"the innermost secrets of Art"
Art Neuendorffer
DOUAY-RHEIMS MARK 14:26-30
And when they had said an hymn, they went FORTH to the mount of Olives.
And Jesus saith to them: You will all be scandalized in my regard
this night; for it is written, I will strike the shepherd,
and the sheep shall be dispersed. But after I shall be risen again,
I will go before you into Galilee. But Peter saith to him:
Although all shall be scandalized in thee, yet not I. And Jesus
saith to him: Amen I say to thee, to day, even in this night,
before the cock crow twice, thou shall deny me thrice.
Geneva MARK 14:26-30
And when they had sung a Psalm, they went out to the mount of Olives.
Then Jesus said unto them, All ye shall be offended by me this night:
for it is written, I will smite the shepherd, and the sheep shall be
scattered. But after that I am risen, I will go into Galilee before you.
And Peter said unto him, Although all men should be offended at thee,
yet would not I. Then Jesus said unto him, Verily I say unto thee,
this day, even in this night before the cock crow twice,
thou shalt deny me thrice.
-----------------------------------------------------------
http://www.robotwisdom.com/jaj/ulysses/index.html
<<Chapter Ten [i.e., Wandering Rocks, Ulysses] was a late addition
to Joyce's plan, not based on any Homeric adventure. It offers 19
subsections showing 19 vignettes of Dubliners walking after lunch,
told from their 19 different points of view. Most of these
subsections contain one or more 'intrusions' from other
sections, showing how things are happening simultaneously.>>
---------------------------------------------------------------
Joseph Campbell's _Creative Mythology_
<<The number 19 represents the White/Apollonian, the physical,
the essential, the boundary - i.e. "being," as I call it.
Precisely 19 rectilinear pieces comprise the border
of the famous Tunc page of the Book of Kells.>>
http://www.snake.net/people/paul/kells/image/kell2bmp
http://celtdigital.org/kell2bmp.gif
"Tunc Dicit illis Ihs omnes nos scan"
MARK 14:27 Then Jesus said to them, you will all be scandalized)
http://www.suite101.com/article.cfm/illustration_and_illumination/109813
"Look closely at it and you will penetrate the innermost secrets of art;
you will find embellishments of such intricacy, such a wealth of knots
and interlacing links that you might believe it was the work of an angel
rather than a human being." -Giraldus Cambrensis, 13th century scholar
The [Book of Kells], created about 800AD, is perhaps the most
beautiful representation of Celtic art and incorporates images
in a wonderful mix of pagan superstition and Christian belief.
The capital letters at the beginning of each paragraph are decorated
with brightly colored entwinements of birds, snakes, distorted men and
animals fighting, swallowing parts of one another, or performing all
sorts of acrobatic feats. Sometimes the figure of an angel or an Apostle
peers over the top of the initial letters and his feet jut out beneath.
The words ?tunc? (Latin for then) and ?et? (Latin for and) are
frequently depicted at these spots at the beginnings of paragraphs.
The small words are ornamented with incredible detail. It is said that
modern viewers can?t see all the detail without a magnifying glass.
Coptic dots
Tiny drops of pure red are used to form outlines within the designs,
a style of ornament common in early Irish manuscripts. The use of
small red dots in Celtic manuscripts does not (contrary to some modern
interpretations) represent the "universal life force,? but was simply a
decorative device. The technique, known to calligraphers as rubrication,
was borrowed by the Celtic monks from Egyptian Coptic Christian
manuscripts brought to Ireland by missionaries in the fifth century.
The small red dots are used to outline large initials or to make
a particular line of text stand out from the page.
In later years, such as the time of the Book of Kells, Celtic artists
elevated the humble red dot into a high art form, creating complex
webs of delicate knotwork and even animal interlace.
The red dots are also used in the instance a scribe may have made
an error in his text. The monks who labored daily over their writing
tables, endlessly copying out page after page of text, much of
which they had to translate, often grew fatigued and made errors.
Just as modern calligraphers do, the scribes occasionally repeated
a word or line or made a spelling mistake. In the Book of Kells
there are numerous places where red ink made later corrections
to the Latin text by enclosing a word to be ignored in red dots.
-----------------------------------------------------------------------
George: How come this sweater is only 85 dollars?
Woman: (showing the dot) Oh, here. This is why.
George: What? I don't see anything.
Woman: See this red dot?
George: You think she would care about the red dot?
Jerry: It's hard to say.
-------------------------------------------------
Kramer: What's that red dot on your sweater?
Elaine: What?
George: Just take it off. I'm getting hot just looking at it.
Elaine: Uhh. This. It's like a red dot.
George: What red dot? What are you talking about?
Elaine: Did George buy that sweater knowing the red dot
was on it because it was cheaper? (Jerry is unconfortable)
Ooookay, you just gave me the answer.
Elaine: Hey George, did you buy that sweater knowing that
red dot was on it because you could get it at a discount?
George: What? Did I what?
