. When certain free behaviors are threatened or removed, the more important a free behavior is to a certain individual the greater the magnitude of the reactance.
1a. The level of reactance has a direct relationship to the importance of eliminated or threatened behavioral freedom in relationship to the importance of other freedoms at the time.
2. With a given set of individual's free behaviors, the more the proportion threatened or eliminated, the greater will be the total level of reactance.
3. When an important free behavior has been threatened with cancellation, the greater the threat, the greater will be the level of reactance.
3a. When there is a loss of a single free behavior there may be by implication a related threat of removal of other free behaviors now or in the future.
3b. A free behavior may be threatened or eliminated by virtue of the elimination (or threat of elimination) of another free behavior, therefore a free behavior may be threatened by the relation of the elimination of (or threat to) another person's free behavior.
Another core concept of the theory is Justification and Legitimacy. A possible effect of justification is a limitation of the threat to a specific behavior or set of behaviors. For example, if Mr. Doe states that he is interfering with Mrs. Smith's expectations because of an emergency, this also allows Mrs. Smith to imagine that Mr. Doe will interfere in future occasions as well. Likewise, legitimacy may point to a set of behaviors threatened since there will be a general assumption that an illegitimate interference with a person's freedom is less likely to occur. With legitimacy there is an additional implication that a person's freedom is equivocal.
In the phenomenology of reactance there is no assumption that a person will be aware of reactance. When he is, he will feel a higher level of self-direction in relationship to his own behavior. In other words, he will feel that he is able to do what he wants, then he does not have to do what he does not want. In this case when the freedom is in question, he alone is the director of his own behavior. When considering the direct reestablishment of freedom, the greater the magnitude of reactance the more the individual will try to reestablish the freedom that has been lost or threatened. When a freedom is threatened by a social pressure then reactance will lead a person to resist that pressure. Also when there are restraints against a direct reestablishment of freedom, there can be attempts at reestablishment by implication whenever possible. Freedom can and may be reestablished by a social implication. When an individual has lost a free behavior because of a social threat, then the participation in a like free behavior by another person similar to himself will allow him to reestablish his own freedom. In summary the definition of psychological reactance is a motivational state that is aimed at reestablishment of a threatened or eliminated freedom. A short explanation of the concept is that the level of reactance has a direct relationship between the importance of a freedom which is eliminated or threatened and a proportion of free behaviors eliminated or threatened.
Psychological Reactance and the Attractiveness of Unobtainable Objects: Sex Differences in Children's Responses to an Elimination of Freedom
This study examined the differences in sex and age in a child's view of the attractiveness of obtained and unobtainable objects. The study reviewed how well children respond in these situations. The study determined if the children being observed thought that the grass was greener on the other side. It also determined how well the child made peace with the world if he or she devalues what he or she could not have. This body of work concluded when a child cannot have what he or she wants they will experience emotional consequences of not getting it. In this study the results were duplicated from a previous study by Hammock and Brehm. The male subjects wanted what they could not obtain, however the female subjects did not conform to the theory of reactance. Although their freedom to choose was taken away it had no overall effect on them.
Deflecting Reactance: The Role of Similarity in Increasing Compliance and Reducing Resistance [3]
This study concludes that one way to increase the activity of a threatened freedom is to censor it or provide a threatening message toward the activity. In turn a "boomerang effect" occurs of which one chooses forbidden decision alternatives. This study also shows that social influence has better results when it does not threaten one's core freedoms. Two concepts revealed in this study are that a communicator may be able to increase the positive force toward compliance by increasing his or her credibility. Also increasing positive force and decreasing the negative communication force simultaneously should increase compliance.
Identifying Principal Risk Factors for the Initiation of Adolescent Smoking Behaviors: The Significance of Psychological Reactance [4]
Psychological reactance is an important indicator in adolescent smoking initiation. Peer intimacy, peer individuation, and intergenerational individuation are strong predictors of psychological reactance. The overall results of the study indicate that children think that they are capable of making their own decisions although they are not aware of their own limitations. This is an indicator that adolescents will experience reactance to authoritative control especially the proscriptions and prescriptions of adult behaviors that they view as hedonically relevant.
On the Nature of Reactance and its Role in Persuasive Health Communication
James Dillard and Lijiang Shen provided evidence that psychological reactance could be measured[5] (despite the contrary opinion of Jack Brehm, who developed the theory). In their work they measured the impact of psychological reactance with two parallel studies: one advocating flossing and the other urging students to limit their alcohol intake.
They formed four conclusions about reactance. First reactance is mostly cognitive. This allows reactance to be measurable by self-report techniques. Also, in support of previous research, they conclude reactance is in part very much related to an anger response. This verifies Brehm's description that during the reactance experience one tends to have hostile or aggressive feelings, often aimed more at the source of a threatening message than at the message itself. Finally, within reactance, both cognition and affect are intertwined. Dillard and Shen suggest they are so intertwined that their effects on persuasion cannot be distinguished from each other.
Dillard and Shen's research indicates reactance can effectively be studied using established self-report methods. Furthermore, it provided a better understanding of reactance theory and its relationship to persuasive health communication.
Psychological Reactance and Promotional Health Messages: The Effects of Controlling Language, Lexical Concreteness, and the Restoration of Freedom[6]
This research was conducted by Miller et al. at the University of Oklahoma. Their primary goal was to measure the effects of controlling language in promotional health messages. Their research revisited the notion of restoring freedom by examining the use of a short postscripted message tagged on the end of a promotional health appeal. Results of the study indicated that more concrete messages generate greater attention than less concrete (more abstract) messages. Also, the source of concrete messages can be seen as more credible than the source of abstract messages. They concluded that the use of more concrete, low-controlling language, and the restoration of freedom through inclusion of a choice emphasizing postscript may offer the best solution to reducing ambiguity and reactance created by overtly persuasive health appeals.
逆反心理呢