Elaine: You did didn't you.
George: Elaine, I'm, I'm shocked. I'm shocked. Here I go out
in the spirit of the season and spend all my savings to buy you
the most beautiful Christmas sweater I have ever seen to show
my appreciation to you at Christmas and this is the thanks
that I get at Christmas.
Elaine: Well Jerry told me that you did.
George: Elaine you don't understand. I had 103 temperature when
I bought that sweater. I was so dizzy I was seeing red dots
everywhere. I thought everything in the store had a red dot
on it. I couldn't distinguish one red dot from another.
I couldn't afford anything. I have nothing. I haven't worked
for a really long time. (Jerry is standing right behind George.
Jerry takes out a hankerchief and starts fake-crying in it.)
I mean look, I have no clothes, look at what I'm wearing.
It's just a little red dot.
-----------------------------------------------------------------------
Book of Kells - Its History, Construction and Knotwork
http://pcssd.org/nwoodart/book_of_kells%20WRITTEN%20REPORT.htm
The Book of Kells, an illuminated insular manuscript, is a Latin copy of
the four Gospels of the New Testament, Matthew, Mark, Luke and John,
which tell the story of the life and work of Jesus Christ.
The text is a mixture of the Vulgate version and the older version
known as the Old Latin translation. It was designed as an altar book
to glorify God and His message and was accompanied by some of the
preliminaries used at that time. During a visit to Ireland in 1185 A.D.,
Giraldus Cambrensis was so enthralled by the beauty of the book that he
wrote: "It contains the concordance of the four gospels according to
Saint Jerome, with almost as many drawings as pages, and all of them in
marvelous colours. Here you can look upon the face of the divine majesty
drawn in a miraculous way; here too upon the mystical representations of
the Evangelists now having six, how four, and now two, wings. Here you
will see the eagle; there the calf. Here the face of a man; there that
of a lion'. If you look at them carelessly and casually and not too
closely, you may judge them to be mere daubs rather than careful
compositions. You will see nothing subtle where everything is subtle.
But if you take the trouble to look very closely, and penetrate with
your eyes to the secrets of the artistry, you will notice such
intricacies, so delicate and subtle, so close together, and
well-knitted, so involved and bound together, and so fresh still
in their colourings that you will not hesitate to declare that
all these things must have been the result of the work,
not of men, but of angels."
To do this the scribes who created this book relied on the book's large
size, the small, almost microscopic, size of the ornamental designs,
exquisite calligraphy and decorative letters. Today the pages average
13" x 9 ½" (330 mm x 240 mm) but originally were 14 ½" x 10 ¼" (370 mm x
260 mm). It weighs about 20 pounds, based on the weight of its
reproduction. As such, the book was not intended for daily use or for
study, but for ceremonial use. Its calligraphy is clear and easy to
read. Legibility is also created by a limit of abbreviations. The words
that were shortened were limited mostly to the sacred names (God, Jesus,
Christ, Holy Spirit and Lord) and it is felt that they did that more for
the sake of reverence than to save vellum or time. The craftsmanship
found in the Book of Kells today is still considered amazing; almost to
the point that you catch yourself wondering if angels did guide their hands.
Historical Information
The actual location of the Book of Kells creation is still being debated
and researched (map, Figure 1). Only a major monastery would have had
the skills, talents, and access to materials necessary to produce such
an advanced illuminated manuscript. Whether it was created in Kells,
Iona, started in Iona and finished in Kells, or is a product of the
early church in Northumberland is of concern to the Irish because the
Book of Kells has been adopted as a national symbol that even appears on
Ireland's currency (B Series, 5 pound note, Figure 2). The calligraphy
and illuminations can all be traced to Ireland and it's Gaelic past.
The calligraphy is called insular majuscule and was developed in early
Christian Ireland from the Roman half-uncial that was brought to the
islands. It later influenced the calligraphy produced in parts
of England and continental Europe.
The scribes and artists who created the Book of Kells were Columban
monks. These monks originally were from a remote island of Iona, off the
west coast of Scotland between Scotland and Ireland, a mile from the
larger island of Mull. Iona is 3 ½ miles long and ½ mile wide. St Colm
Cille (St. Columba), an Irish monk, founded the Iona monastery late in
the sixth century (563 A.D.). St Colm Cille was born in 521 A.D. in
Donegal, Ireland. He was a direct descendent of King Niall and was
a cousin of the King who ruled northwest Ireland at that time. He
established monasteries at Grianan in Derry, at Durrow, Kells and Swords
in Meath and on Tory Island off Donegal. In 560 A.D. Colm Cille fought
and killed the High King in a battle started by Colm Cille's action of
copying without permission another abbot's book. He died in Iona
thirty-four years later on June 9, 597 A.D. at the age of 76 and his
remains were preserved as relics. Even his flabellum was keep as a relic
until it was lost in the 11 century. The flabellum originated in the
Roman civilization where they were used in the form of a fly swatter
during the performance of the mass to keep the altar free of flies
and to protect the wine and bread. Therefore the flabellum became
a symbol of defense against impurity as well as a Eucharist symbol.
It is thought that the Book of Kells was designed as a
'special luxury copy of the gospels' in honor of
the 200th anniversary of the death of St. Colm Cille.
In the early 9th Century the Irish Midland's Kells in county Meath was
the area where Iona monks relocated. The site they chose was previously
occupied as an Irish hill fort. This move was motivated by the Viking
invasions of Iona, which threatened their existence. The Abbey of Kells
was built in 807 A.D. and in 814 A.D. Cala, Abbott of Iona, resigned and
retired to Kells. In 878 A.D. it is believed that St Colm Cille's shrine
and other relics were moved to Kells as a result of additional Viking
attacks. It is likely that the Book of Kells was one of the items
removed to Kells for safekeeping. Actually 1006 A.D. was the first known
record of the existence of the manuscript we call the Book of Kells. In
the annals of Ulster (translated into English by Ludwig Bieler), which
was a year-by-year record of important happenings in Ireland, it is
written: "The great Gospel of Colmcille, the chief relic of the western
world, was wickedly stolen during the night from the western sacristy of
the great stone church of Cennanus on account of its wrought shrine.
That Gospel was found after twenty nights and two months
with its gold stolen from it, buried in the ground."
The shrine, known as a cumtach, was probably decorated with ornamental
housing containing relics, gold and precious stones. This assumption is
based on the study of surviving manuscript shrines. An interesting
question, that will probably never be answered, is if the Book of Kells'
shrine contained any fragments of St Colm Cille's relics. Many of the
missing parts of the Book of Kells were destroyed at the time the book
was torn out of its shrine. For example St John's gospel stops short
in the middle of the 17th chapter and some of the Preliminaries
before the Gospels are no longer with the manuscript.
In the 12th century the reform of the Irish church ended the monastery's
life and the Book of Kells was kept in the Kells parish church. Due to
the deterioration of the church building during the Cromwell period,
the Governor of Kells, Charles Lambart, Earl of Cavan, sent it to Dublin
for safe keeping in 1653. In 1661 the book was given to Trinity College
Library and has been on permanent display since the mid 19th century.
Bishop Henry Jones of Meath, a former scout/master general to Cromwell's
army in Ireland and vice-chancellor of Trinity College,
placed it there along with the Book of Durrow.
Other damage was done later in the 19th century when the Book of Kells
was rebound. At that time the binder, wanting to standardize the size
cropped and gilded the edges. By doing this he cut off some of the
illumination. The pigment was also damaged when the pages were dampened
in an attempt to flatten them. Also, in the late 11th and 12th century,
County of Kells property transactions were recorded on some of the blank
spaces and pages. (According to a very reliable source, Dr. Jane Brown,
the Book of Kells was dipped in wells from which livestock got their
drinking water. This was a method of blessing the cows, etc. since
the book was considered a sacred relic. How the book was able
to survive being submerged in water is in itself a miracle.)
In the 16th century Jerald Plunkerd annotated several pages and signed
his name and initials in various places. He even went as far as adding
a strange spear shape on the tail of the wolf found on folio 76 verso
(Figure 3). In 1849 Queen Victoria and Prince Albert were allowed to
sign the modern flyleaves of the book. At that time it was thought
that those pages were part of the original leaves but they were
additions from a rebinding effort. In 1953 these pages
were removed during its last rebinding.
At the time the Book was produced, Irish monks were renowned throughout
the rest of Europe for their work as scribes and illustrators. Their
designs were often worked out on thin pieces of bone or stone, which are
more commonly found in Ireland than in Britain. These designs were a
true indication of how the missionaries incorporated the art of the
pagan world into the teachings of the Christian Church by adopting
many of their symbols and patterns and making them an important part
of the Christian ceremonies and manuscripts. It was an excellent
example of the blurring of the dividing line between
the Christian world and the slowly fading pagan world.
Errors in spelling, Latin grammar and even translation are all to be
found in the Book of Kells. One page, 218v, has even been transcribed
twice. Red crosses were added to the page to tell the reader that it was
a mistake. Why did this occur' Some possibilities are: 1) the scribes
were so absorbed in the goal to make this a visually glorious manuscript
the accuracy became secondary; 2) a scribe did not have a good grasp of
the grammar, syntax and vocabulary; 3) there was a lack of training and
experience in reading the work of other scribes; 4) there was a lack of
ability to correct errors in the original manuscript; 5) the original
copy was Illegibly written or written by one with an incomplete
knowledge of Latin; 6) there was a lack of ability to decipher
unintelligible abbreviations; 7) the Book of Kells was compiled from
several sources; 8) the copying had been done from a text that had
itself been compiled from several sources; A thought that I had was that
these mistakes were left in the book to show the human hand and weakness
of man's understanding of God's words. When writing on vellum mistakes
are corrected by scratching them off with a knife. I know of a modern
artist who scratched off a whole page of calligraphy months after it was
written and was able to do it because it was on vellum. Instead of
correcting in this manner, the scribe would highlight the mistakes with
red dots and insert the corrections (Figure 4).
Once in a while lines would have a run-over, which is called a "Turn in
the path" or "head under wing". These are techniques used to show the
end of one line of text that is continued on the previous line of text
by the use of a small figure or animal instead of an arrow. For example,
on 131r, the peacock alerts us to this detour and guides our eyes to the
right. Notice that the peacock is balanced on the actual text of line 4.
Symbols and Other Formations that have a Purpose:
In Hiberno-Saxon illumination the drawings of abstract patterns are
traced with extreme complexity around some central and unifying theme
and are worthy of study. The designs are very complex and ornate and
consist of strange little animals, plants, spirals, mazes, and swirls
(Figure 5). These objects have their foundations based on Celtic lore
and biblical stories. As an example, the biblical story of Daniel in
the lion's den is recalled by the portrayal of human heads in the mouths
of beasts. The Celts' art was originally based on geometric designs
and was expanded by the Christian scribes with the use of human
(anthropomorphic) and animal (zoomorphic) images. These symbols
and their possible meanings are objects of fascinating study.
One such type of symbol used is key patterns. Key patterns, dating back
to 20000 B.C., have been found engraved on mammoth tusks in the Ukraine
and former Yugoslavia. In Egypt the key pattern is displayed on an ivory
carving of a priest made from between 3500 to 3000 B.C.. Chinese key
patterns from before 1000 B.C. are similar to the key patterns used by
the Celtic artists and scribes. Some feel that key patterns are really
spirals in straight lines. Key patterns to the Celts represent the
pathway of life, which leads you through the complex labyrinth of
physical, metal and spiritual experiences.
Interlacing first appears during the mid 7th century in a fragment of
the Durham Gospels at the end of St Matthew's Gospel on the colophon
page. The unbroken lines of an interlacing or a Celtic knot symbolize
the process of spiritual growth and when you follow the lines it
occupies the conscious mind with a demanding repetitive task.
The same process can be said for a mantra or rosary beads.
Spirals are symbolic of eternal life to many different cultures, past
and present. They represent the cycle of life, death and rebirth. In
Neolithic time, passing a spiral barrier seems to have been necessary
to step within the inner sanctuary of a stone burial chamber. There is
spiral design on the entrance stone blocking the entrance to the tomb at
Newgrange. Passage beyond symbolized the soul moving from death to find
rebirth at the still center. Monks were surrounded by water at the time
they were living on islands and therefore were reminded of the flow and
movement of the cosmos. This heightened awareness could have helped
influence their need to use spirals in their art. All of these symbols,
besides being a part of the Celtic traditions, helped convey God's
greatness.
The Tree of Life image is unique in that it is the first existing
Celtic manuscript to use foliate ornament. Trees and plants were sacred
to the Celts in pre-Christian times because their roots lay deep in the
underworld, their trunks in the earth world and their branches reached
high into the sky world. J A Brunn describes its appearance
in the Book of Kells as follows:
"The element appears, to begin with, among flourishes and terminals,
in the shape of lightly sketched branches with leaves and flowers,
sometimes proceeding from vases. Of a more elaborate nature are the
scrolls of foliage which are seen to fill in, as a surface decoration,
long, narrow borders or panels in grand illuminated pages' Thus
a branch of foliage is frequently seen to evolve from the open jaws
of a nondescript, while at the same time the tail of the beast
presents the appearance of a trefoil or lance-shaped leaf."
Some of the foliate ornament is probably mistletoe. It is rooted above
the ground in the bark of trees and was therefore not part of the
underworld. Keep in mind that each image in the Book of Kells is unique.
For example the birds and domestic fowl are represented over 38 times
(Examples of different birds found in the Book of Kells, Figure 6 & 7).
Every winged being is symbolic of spirituality and souls of the faithful
Christ is strongly represented throughout the Book of Kells. His image
can be found on three folios. Symbols for him can be found on nearly
every page at least once if not many times. Such symbols are moths, the
Chalice, the olive tree, the cross, grapes and vine and otters. Ireland
did not have snakes but even so the snake was chosen as a symbol for
Christ's resurrection and is shown approximately 13 times. The Celts
believed that a snake regained its youth with the shedding of its skin,
which parallels the concept of Christian rebirth. Snakes were frequently
depicted with duck-like heads and the tails of fish. The fish shown
about 16 times in the Book of Kells was the earliest Christian
symbol for Christ and the Soul (Figure 8) . One suggested reason
for the selection of the fish to become a symbol for Christ is
that the letters of the Greek word for fish are the first letter
in each word of the phrase "Jesus Christ, the Son of God"
The symbols for the four Evangelists, Matthew (the man), Mark (the
lion), Luke (the calf) and John (the eagle), can be found on 129v
(Figure 9). All four of their symbols combined form a symbol for Christ
himself. The man and the calf reflect the humility of incarnation and
sacrifice and the lion and the eagle reflect the courage and grandeur
of Christ's resurrection and ascension. These images are first
mentioned in the Book of Revelations, chapter four:
And in the midst of a throne, and round about the throne, were four
beasts full of eyes before and behind. The first beast was like a lion,
the second beast like a calf, the third beast has a face as a man,
and the fourth beast was like a flying eagle. And the four beasts had
each of them six wings about him; And they were full of eyes within;
And they rest not day and night, saying, Holy, Holy, Holy,
Lord God Almighty, which was, and is, and is to come.
The Lion, which could be found on approximately 19 folios, was the
symbol of resurrection as well as the symbol for Mark. The Celt artist
had heard of the lion but had never seen it. The instinctively
abstract nature of Celtic art aids in the idea of the lion as a fabled
and imaginary beast. Where they had to use their imagination the figures
became very fanciful. The illuminator suggested the power, savagery,
brutal force and majesty of the lion with intricate patterning. Other
symbols and images are cats, mice, God, heads, men, monks, women, dogs,
goats, hares, horses, wolves, lizards, Eucharist, moths, peacocks, stags
and angels. Angels were symbols of immortality and it was believed that
angels were with Christ at all of the most important moments of his life
on earth. Cats and mice are playful figures that contain symbols of the
Eucharist. As an emblem of faithfulness, the dogs have the function of
the sheepdog, which guards and guides the flock. This could also
be thought of as an allegory for the priest. The peacock represented
Christ, the incorruptibility of the body of Christ and immortality.
According to ancient belief the flesh of the peacock was so hard
it did not putrefy.
The description of the contents of the Book of Kells
See the 'Catalogue' section for the actual arrangement of quires and
folios. The following listing of folios (recto or verso) is a limited
selection of the ones that not only are major but also contain
knotwork and interlacing that support the section called
"Observations of the Celtic Knot Construction."
. Folio 7v: The Virgin and Child (Figure 10)
This portrait of the virgin and child reflects the characteristics of
all Irish forms of this period. It is known for the mingling of green
and several shades of purple. This combination of colors was handled so
skillfully that it was a testimony to their skill in handling colors.
It is one of the earliest such representations that has survived in the
history of western art. The stiff formal pose of the virgin, the absence
of naturalism and the overall linear and decorative approach can be
found in other art of this period. It has been proposed that this
rendition of the virgin and child shows influence of Oriental and
Egyptian art. There are indications of an attempt of illusion, such as
the transparency of the Virgin's halo, which are Byzantine in nature.
There are three angels holding flabellums. Two angels above the Virgin
are smiling and the two lower angels are peeping around the corners of
the chair. There are two little intertwined active figures between the
angels who look as if they are dancing for joy. The lion on the Virgin's
chair might be a reference to the evangelist, Mark. The page is an
excellent example of the use of snakes in the interlaced border.
There are six spectators interrupting the border on the lower right
hand side of the page. They are a visual prompt to guide the reader's
eye to the facing page, which is the beginning of the introduction of
the gospel of St. Matthew. They can also be interpreted as the people
Christ came to save.
II. Folio 32v: Portrait of Christ (Figure11)
A full-length portrait of Christ, standing in a keyhole arch, follows
the genealogical lists that open Saint Matthew's Gospel. Christ sits on
his throne holding a book in one hand and seems to be giving a blessing
with his other hand. Peacock heads can be found in the interlace border
which frames Christ. A formal Celtic knot can be seen centered on the
bottom side of the border. A cross surmounts his head. Christ's garment
folds are stiff and delineated by broad lines of pure pigment. No
attempt has been made to create the sense of depth through the use of
shading, shadow and modeling. Angels and peacocks flank Christ. The
peacock's feet are entangled in vines growing from chalices (peacocks,
grape vines and chalices all represent Christ). Eucharistic hosts have
been incorporated into the wing feathers of the birds. The two spandels
over the peacocks have been painted with a white ground so it is ready
for the decoration ' these remain unfinished. It has been suggested by
some that these were intentionally left unfinished to "emphasize the
humility of those engaged in transcribing the Work of God" or to "act
as a reminder of the fallibility of humanity." According to Bernard
Meehan the white was painted in the 19th century to cover the words
'Jesus Christus' which was one of Gerald Plunket's written notations.
III. Folio 33r: Eight-Circle Cross (Figure 19)
The eight circle cross is a carpet page where the central theme is
that of the cross not the crucifix. There is no Christ here, no sign
of suffering and no suggestion of bodily involvement. It is not known
if the original plans for the Book of Kells included Carpet pages.
Usually carpet pages are inserted at the start of a major section
of text, usually opposite an ornate initial page. This carpet
page faces the recto page's portrait of Christ. This is the only
surviving example from this book. The stylized working and reworking of
the motif of the cross offered artists opportunity to give full vent
to all of their expressiveness and skill. The cross includes trumpet
patterns, key patterns, spirals, interlacing, knots, disks, foils and
dots. There are eight medallions located at the two crossings and
six ends of the cross design. These contrast with the red and yellow
tones of the page by being done in black and white only. Incorporated
within the fabric of the patterning on this page are dragons
and serpents. Outside the edge of the main border and half way
along each edge are four knots, one on each edge. They do not
show the weaving that usually are part of a finished knot.
IV. Folio 34r: Chi Rho (Figure 26)
The Chi Rho introduces St. Matthews' account of the nativity.
The Chi Rho is the design created from the Greek letters of the
abbreviated Greek form of the name of Christ. It is suggested that
the portrait in the middle of the Chi Rho is the image of the youthful
Christ. There are red knots on a yellow background that help create
a contrast to help emphasize this portrait. The introduction is
continued with the two other words in the lower right hand corner,
'Alto' and 'Gerialtio'. Alto means 'now' and Gerialtio means 'the
birth'. This page is an excellent example of a complex interrelation of
text and decoration. To the left of the word 'gerialtio' is an otter
with a fish. This is thought of as a symbol of the death of Christ.
The peacock, another symbol for Christ, is a part of this page. Two
mice tug at a Eucharistic host (bottom left corner) while seemingly
friendly Cats with mice on their backs observe. Within this page
there are circles, which enclose other smaller circles, which have
even tinier circles inside them. The purpose of this design might be
a reminder of 'three in one' of perfect unity. The negative space on
this page (left hand side and at the bottom) is filled in with small
tiny drops of red lead, some of which are lined up in a knot pattern.
This is a form of ornament that appears in earlier manuscripts. It
creates backgrounds, outlines and patterns as dictated by the space.
V. Folio 124r: Tunc crucifixerant
- Crucifixion from St. Matthew's Gospel (Figure 31)
This page contains the words "Tunk crucifixerant christum cum ao dous
lettromes", "Then they had crucified two thieves with him Christ".
There is no image of the crucifixion in the Book of Kells but most
likely the facing blank page was intended for this purpose. This
theory would explain the three groups of onlookers included in the
decorative scheme for the page. This page also contains two roaring
lions which provides a counter point to the restrained and formal
composition. There is knotwork within the 'T' of Tunk and
interlacing inside the counter space of the 'T' surrounding the
lion's head. Key patterns and knot patterns alternately fill the
interior border's blocks.
VI. Folio 188r: Opening of St. Luke's Gospel (Figure 38)
There are 20 figures shown on this page. There is a moral tone presented
by some of these figures. One or two of the figures at the bottom seem
to be slumped as if suffering from the after effects of the wine that is
held by the figures to the left. Two figures at the bottom left seem to
be chastened as both are placing their heads into the mouths of lions.
A pair of figures is placed horizontally in a small panel at the center
top of the page, just under the head of a grotesque roaring monster.
A strip of yellow that is being unfurled from the letter "I" is
hanging another figure. Others observe with a degree of caution.
Four pairs of men sit on the top right hand center of the page.
Their legs are entangled as interlace with each pair pulling the
other's beard. This motif of beard pulling appears in other manuscripts
and stone carvings but the meaning of their activity is not known.
VII. Folio 202v: Temptation (Figure 40)
This folio is based on St. Luke's gospel, chapter 4 verse 9:
"Jesus was lead to Jerusalem and made to stand on a high parapet
of the temple. The devil then taunted Jesus by saying,
'Throw yourself down; God will put his angels in
charge of you to guard you. They will hold you up
on their hands in case you hurt your foot against a stone.'
Jesus replied, 'You must not put the Lord your God to the test.'
And the devil departed."
Christ is shown on the temple roof being tempted by the devil. It was
unusual to have Christ represented on the top of the temple as a partial
and not full figure. The design of the temple is like a small Irish
church or shrine, such as the house of Colm Cille, which can still be
visited today in Kells. The blackness of the devil is shocking since
there is very little black used in most of the painted pages.
Christ stares at the viewer while repelling the devil. There are four
angels at the top of the page. The 35 individual faces included on this
page might represent the ancestors of Christ or they depict the faithful
that make up the body of the church. Medieval artists were known to use
themselves as models on occasion, and one scholar has posited the theory
that the nine apostles who are depicted on page just might be the book's
creators. The positioning of Christ on the apex of the temple roof
reminds us that he is the fountainhead of the Christian Church.
The face on the door to the temple might represent God
or Christ who successfully has withstood temptation.
The large area of the temple was broken alternately into 3 stripes,
one of which contains interlacing, and 3 larger sections.
The right and left border sections under the angels are filled
with a string of split knots.
VIII. Folio 291v: Portrait of St John (Figure 45)
This is the title page of St. John's gospel. The overall decoration is
not as elaborate as some of the other portraits. There is free space
between St. John and the surrounding blue lined border. The chair upon
which he sits fills the bottom part of the image and the upper part
of the image is dominated by his elaborate halo. There is a group of
onlookers that are included as part of the page's design. The portrait
of St. John shows the evangelist holding his gospel and his pen and his
inkhorn is shown at his right foot. The pen looks more like a reed pen
than a quill pen. These three objects depict the tools of a scribe.
The gospel he holds shows red binding decorated with blind twilling
which was probably the method used for the original binding
of the Book of Kells."
St. John stares at the viewer with a direct stare and to his right a
smaller figure appears to be indulging in a goblet of wine, much to the
dismay of a ferocious monster that uncurls his tongue onto the lap of
the figure. This could be interpreted as a warning against drinking too
much wine. There is included a graphic treatment of the first 4 words '
"inecchipio ear a ferboem" ("In the beginning was the word").
Behind the blue lined border there is a disembodied figure. Due to the
rebinding of the manuscript in the 19th century much of the head has
been cut off of this figure. Some believe this to be an image of God
himself. According to George Simms, "It looks as if one mightier than
John is behind him as he writes, inspiring and supporting him." This
folio's abuse is also reflected in the condition of the top right
hand corner where repair with the use of stitching has been done.
Media and methods
The production of a book as elaborate as the Book of Kells would have
required specialist skills and extensive resources. It is amazing to see
how intricate and minute the detail is on each page. What is even more
amazing is to realize what materials were used. The scribes created this
intricate drawing without the aid of glasses or magnifying lenses. There
is no evidence that any type of magnifying aids existed at that time.
The scribes must have been shortsighted, because only when a 10-factor
magnifying glass is applied to the figure of St. Luke does one see the
breathtakingly intricate and exact decoration. There are numerous other
examples of this kind of fine detail, and magnifying glasses of that
power were not invented until hundreds of years later.
The pages of the Book of Kells are made of vellum. It took more than 185
calfskins to provide the needed velum and a community advanced enough to
process these hides into vellum. The preparation for the pages of the
Book of Kells was a multi-step procedure. Even with as much care as was
taken to produce the vellum flaws such as small holes in the vellum were
caused during the preparation of the skins from the putrefaction of the
skins. Folio 246r (Figure 46) has a hole that was caused in the flaying
of the pelt. A scribe wrote around the hole. Folio 316r (Figure 47) has
a hole and it has been patched and written over.
The production of the paints and ink required many minerals from distant
lands. The use of these materials indicates that wherever the Book of
Kells was actually made, that location had to also be convenient to
trade routs and located in a large, well-established community. The ink
used in the Book of Kells is mostly brownish iron gall ink. This is made
from crushed "oak apples, which today is known as oak galls (Figure 48),
and sulfite of iron suspended in a medium of gum and water. Black carbon
ink, which is found on some preliminary pages, was made of lamp black or
soot. The soot from burned bones was used on later manuscripts. The ink
was never blotted on the page but was allowed to dry naturally, to
obtain a deep color. The colors used in the Book of Kells contain
yellow, blue, green, white, black and red. The book does not have any
gold decoration but a generous use of yellow makes up for the lack of
gold. Lapis lazuli is a semiprecious stone that produces a deep blue.
The only source for this stone was Afghanistan or Persia. The Book of
Kells is the earliest example of the use of Lapis lazuli for blue color
in a western manuscript. This is considered the most expensive and
exotic of all of the colors. The monks would mix the ground color
pigment with a mixture of egg yolk or egg white and water. They would
apply this paint in thin translucent washes ofone color on top of
another. This layering helps create an illusion of relief. For more
information on the colors see the catalogue.
The quill pen was used for the calligraphy. We have derived the word pen
from the Latin word for feather, Penna. Quill pens were made from the
strong flight feathers of large birds such as geese, swans, or sometimes
crows. The monks were known for having what we might call a bird
sanctuary where they cared for the local birds. Goose quills were not
too soft and had a chiseled broad edge. C. Davis suggests one way that
a quill could have been prepared was by cutting the end of the feather,
soaking it in warm water, removing the membrane inside the tube,
inserting it in hot ashes for a short time to harden and making a
series of cuts. A flexible reed, which was also used at that time,
would have been cut from bamboo or fresh water reeds.
The Inkwells were made of cow horns. Their brushes were probably made of
Otter hair or Marten fur. Some of their brushes would have had to be
extremely small. Compasses, rulers, French curves, and templates were
used for laying out the decorated pages. The lines for the calligraphy
were measured out by a series of pinpricks made by a stylus. A stylus or
a silver point was used to mark lines (Figure 49). Blunt knives were
used to scrape away mistakes and hold their paper on their elevated
writing surface. Wax tablets were used to plan the designs for the
carpet pages.
The style of calligraphy used on the Book of Kells was insular
majuscule, which requires the calligrapher to hold the pen or quill
at varying angles as well as turn it upside down. At times only the
corner of the nib touches the page. This in itself is difficult to do
but to obtain consistency on the level that the scribes did on the
Book of Kells is amazing. Experts who have studied the manuscripts
have been able to identify only four different scribes or "hands" in
the calligraphy. They labeled them Hand 'A', Hand 'B', Hand 'C' and
Hand 'D'.
Mlle Henry classifies Hand 'A' as writing in a "slightly archaic and
restrained way with a massive and compact script"; Hand 'B' showing
"more exuberance with colored inks in the Preliminaries and is inclined
to compressed writing at the foot of pages, with flourishes in a way the
is reminiscent of minuscule"; Hand 'C' wrote most of the manuscript and
exhibits a "freer script than A and 'slightly higher letters." She
believes that several people, both scribes and artists working together,
did the decorations in the Book of Kells. The number of variations in
the decorations makes a solid case for the theory that several artists
worked on this manuscript's designs. At least three scribes and three
illustrators did the work - though the scribes may themselves have been
the illustrators. One illustrator did the Evangelists' portraits, one
the dramatic scenes, and one the ornamental pages. 'The Goldsmith' is
distinguished by his production of the metalwork effects found in the
Book of Kells and by the use of yellow orpiment instead of gold. 'The
Geometry Monk' used rulers and compasses.. 'The Illustrator' painted the
figures and scenes from the life of Jesus and 'The Portrait Painter'
produced the compositions. No doubt apprentices did some of the amusing
little animals and birds that the book is so famous for. There does seem
to be an indication that a 'master-mind' planned the whole book and the
coloring of it.
The painter who was exact, orderly and neat, using black ink made of
iron-gall is labeled as 'Celtic' (either Irish or Scottish). His colors
are blue and green. Toward the end of the book are two of his pages,
with blue letters on one and the complementary green on the other.
According to Jerry B. Lincecum, 'Celtic's' greatest rival must have been
a southerner--an Arab, an Armenian, or an Italian. His art was bold and
reflected the art of the Mediterranean world. He will start a section of
text in black, throw in a chunk of scandalous scarlet, shift into brown,
and then return to black. He is forever throwing in willful little
details--sprigs of wild flowers, eccentric dots and diamonds.
His is certainly the greatest page of the Book of Kells,
the fabulous "Chi Rho" page (quire 5, folio 34r).
Observations of the Celtic Knot Construction.
There is a difference in knotwork and interlacing. Interlacing is the
weaving together of design elements over and under each other in a
variety of ways. There can be many strands involved and/or objects such
as letters or images. The knot is more formal and usually is closed.
When a formal knot is opened and has terminal endings it can be
considered an entanglement. These terms are loosely used and make
research more difficult.
The knotwork and interlacing done in the Book of Kells is so small and
intricate that it defies modern attempts to duplicate them, even with
our magnification tools, rapideographs, high quality inks, and slick
manufactured surfaces, such as gesso board. The tools they used were
limited to what they could make, such as quill pens, reed pens, brushes
from the fur of local animals such as the fox, otter or marten, stylus
from bone or hard wood, a silver point from silver, copper or gold wire,
blunt and sharp knifes, ink, paint and vellum. One tool they might have
used, which I used in trying to duplicate their small knots, is
a sliver of wood (which I constructed by sharpening a toothpick).
Mark Van Stone in his report "Ornamental Techniques in Kells and Its
Kin" states that the construction of the design of the folios was
"interruptible". Like the building of the European cathedrals, the
monks designed the pages in sections that could be worked on in stages.
Keeping this in mind and that many people who are artists are great
doodlers and that these monks were practiced experts in the construction
of the Celtic knot, I feel that it had to be a simple process such as
using dots (or 'x' if room allows) as a placement for the points of
crossing. Once the dots are placed, which can be in line such as on a
graph (which most artists can do with out the aid of graph paper) or
at random to help establish the filling of a space, all the artist
has to do is treat each dot as an intersection and make sure all
'roads' connect. They could have done this on a wax tablet to
work out a knot design or on the velum with silver point or,
as a person that has done many knots would do, with paint.
The knot designs could be approached as a meditation aid since they are
repetitive and many can be broken into divisions of 3. This division
struck me as I was doing one and caught myself saying, "Father, Son and
Holy Ghost" as I repeated the same strokes over and over. The center of
the monks' life was meditation, which I feel they were able to do as
they also enhanced and glorified God's words. The interlacing is really
just a doodle around an established item. Doodling is another way to
become "centered" as is done when walking a labyrinth. Again this is
another form of meditation.
There are enough puzzles and mysteries in this masterpiece, not to
mention splendid images and awe-inspiring calligraphy, to intrigue
students and scholars for years to come. Modern artists find inspiration
in the minuteness of the details, the arabesque, interlaced patterns &
Celtic knots as well as the weird and witty monsters & grotesqueries.
It could be said that the Book of Kells is the art of people
of whom the Greek Posidonius wrote, "They speak in riddles,
hinting at things, leaving much to be understood">>
-------------------------------------------------------
Art Neuendorffer